CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.1 Introduction
This Chapter presents the review of related literatures related to this study. The review
involves conceptual framework, theory on Examination preparation strategies and
Examination malpractice, some common forms of Examination malpractice among Students.
The sections review the following:
2.2 Conceptual Framework
2.2.1 The Concept Examination
2.2.2 The Purpose of Examination
2.2.3 Examination Preparation Strategy
2.2.4 Examination Malpractice
2.2.5 Genesis of Examination Malpractice
2.2.6 Forms of Examination Malpractice
2.2.7 Causes of Examination Malpractice
2.3 Theoretical Framework
2.3.1The Behavioral theory of Operant Conditioning by B.F Skinner (1937)
2.3.2 Social Learning Theory by Albert Bandura (1997)
2.4 Review of Related Empirical Studies
2.5 Summary of Literature Review and Uniqueness of the Study
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2.2 Conceptual Framework
2.2.1 The Concept Examination
Examination has been defined as a way to ascertain how much of a subject matter in a
particular field of study the candidate has mastered. Examination is viewed as a formal test of
somebody’s knowledge or ability in a particular subject, especially by means of answering
questions or practical exercises. Also examination as the process through which students are
evaluated or tested to find out the quality of knowledge they have acquired within a specified
[Link] could be internal or external. It could be oral or written, essay or
objective type, theory or practical constitutes an integral part of the education process.
Examples of internal examinations are continuous assessment tests, terminal, semester and
annual or promotional examinations. Examples of external (public) examinations common in
Nigerian schools are Common Entrance Examination for admission into secondary school.
School Certificates examination is conducted by West African Examination (WAEC) and
National Examination Council (NECO). The Joint Admission Matriculation Board (JAMB)
and National Teachers’ Institute (NTI) conduct admission tests into tertiary institutions while
National Business and Technical Examination Board (NABTEB) conducts professional
examination for teachers and technicians respectively. The outcome of the examination is
used as a basis for decision-making on the examinee’s ability. The examinee is consequently
awarded a certificate which could qualified students for admission into a school, promotion
into higher level of an institution and employment opportunities.
An examination is a form of evaluation where the learner is tested in all areas covered in the
process of teaching at the end of a semester for proper placement and certification. It has a
time table and a time frame. Its always has an external body or examination committee to
moderate. Moderation in an examination comes after the marking. Examination usually
comes in the form of:
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i) Essay: which involves choice of questions where lengthy written answers are expected.
ii) Objective: this is designed to make students to answer a large number of questions either
by making statements as true or false or by selecting the best of several (multiple choice)
given answers.
iii) Practical: this is employed in scientific and technical fields to test theory.
iv) Oral this is given to simply recognize phonetic symbols in a given word commonly used
to test languages. The examination therefore, lies at the heart of any academic exercise. Its
natural tendency is to establish a meritocracy in which power, earnings and status depend, to
a high degree, on education and passing of examinations. This may explain why, for example,
public examinations conducted by examination bodies such as the West African Examination
Council (WAEC), National Examination Council (NECO), Joint Admission Matriculation
Board (JAMB) and Interim Joint Matriculation Board (IJMB) assume a tremendous
importance. That is why teachers and students spend a great amount of time on those topics
they expect to appear in a given examination. Students on the other hand utilized all means,
right and wrong, available to them to ensure that they passed their examinations.
Examinations are conducted in schools year in, year out. Although the period of examinations
brings a lot of anxieties to students all over the world, it is an integral part of our educational
system and there can be no short cut to it.
2.2.2 The Purpose of Examination
Examination can provide information about an individual, student or group of students, a
school (in terms of whether it is performing according to expectation), or about educational
system (in terms of whether or not the set objectives are being met), (Oyetunde 2004
&Alhassan 2006). The examination lies in the center of any educational enterprise as it serves
three main purposes:
i) Measuring competence or achievement in a given field of endeavour.
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ii) Helping predict future success and also assisting in selection purposes.
iii) As an activity, providing incentives to learning, (Aboki, 2000).
Examination and education are inseparable, for the efficiency and quality of an educational
system is usually determined through the performance of its products in an examination or a
set of examinations. The examination therefore, influences what is taught and learned in
schools, especially when the results of the examinations are used to make important decisions
on achievement, selection and placement purposes. In Nigeria, examinations therefore,
become a fulcrum for determining promotion from one level to another and the acquisition of
certificates which consequently determine the future occupational career of a student or
candidate. The examination therefore, becomes a “do or die” affair. Examinations exert a
very powerful influence on the educational system, on what is taught or how it is taught, and
they determine how far students can go in their academic pursuits and job aspirations,
(Onyetunde, 2004). The “entire families‟ lives can be influenced by a child’s performance on
an examination because that performance can constrain or expand future employment
possibilities for the child”, (Capper, 1996).
