Language and structure

Writers choose words and language features deliberately - to have an effect on their readers.
The way they structure parts of a text, eg openings and endings, influences the reader too.

Analysing non-fiction

Structure
The structure of a text is how it is organised and how its parts fit together. Writers structure
their texts deliberately to have an effect on the reader.

Exam questions ask you to comment on how writers structure their texts to interest the reader.
You should use terminology and show that you understand how structural features introduce
and prioritise information in a text.

Structural features
Feature Purpose Effect on the reader

The start of a text must interest the Comment on how the writer introduces
openings
reader. ideas and raises questions.

Analyse what is implied, eg a gloomy

This is what the writer focuses on landscape implies an unhappy situation -
focus
as the text develops. what is causing that unhappiness? What
will happen next?

Changes in ideas and perspectives, Comment on how this change is effective,

shifts
eg outside to inside. eg creates contrast.

The differences between two Comment on the effect a drastic difference

contrast
things. produces.

Repetitive features can highlight key

repetition or When words, phrases or ideas are
meanings, indicate a development or show
patterns repeated for effect.
a lack of change.

Ask what effect is created by altering the

The feeling of speed in the writing
pace, eg a slow pace builds tension or
pace – are events and ideas revealed to
suggests boredom, a quicker pace may suit
the reader slowly or quickly?
a piece about things happening at speed.

temporal References to time. Comment on how time is used to speed up

 Feature Purpose Effect on the reader

references or slow down the pace of the text.

This could be chronological or

Comment on how the order of events
writers might choose to start at the
order of events introduces and prioritises key ideas – and
end, in the middle, or with
how this engages the reader.
flashbacks / flash forwards.

Think about how the reader feels at the

The conclusion of a text may be
endings end. Have their feelings changed since the
neat or leave us with questions.
opening?

withholding Clues and hints are given without Analyse what is implied by hints – how
information revealing everything at once. does this build the reader’s expectations?

dialogue Conversations and speech. How does dialogue move the text forward?

headings, Divides the content of texts into

subheadings and topics and sub topics, can signal How do they guide readers through a text?
questions the start of new points.

Bullets can summarise and Why does the writer summarise certain
bullets
simplify a range of ideas. points?

Comment on how sentence structures

sentence Varied types of sentences, eg affect the fluency of the text, eg a sudden
structures simple, compound and complex. short sentence could reveal shocking
information.

Comment on how paragraph lengths affect

These vary like sentences eg, to
paragraph the development of the text, eg a final
highlight significant points or to
lengths paragraph might summarise key points in
provide a detailed account.
an argument.
 September 2, 1666

It was a small mistake, but with great consequences. On September 2, 1666,

Thomas Farrinor, baker to King Charles II of England, failed, in effect, to turn off
his oven. He thought the fire was out, but apparently the smouldering embers
ignited some nearby firewood and by one o'clock in the morning, three hours after
Farrinor went to bed, his house in Pudding Lane was in flames. Farrinor, along
with his wife and daughter, and one servant, escaped from the burning building
through an upstairs window, but the baker's maid was not so fortunate, becoming
the Great Fire's first victim. Did these cakes set fire to London?

The fire then leapt across Fish Street Hill and engulfed the Star Inn. The London of
1666 was a city of half-timbered, pitch-covered medieval buildings and sheds that
ignited at the touch of a spark--and a strong wind on that September morning
ensured that sparks flew everywhere. From the Inn, the fire spread into Thames
Street, where riverfront warehouses were bursting with oil, tallow, and other
combustible goods. By now the fire had grown too fierce to combat with the crude
firefighting methods of the day, which consisted of little more than bucket brigades
armed with wooden pails of water. The usual solution during a fire of such size
was to demolish every building in the path of the flames in order to deprive the fire
of fuel, but the city's mayor hesitated, fearing the high cost of rebuilding.
Meanwhile, the fire spread out of control, doing far more damage than anyone
could possibly have managed.

Extract taken from the diary of Samuel Pepys

Example

This extract describes the events leading up to the 1666 ‘Great Fire of London’.

How does the writer structure the text to interest the reader?
 Analysis

The writer:

 opens with a contrast “small mistake” and “great consequences”, raising the question of
how something small grew so big
 the focus then shifts to Thomas Farrinor, a baker, thinking his “fire was out” – this
detail foreshadows the start of the Great Fire, building tension
 a temporal reference “three hours after Farrinor went to bed” implies how control was lost
in a short space of time as by then his house “was in flames” and there is the “first victim”
– implying there will be many more victims
 the question “Did these cakes set fire to London?” suggest that the idea is hard for the
reader to believe – and intrigues them to discover how this was possible
 the focus then shifts to the growing fire “leapt” and “engulfed”, the wooden structure of
London and the “strong wind” – together these elements suggest the fire will take over
quickly, creating a quicker pace
 contrast is used to show how useless the “bucket brigades armed with wooden pails” are
as “the fire spread out of control”
 the extract ends leaving the reader thinking about the vast “damage” the fire caused, and
that no one “could possibly have managed” it
Language

Martin Luther King's 1963 I Have a Dream speech

The purpose of Martin Luther King’s rhetorical speech was to end racism in America and persuade
the audience that everyone should have equal rights.

How does he use language to deliver a strong message?

King uses similes “until justice rolls down like waters” and “righteousness like a mighty stream” to
make the reader visualise “justice” and “righteousness” as rushing water – implying that they need
to be forceful and unstoppable.

Exam questions may ask you to comment on how writers use language to make an impression on
the reader.