In this sense, the examination becomes a social issue, a public concern. This high stake
associated with examination induces desperation in students to the extent of wanting to do
anything and everything to ensure success. All stakeholders in educational planning have a
responsibility to influence positively on how examinations are [Link]’s
education system like any other country has its problems, lapses, controversies and issues.
Many problems confront Nigeria educational system and institutions prominent among them
are the issue of examination malpractice. Examination malpractice is a kind of conduct that
violates the acceptable laid down rules and regulations of Nigeria’s education system. On the
other hand, examination malpractice is any wrong doing before, during or after any
examination. Although one may not be able to rule out examination malpractice in the past,
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the current trend is alarming and calls for proper management in order to save the nation’s
most important sector. Whereas, in the past, students tended to hide the acts, now they
advertise them with reckless abandon. It has become a prolific business enterprise branded
with the name of private examination centers aided and abetted by corrupt examination
officials, supported by parents who will not allow their children to be left out from the Trojan
gift of malpractice. Examination malpractice occurs in both internal and external
examination. It is a problem which has been afflicting the educational system for many years.
It seems to have defied solutions, as all antidotes applied so far have been faulted by
fraudsters. In fact, it constitutes the most serious problem facing Nigerian education system
in general and secondary education in [Link], there is need to sanitize the
nation’s education system by getting rid of examination malpractices.
2.2.3 Examination Preparation Strategy
Examination preparation can be seen as a set readiness of the examinee before the slated time
of a test or examination been it Internal or external with the Students aiming for success.
However, examination preparation strategies are the techniques, plans of action prior to
commencement of the test/examination with an attempt to obtain an excellent result.
Individual Student prepare for the examinations/tests using various strategies during lectures
and few days before examinations.
Physical preparation
This has to do with the way you treat your body during examination, which directly affects
your one’s Performance on examination. Even if one is consciously aware of the effects , it
will cause trouble remembering facts and writing the exam. There will be that one concept
one can not remember or, that sentence that will be badly written and cost the examinee half
of the mark. It is therefore always important to make sure that you prepare physically for an
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exam. Your body is a machine which is used to certain patterns and schedules. So, don’t
interrupt the following while preparing physically for an exam.
Sleep well and get normal amount of sleeping (hopefully around 8hours )
Maintain routine exercise schedules
Maintain the eating habits. Don’t skip any meals and eat healthy.
Mental preparation
Just as Important as Physical preparation, cannot cram for an examination and expect to do
well. Properly preparing yourself for an exam is vital to your success. Remember
To study in advance. This will move information to the long term memory, and you
will have less pre-exam stress and anxiety
Clarify all the details in advance. Know what sort of questions to expect, where the
exam will be held.
Physical and mental preparation for an exam is all about balance. If you study too much that
you forgot to eat or well, you are hurting your ability to do well on an exam and this can lead
to involvement in to the examination malpractice.
2.2.4 Examination Malpractice
Examination malpractice is defined as a deliberate wrong doing contrary to official
examination rules designed to place a candidate at unfair advantage or disadvantage.
Malpractice is defined as any deliberate act of wrong doing contrary to the rules of
examinations designed to give a candidate an unfair advantage, (Malami, 2013).
Examination malpractice is described as the “massive and unprecedented abuse of rules and
regulations pertaining to internal and external examinations, beginning from the setting of
such examinations through the taking of the examinations, their marking and grading, to the
release of the results and the issuance of certificates”, (Nwana, 2000)
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According to Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary malpractice is a wrong or illegal
behaviour exhibited by a person while discharging professional responsibilities. In the light
of this definition, examination malpractice is simply illegally obtaining an answer to an
examination question from any other source other than the brain of the examine. Malpractice
refers to all illegal means adopted by students in passing examination either within or outside
the examination hall. It can be taking to mean cheating or fraud (Ayanniyi et al, 2018).
Malpractice therefore, is the use of unconventional behavior or methods before, during and
after examination to aid, assist & attain desired success in examination.
Examination malpractice is no longer a desperate candidates’ affair, rather school teachers
and even principals are now involved in the perpetration of this vice, (Ojerinde, 2002).
Malpractice refers to all illegal means adopted by students in passing examination either
within or outside the examination hall. It can be taking to mean cheating or fraud (Ayanniyi
et al, 2018). Malpractice therefore, is the use of unconventional behavior or methods before,
during and after examination to aid, assist & attain desired success in examination.
Even with the promulgation of Decree No 33 of 1999(Now Act of Parliament) designed to
check examination malpractice; the crime appears to be on the increase.
2.2.5 Genesis of Examination Malpractice
The very date and place examination malpractice started in the world is not known but it
could be said to be one of the fall-outs of the fall of man in the Garden of Eden when Satan
deceived Adam and Eve to sin. Satan solved this ugly seed which germinated into various
forms of sin and vices including examination [Link] malpractice has been
in existence a long time ago. According to various sources examination malpractice was first
reported in Nigeria in 1914 when there was a leakage of senior Cambridge Local
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Examination. After independence, there was hardly any year when no examination
malpractice was not recorded
In Nigeria, however, examination malpractice became prominent in the 1970s, when youths
who were in the colleges and universities before the advent of the Nigerian civil war in 1967,
who were conscripted into the army during the war, came back at the end of the war in 1970
and went back to schools to continue with their education. These youths who understood the
language of the trigger of the gun more than what the teacher was saying, were not psycho-
emotionally stable and prepared for examinations and so resorted to alternative means of
passing the examinations such as direct cheating in examinations, bribing examiner to allow
them to indulge in mass cheating, hiring of machineries to write for them. This was clearly
manifested in the West African School Certificate Examination of 1970/1971 when all
manner of irregularities ranging from examination malpractice to leakage of examination
question papers characterized with the conduct of the examination.
2.2.6 Forms of Examination Malpractice
There are dimension of examination malpractices year-in-year-out, students come up with
new dimensions of examination malpractices. The instances of examination malpractices
vary. Some of the forms of examination malpractice are discussed below:
1. Bringing of Foreign Materials Into Examination Hall: This is a situation where
students bring into the examination hall notes, textbooks and other prepared materials.
The method is nicknamed as hide and seeks, microchips, tattoo and magic desk.
Sometimes, students bring into the hall unauthorized materials like sophiscated and
scientific calculators Abba (1998) identified some methods like giraffing, contraband,
bullet, super print, escort, pregnant biros and so on.
2. Assistance from Educational Stakeholders: Examination stakeholders include
parents, teachers, lecturers, security agents, printers, and staff of examination bodies.
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Some parents go to any length in buying question papers for their children while some
others even buy certificates for their children. Supervisors colluding with students by
allowing the students to communicate, exchange answer booklets during examination
period, lecturers or teachers releasing question papers or giving underserved marks or
allowing students to illegally re-take examination papers. Security agents, printers and
staff of examination bodies also sell question papers.
[Link]. This is an act of sticking out one’s neck to see another student’s answer
sheet in the examination hall.
[Link] [Link] is a sitting arrangement whereby the „bright‟ student is
seated in the centreflanked on both sides by other students.
[Link]. This is when students copy in the examination hall either another
student‟s paper or the material they brought into the examination hall.
6. Contract. This reflects a situation when a student’s‟ grade is influenced with the
assistance of a friendly Teacher.
[Link]. This is when a male/female student writes information on the tender parts of
his/her thigh or in a shoe where he/she can easily adjust to reveal the material and
such material can be cleared within a second when there is a problem.
8. Rank Xeroxing. This indicates a situation when a student collects and writes
another students answer word for word.
9. Computo. This involves the use of calculators, which has facilities for multiple
entries. The Invigilator may not know that it has such facilities; she/he may think it is
an ordinary calculator.
10. Missile [Link] answer written on a piece of paper, squeezed and thrown
to a student while the examination is going on.
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11. Swapping. Is an exchange of paper booklets so that the bright student can write
answers out for his/her colleague or friend.
12. Token: Involve jotting of points on the mathematical set, razor blades, rulers,
hankies and others for referencing during examination
13. Mercenary Service (impersonation). Involve employing the service of another
student/person to write the examination.
14. Table Toping .Is writing of anticipated answers on the top of a desk before the
commencement of examination?
15. CNN. Is the sharing of questions and answers between groups for eventual
connection in the examination hall.
16. Time Out. Is the act of going out to the „toilet‟ to read up answers?
17. Stroke. Is a situation whereby students pretend to be sick during an examination
in order to gain the Examiner’s sympathy while marking?