You should select words and phrases for close analysis - to show that you understand how language
features affect the reader.

Language features
NOUNS, ADJECTIVES, VERBS, ADVERBS, PRONOUNS AND PREPOSITIONS

Literary language features

Terminology Definition Examples

A comparison using 'like' or 'as' to create 'As big as a whale', 'float like
simile
a vivid image. a butterfly, sting like a bee'

metaphor A comparison made without using 'like' 'Sea of troubles' and

 Terminology Definition Examples

or 'as'. 'drowning in debt'

A type of imagery in which non-human

'The jaws of the cave', 'the
personification objects, animals or ideas are given
leaves danced in the breeze'
human characteristics.

The environment (usually the weather) 'The fog crept evilly through
pathetic fallacy reflects the mood of the character or the streets as he stalked his
scene. victim.'

The sounds of words to express or

onomatopoeia underline their meaning, sensory 'Crunch', 'pop', 'screech'
imagery.

The repetition of the same sounds

alliteration 'Reuse, renew, recycle'
usually at the beginning of words.

The repetition of vowel sounds in a

assonance 'Harsh bark', 'moonlit pool'
series of words.

Repetition in a group of three to 'Freedom, equality, and

rule of three
strengthen an idea or argument. justice'

Implied meanings suggested by a word 'Red' is a colour but can imply

connotations
rather than its literal meanings. 'danger', 'anger' or 'stop'.

'I have ten tonnes of

hyperbole Over-the-top exaggeration for effect.
homework to do.'

Words, phrases or ideas that are 'This is serious. Incredibly

repetition
repeated for effect. serious.'

rhetorical A question asked for effect with no 'Do you think that I’m made of
questions answer expected. money?'

emotive Words chosen to bring an emotional

'Defenceless', 'hard-hearted'
language response.

Also consider:

 Is the text in the first person or third person? Is it personal or impersonal?

 Which tense has the writer chosen, eg past or present? What effect does this
have?
 How sentences are structured, eg short and simple (to pack a punch) or lists (to
suggest boredom or pick up the pace).
Avoid ‘feature spotting’ – you need to show that you understand the impact of
writers’ language choices on the reader and not just list them.

You should always comment on the possible effects of language use on the reader –
how it makes the reader respond eg, think, feel, imagine or visualise something.

Analysing language
Exam questions ask you to comment on how writers use language to make an impression on
the reader. You should use terminology to show that you understand which features the writer
is using, as well as how they affect the reader.

S – Statement – begin with identifying the language feature or type of language

being used, eg 'King uses similes…'

Qu – Quote – next quote from the text the word or phrase you are analysing, eg
‘justice rolls down like waters’.

I – Infer – next work out what the words or images imply to you, eg ‘like waters’
implies something is flowing steadily.

D – Develop – finally, develop the analysis with a comment on the reader’s

response, eg 'The reader will imagine justice, like water, being strong and moving
forward.

Make your analysis even stronger with a focus on individual words and phrases –
analyse closely what they suggest, eg ‘stony faced’ – ‘stony’ suggests the character
is like a statue, hard, unfeeling and immovable.

This extract is from My Family and Other Animals, a memoir by Gerald Durrell, of the
five years he and his family lived on Corfu.

How does Durrell use language to describe the character of the ‘Rose-beetle Man’?

For some time, the Rose-beetle Man would turn up at the villa fairly regularly with
some new addition to my menagerie: a frog, perhaps, or a sparrow with a broken leg.
One afternoon Mother and I, in a fit of extravagant sentimentalism, bought up his
entire stock of rose-beetles and, when he had left, let them all go in the garden. For
days the villa was full of rose-beetles, crawling on the beds, lurking in the bathroom,
banging against the lights at night, and falling like emeralds into our laps.

The last time I saw the Rose-beetle Man was one evening when I was sitting on a
hill-top overlooking the road. He had obviously been to some fiesta and had been
plied with much wine, for he swayed to and fro across the road, piping a melancholy
tune on his flute. I shouted a greeting, and he waved extravagantly without looking
back. As he rounded the corner he was silhouetted for a moment against the pale
lavender evening sky. I could see his battered hat with the fluttering feathers, the
bulging pockets of his coat, the bamboo cages full of sleepy pigeons on his back,
and above his head, circling drowsily round and round, I could see the dim specks
that were the rose-beetles. Then he rounded the curve of the road and there was
only the pale sky with a new moon floating in it like a silver feather, and the soft
twittering of his flute dying away in the dusk.

My Family and Other Animals, Gerald Durrell (1956)

 Analysis

 The choice of name “Rose-beetle Man” implies that the man is very close to nature – like
roses and insects. The reader gets the impression he is mysterious - his real name is
unknown.
 Durrell uses verbs and adverbs “swayed to and fro” and “waved extravagantly” to show
the uncontrolled way the man moves. “Extravagantly” suggests the wave was over the
top. The reader imagines he is very drunk from “much wine”.
 Alliteration “fluttering feathers” also highlights the movements of the man.
 Adjectives “pale lavender evening sky” contrast the lively man to the calm surroundings.
The reader can visualise his “battered hat” and “bulging pockets” implying he is scruffy
against the beautiful sky.
 The simile “the pale sky with a new moon floating in it like a silver feather” creates a
gentle atmosphere along with the onomatopoeia “soft twittering” to describe the bird like
sound of the man’s flute.
 Durrell uses a metaphor “his flute dying away in the dusk”, the word “dying” makes the
reader feel Durrell’s sadness, as it was “the last time” he ever saw the Rose-beetle Man.