18. E-Cheating. Is the habit of students engaging ICT devices to indulge in
examination malpractices? The introduction of the Global System for Mobile
Communication (GSM) in Nigeria has become revolution in examination
malpractices in all tiers of our school system. A lot of academic information is now
stored in these electronic gadgets for direct use in examination halls or for onward
transfer via Short Message Service (SMS) to other students in any other part(s) of the
country. There is a worrisome dimension of this act by asserting that female students
actually hide their phones, which contain answers to questions being examined in
their under-wears and when confronted by the Invigilators, they claimed they were
only adjusting their sanitary towels to make it firm. Indicating the level of its
escalation in Nigeria, JAMB confiscated one thousand nine hundred and forty-eight
(1, 948) mobile phones in 2007 with evidence of prepared answers sent through SMS.
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(Assam, 2009). The figure increased to three thousand and thirty-nine (3,039) in 2008
(IT Realms online, 2009). There is also undue assistance by supervisors/invigilators
when examination is in process, matriculated Students taking examination for other
students and forged GCE results. These acts were detected by vigilant and loyal
officials in spite of the high degree of sophistication in used in by –passing
regulations and procedures to commit the crimes. Scientific Calculators that are
capable of retrieving data stored, performing symbolic mathematical manipulation,
integration and differentiation have also been caught with students in examination hall
(Assam, 2009). The level of Sophistication of the forms used in committing the
offenses and determination with which they are persistently committed give some
concern. In another development, pocket organizers, hand-held computers, laptop
computers, electronic writing pads, calculators with typewriter-like keypads known as
QWERTY, calculators with graphical display, calculators that make noise or talk,
have equally been associated with examination fraud in developed countries (Assam,
2009). A new dimension of examination malpractice has been added in the name of
Special Centres and venues or miracle centres and venues.
2.2.7 Causes of Examination Malpractice
Many deeply rooted underlying factors have been reported to be the causes of examination
malpractices in our schools. Fear and anxiety are pressures which „push‟ students to want to
do well and this usually lead to all forms of examination malpractices (Alhassan, 1991). More
emphasis put on examination has caused indescribable anxiety, shock and nervousness in
students and their parents, (Cookey, 2001). Laziness and inadequate preparation for
examination are also identified as important causal factors of examination malpractice. This
confirms the saying that, „he who fails to prepare, prepares to fail‟, and since many students
who failed in preparation are bent on passing at all cost; cheating becomes their only option
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[Link]-Related Factors:
a)Undue emphasis on Certificates*
b)Poor staffing of schools
c)Laxity in prosecuting offenders
d)Inadequate funding
e)Law Enforcement Agents
[Link]-Related Factors:
a)Too difficult examination questions
b)Poor invigilation
c)Lack of conducive examination environment
d)Examination Officials
e)Examining office Computer Operators
[Link]/Lecturers-Related Factors:
a)Teacher’s threat to fail students
b)Lack of commitment on the part of teachers
c)Anxiety caused by non-completion of the syllabus
d)Leakages through teachers
e)Un-stimulating course materials
f)Strikes that often interrupt the school programme
[Link]-Related Factors:
a)The fear of failure*
b)Inadequate preparation
c)Desire to meet societal expectations
d)Lack of confidence in one’s ability
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2.3Theoretical Framework
This section deals with theoretical backing to this study. According to this research, two
theories have been used to support this literature. These are the social learning theory of
Albert Bandura, and the Behavioural theory of Operant Conditioning by B.F Skinner.
2.3.1The Behavioral theory of Operant Conditioning by B.F Skinner (1937)
Operant conditioning refers to a kind of learning process where by a response is made more
probable or more frequent by reinforcement. It helps the learning of operant behaviour, the
behaviour that is not necessarily associated with known stimuli. Skinner called this theory
operant conditioning because it is based on certain operations which an organism has to carry
out. The term ‘operant’ stresses that behaviour operates upon the environment to generate its
own consequences. An operant is a set of acts which conditions an organism in doing
something. In the process of operant conditioning, operant responses are modified or changed
by reinforcements. Reinforcements are special kinds of conditioning within which the
tendency for a stimulus to evoke a response on subsequent occasions is increased by
reduction of a bond. Based on the findings of his experiment, skinner concluded that
behaviour is shaped and maintained by the consequences. It is operated by the organism and
maintained by its results. Skinner believed that behaviours could be learnt from the
environment. It could also be unlearned through reinforcers, which could be negative or
positive. Through negative reinforcers, the organism can be punished for doing something
wrong, so that such an act is not repeated again. Positively, it could be rewarded to repeat an
act if it was good.
Learning here is facilitated by the kind of intimate personal relationships, which a habitual
examination cheat shares with another cheat or potential cheat. Learning also entails learning
the skills, motives, rationalisation and all other mechanisms of carrying out the malpractice
behaviour. Such skills and techniques include innovating different rationalising behaviour
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with such aphorism mind-set as ‘everyone in Cameroon is a cheat’, ‘I need good grade to get
a job’, ‘no success without element of crime’
Relating the theory to the current study, the theory is very important to this body of
knowledge as it brings out the tenets of behaviour, how they are learnt, and how they can
unlearn. It is also linked in that, students learn cheating malpractices from others (their
environment), which could be peers, parents, supposed role models in their communities, and
even teachers. This automatically means that some of these examination malpractices
portrayed by students today, they learned from some parents, teachers, peers and others in the
community.
This theory also links to this work by making us understand that these cheating behaviours
can be unlearn through punishment. If students who cheat during exams are severely
punished, commensurate to the degree of the crime committed, it is possible that they can
unlearn the cheating behaviour as well as others will realise and not carry out such acts
because they are aware of what awaits them.
2.3.2Social Learning Theory by Albert Bandura, 1977
The social learning theory of Albert Bandura, postulated in 1977 agrees with the
behaviourists theories of classical conditioning and operant conditioning that behaviour is
learnt form the environment through the process of observational learning (McLeod, 2016).
This theory emphasizes the importance of observing and modelling the behaviours, attitudes
and emotional reactions of others. Bandura (1997) states: “Learning would be exceedingly
laborious, not to mention hazardous, if people had to rely solely on the effects of their own
actions to inform them what to do. Fortunately, most human behaviour is learned
observationally through modelling: from observing others, one forms an idea of how new
behaviours are performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for
action. Nowadays children are surrounded by many spheres of influence (models) such as
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parents, teachers, the television, social media and peer groups. These models groups exhibit
various types of behavioural patterns that might be imitated by with children with little
regards as to whether the behaviours is ‘gender appropriate’ or not. Bandura suggests that a
child who has seen his\her parents being kind and caring will tend to do conversely the same.
Conversely, a child who has seen aggressive behaviours of parents is likely to be violent in
solving problems.
Social learning theory explains human behaviour in terms of continuous reciprocal
interaction between cognitive, behavioural and environmental influences. The component
processes underlying observational learning are; Attention, including theory modelled events
(distinctiveness, affective valence, complexity, prevalence, functional value) and observer
characteristics (sensory capacities, arousal level, perceptual set, past reinforcement.
Retention, it involves symbolic coding, cognitive organization, symbolic rehearsal, motor
rehearsal. Motor Reproduction, includes aspects like physical capabilities, self-observation of
reproduction, accuracy of feedback. Motivation, it includes issues like external, vicarious and
self-reinforcement.
Wherever they go, they learn what they see. Whatever they hear, they take, especially from
their heroes and elders. In the community in general, when students enter offices and they are
demanded to offer bribes for services, they in turn learn and use it in their examination halls.
They learn to bribe their classmates to write their exams for them. They also bribe teachers to
leak examination questions to them. In situations where their prey refuses their offers of
bribe, they switch to intimidate them.
Summarily, students could also learn a great deal from their peer groups and teachers at
school. Examples of such behaviours to observe and imitate can include; male and female,
pro and anti- social groups. These children devote much attention to some of these people
they call heroes, and encode their behaviour at a later time; they may mimic the encoded
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(observed) behaviour which had been observed. All these bad behaviours when learnt have
damaging effects on the student’s future.
Relating this theory to the current research, the importance of this theory to the current study
under investigation is that this theory is highly connects the social environment and
examination malpractice. It shows how the school in general as a social environment
influences students to indulge in examination malpractice. It shows how students indulge in
bribery, impersonation and intimidation, because they learn from their peers, heroes
(teachers, principals), and their parents. Students live in the social environment which is their
school campuses. Their homes too are also an environment. This theory also makes us
understand that just like bad behaviours are learnt from the social environment, with the
actors being parents, teachers, heroes (public figures), these same personalities, through their
behaviours can make the students unlearn these bad behaviours.
2.4 Review of Related Empirical Studies
In a study conducted by Adegoke, (2010), the research was carried out to investigate
examination malpractice among secondary school students in Mushin Local Government area
in Lagos State. The study highlights the causes of examination malpractice among secondary
school students, the effect of examination malpractice and solution to examination
malpractice in secondary schools. In this research work, a sample of twenty (20) teachers and
one hundred (100) students were collected by means of simple random sampling techniques
from five secondary schools in Mushin Local Government. The research instrument used for
the study was the teacher’s and student’s perception questionnaire which was validated by the
supervisor and used for the collection of data from the respondents. The data collected from
respondents were analyzed with distribution tables and simple [Link] the end of the
analysis the study revealed the major reasons for examination malpractice which include
parental pressure for good grades, value attached to certificate and so on. The study further
16
recommends that parent should not put pressure on their children for good grades. Also
emphasis should not be lay on certificates.
Emaikwu, and Sunday (2012) carried out a study titled Assessing the impact of examination
malpractices on the measurement of ability in Nigeria. The purpose of the research work was
to assess the impact of examination malpractices on the measurement of ability in Nigeria.
The design of this study is survey research. A sample of 300 students and 100 lecturers
randomly selected from four universities in North Central Nigeria was used for the study. The
instrument for data collection was a structured questionnaire developed by the researcher.
Four research questions were answered and one hypothesis was tested. The result indicates
that lecturers and students indulge in examination malpractice in Nigeria. It is affirmed that
examination malpractice is caused by undue emphasis on paper qualification, fear of failure
and inadequate preparation among other factors. The result also shows that the major types of
examination malpractice being perpetuated in universities are possession of ‘foreign
materials’ during examination, collusion by students to cheat in examination and continuous
assessment malpractice. It reveals further that examination malpractice leads to lack of
confidence in Nigerian educational products, results in half-baked graduates, discourages
hard work and lowers the standard of education. The article maintains that the calamity of
examination malpractice is not just the havoc it wrecks in our educational system but the
gradual indoctrination of youths into the practice of fraud. It is recommended that
examination malpractice legislation should be enforced and that guidance and counseling
services be adequately provided in universities to minimize the incidence of examination
malpractice.
Adegokeh (2016) carried out a survey. This research was carried out to investigate
examination malpractice among secondary school students in Mushin Local Government area
in Lagos State. The project highlights the causes of examination malpractice among school
17
students, the effect of examination malpractice and solution to examination malpractice in
secondary schools. In this research work, a sample of twenty (20) teachers and one hundred
(100) students were collected by means of simple random sampling techniques from five
secondary schools in Mushin Local Government. The research instrument used for the study
was the teacher’s and student’s perception questionnaire which was validated by the
supervisor and used for the collection of data from the respondents. The data collected from
respondents were analyzed with distribution tables and simple percentage. At the end of the
analysis the study revealed the major reasons for examination malpractice which include
parental pressure for good grades, value attached to certificate and so on. The study further
recommended that parent should not put pressure on their children for good grades. Also
emphasis should not be lay on certificates.
In a study conducted byAlabi (2016), on assessment of examination malpractices in Nigerian
colleges of education,the purpose of the study was to assess examination malpractices in
Colleges of Education, its consequences on Nigeria’s educational system and the way out.
Three research questions were answered. The study adopted survey research [Link]
target population for the study comprised all academic staff of five Colleges of Education
drawn from five geographical political zones in Nigeria from which the samples for the study
were [Link] random sampling technique was used to select fifty (50) academic
staff for the [Link] instrument used for the study was a structured questionnaire. The
items in the questionnaire were organized in accordance with the research questions
formulated to guide the [Link] lecturers; one from Department of Technical Education,
Federal College of Education, Pankshin and two from Federal College of Education
(Technical), Akoka validated the instrument for data collection. Cronbach alpha reliability
method was used to determine the internal consistency of the questionnaire items. Fifty
18
copies questionnaire were administered on the fifty (50) academic staff in College of
Education outside the study area. The reliability coefficient of 0.82 was obtained.
The data collected was analysed using Mean and Standard Deviation Statistics. The responses
in the questionnaire were tabulated; strongly Agree (SA), Agree (A), Disagree (D), and
strongly disagree (SA). The calculated Mean was interpreted in relation to the real limits of
the codes assigned to the options as follows;Strongly Agree(SA) =3.5-4.0 Agree (A) =2.5-
3.49 Disagree(D) =1.5-2.49, Strongly Disagree (SD) =1.0-1.49 .The decision of the
findings were guided by using a Mean score of 2.5 and above as a cut-off point as items
being agreed to, while questionnaire items that fall below 2.5 were rejected.
The result of the study shows that mean ratings of the responses of the respondents on 20
items on the causes of examination malpractices in Colleges of Education. Four of the items
had their real limit below cut-off point of 2.5. This indicates that the respondents agreed that
all the items except four are causes of examination malpractices in Colleges of Education.
The result further revealed that, other effects of examination malpractices such as production
of mediocre NCE graduates and teachers who are bad influence to students in primary and
secondary schools as well as defeated aim of College of Education; to acquire both physical
and intellectual skills that enable individuals to be self-relevant and useful members of the
society seriously undermine the foundations of educational practice in Nigeria.
The study concluded that, examination malpractices are virus which has invaded our
educational system and threatening its consolidation thereof. Act of examination malpractices
is dishonest, illegal and immoral behaviour in which measures need to be put in place to
improve the moral conduct and education standard, motivate both students and lecturers on
the need to be hard working, as cheating in examination is capable of not only running our
educational system, but also impairing the efficacy of our labour force.
19
The study recommended among others that, College management and student union
government should join hands in re-orienting students; higher premium should be placed on
hard work, honesty, integrity, obedience to the laws of the college and rewarded accordingly
by the college authority. The school should be fair and thorough in setting questions,
conducting exams, marking of answer scripts, awarding marks and grading of student and
Adequate punishment should be meted out to defiant and erring students as well as culprit
lecturers and workers.
Similarly, Kebuya and Mekongtso (2020) investigated the Effects of Examination
Malpractices on Students Future, Case Of Higher Technical Teachers Training College,
Bambili-Bamenda. The study was necessitated by the fact that the researchers noticed so
many mishaps during their final exams, amongst which was that many students were moving
up and down in the exam hall, students identification papers were not checked upon entering
the exam hall nor when they were writing, students going out after receiving their question
papers without any invigilator accompanying them and thus it sought to examine the effects
of examination malpractice on student’s future. It made use of four research objectives which
are; To examine the relationship between impersonation on students’ future, to find out the
effects of bribery on students’ future, to evaluate the effects of intimidation on students
future, and to propose possible solutions to curbing examination malpractice. The
Behavioural theory of Operant Conditioning by B.F Skinner and Social Learning Theory by
Albert Bandura were used. The research design was a survey, and questionnaire was used to
get respondents’ opinions. Analysis was done using simple percentage count. Test was
carried out using 120 respondents as the sample. The results revealed that impersonation is
negatively related to student’s future, bribery is negatively related to student’s future, and
intimidation is negatively related to student’s future. From the objectives, we see that there is
a relationship between cheating, personification, and exam malpractices as well as the fact
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that cheating during exams affects students future. Amongst the many recommendations, one
of them was that the government through the Ministry of Higher Education (MINESUP)
should integrate examination malpractices in the school curriculum as one of the cross cutting
issues in the institutions of learning in order to enhance continuous awareness among
learners.
Similarly Okafor, (2021) investigated Causes and Consequences of Examination Malpractice
among Senior Secondary School Students in Eti-Osa L.G.A. of Lagos State, Nigeria. Two
research questions and four hypotheses were formulated and [Link] research design used
in this study was a descriptive survey with a target population of 540 from 20 selected
secondary schools. 27 respondents were selected from each school using random sampling
techniques. A self-developed instrument titled the “Causes and Consequences of Examination
Malpractice Questionnaire’ (CACOEMQ) was used to collect the data. The CACOEMQ has
15 items and two sections; Section A and B. Section A relates to the demographic data of the
respondents and section B contains the variables on causes and consequences of examination
malpractices. The instruments were validated by experts in test construction and
measurement from the University of Ilorin and a reliability coefficient of 0.76 was
established. Rank order was used to test the research questions while t-test was used to
analyse the research hypotheses at a 0.05 level of significance.
The study revealed that, 540 respondents participated in this study. The major causes of
examination malpractice in secondary schools in the Eti-Osa Local Government Area of
Lagos State was, sexual harassment by teachers can lead to examination malpractice’ which
has a mean score of 3.32. Inadequate teacher students’ interaction can lead to examination
malpractice’ which has a mean score of 3.23. And ‘extortion of money from students by
invigilators can lead to examination malpractice’ which has a mean score of 3.10. Also,
‘student laziness’ can promote examination malpractice and ‘negative peer influence can
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bring about examination malpractice’ both of which have a mean score of 2.72. Inadequate
funding’ in school and teachers welfare can encourage examination malpractice’ has a mean
score of 2.66. Inability to get reading materials in the library can make students indulge in
examination malpractice’ which has a mean score of 2.57. And ‘too much involvement in
social activities can make students engage in examination malpractice’ has a mean score of
2.53. Frequent strike actions can lead to examination malpractice’ has a mean score of 2.52.
The study concluded that, the major causes of examination malpractice in secondary schools
in the Eti-Osa Local Government Area of Lagos State was that sexual harassment by teachers
can lead to examination malpractice. Another finding revealed that the main consequences of
examination malpractice in secondary schools in the Eti-Osa Local Government Area of
Lagos State, wasthat examination malpractice deprives an innocent student’s opportunity for
admission. The study recommended among others that, A change in the value system. The
situation where people place so much value on certification does not augur well for our
academics as it encourages examination malpractice. Sound educational policy should be put
in place with a de-emphasis on the supremacy of certificates over skills and professional
competence. Also there should be an improvement in the delivery of instruction especially at
the foundation. Stakeholders in education should be firm in instilling moral values in their
children and wards to avoid examination malpractice at all levels of education. And teachers
and supervisors should be persons of proven integrity. The invigilators should be very
vigilant in the supervision of examinations and should be fair to all. The question of double
standards should not arise.
2.5 Summary of Literature Review and Uniqueness of the Study
The study review related literatures related to this study. The review involves conceptual
framework, Concept Examination, Purpose of Examination, Examination Preparation
Strategy, Examination Malpractice, Genesis of Examination Malpractice, Forms of
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Examination Malpractice and Causes of Examination Malpractice. Theory on Examination
preparation strategies and Examination malpractice, some common forms of Examination
malpractice among Students were reviewed. According toBehavioural theory of Operant
Conditioning by B.F Skinner, and Social Learning Theory by Albert Bandura, Relating the
theory to the current study, the theory is very important to this body of knowledge as it brings
out the tenets of behaviour, how they are learnt, and how they can unlearn. It is also linked in
that, students learn cheating malpractices from others (their environment), which could be
peers, parents, supposed role models in their communities, and even [Link] social
learning theory of Albert Bandura, postulated in 1977 agrees with the behaviourists theories
of classical conditioning and operant conditioning that behaviour is learnt form the
environment through the process of observational learning. Empirical Studies were reviewed.
According to the review, many causes have been linked to the prevalent cases of examination
malpractice, poorpreparation for examinations,low morality andpoor school facilities as
causes of examinationmalpractice. Othercauses may include the fearof failure, craze for
certificate, desire of parents to have their children in choice professions and university,
pressure on students to pursue courses for which they have no aptitude, pressure on teachers
who want to gain favour of student and overcrowded sitting arrangement.
Examinationmalpractice has serious implications for the educational system, students,
teachers, parents and the school as a whole. Nigeria has been graded with reliability of half-
baked graduates, low productivity and poor jobperformance,certificateracketeering and
qualificationinflation. The credibility of our certificates becomes questionable internationally.
The reasons for examination malpractices have been categorized into psychological and
sociological cause.
The Uniqueness of the Study lies in the geographical location of the study, department of
technology education, faculty of education, Bayero University Kano. Others studies were in
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colleges of education and senior secondary schools. The study is also unique in research
design, population, and sample size, sampling techniques, instrument and statistical tools.
Others studies adopted correlation design, while this study employed descriptive survey
design. Furthermore, some studies used chi-square to test the hypothesis of the study, while
this study employs descriptive statistics.
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References
Adegoke B. (2010) A survey of examination: malpractice among secondary school students
Causes, effects and solutions
Emaikwu, B. and Sunday O. (2012).The nineteen century exam activities amongst students
in teacher training colleges; case of TTC, Yaounde 4-Cameroon.
Kebuya N. N. and Mekongtso N.C. (2020) Effects Of Examination Malpractices On
Students Future, Case Of Higher Technical Teachers Training College, Bambili
BamendaAfrican Journal of Education and Practice 2519-0296 6, ( 5) 55 - 78
Okafor, I. P (2021) Causes and Consequences of Examination Malpractice among Senior
Secondary School Students in Eti-Osa L.G.A. of Lagos State, Nigeria Canadian
Journal of Family and Youth, 13(1), 84-98
[Link]
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