Unit and Measurement Physics by Ashutosh Garg
Physical Quantities - Those Quantities that can be measured are called Physical quantities.
A certain basic, arbitrarily chosen, internationally accepted reference standard called unit.
Magnitude of a Quantity (= nu)
It is the number of times the unit is contained in the given physical quantity.
Length = 5 m, n = 5 and u = m
Types of Physical Quantity
The units for the fundamental or base quantities are called fundamental or base units.
The units of all other physical quantities can be expressed as combinations of the base units
called derived units.
A complete set of these units, both the base units and derived units, is known as the system of
units.
Different systems of units and their base units
CGS system centimeter, gram and second
FPS system foot, pound and second
MKS system meter, kilogram and second
The system of units which is at present internationally accepted for measurement is the Système
Internationale d’ Unites (French for International System of Units), abbreviated as SI. In SI,
there are seven base units
S. No Quantity SI Unit Symbol Dimension
1. Length Meter m L
2. Mass Kilogram K M
3. Time Second s T
4. Electric current Ampere A A
5. Temperature Kelvin K K or Ө
6. Amount of substance Mole mol mol
7. Luminous intensity Candela cd cd
Supplementary units
plane angle dθ ( radian ) (rad) solid angle dΩ steradian (Sr)
Ratio of length of arc ds to the radius r The ratio of the intercepted area dA of the
spherical surface, to the square of its radius r
1
Unit and Measurement Physics by Ashutosh Garg
Multiple Submultiple
Factor Prefix Symbol Factor Prefix Symbol
1018 Exa E 10-18 atto a
1015 Peta P 10-15 femto f
1012 Tera T 10-12 pico p
109 Giga G 10-9 nano n
106 Mega M 10-6 micro μ
103 Kilo k 10-3 milli m
102 Hecto h 10-2 centi c
101 Deca da 10-1 deci d
Measurement of Length
Direct Measurement
The device generally used in everyday life for measurement of length is a meter scale (we can also
call it mm scale). It can be used for measurement of length with an accuracy of 1 mm. So, the
least count of a meter scale is 1 mm.
○ To measure length accurately upto 0.1 mm or 0.01 mm vernier calipers and screw gauge are
used.
A Vernier caliper is used for lengths to an A screw gauge and a spherometer can be used
accuracy of 10–4 m. to measure lengths as small as 10–5m.
2
Unit and Measurement Physics by Ashutosh Garg
Vernier caliper
It has three parts, (i) Main scale (ii) Vernier scale (iii) Metallic strip as shown in figure.
(i) Main scale - It consists of a steel metallic strip, graduated in cm and mm at one edge.
(ii) Vernier scale - Vernier scale slides on a metallic strip . It can be fixed in any position
by screw
M - Smallest main scale division
V - Smallest Vernier scale division
The Quantity M - V is called Vernier Constant (VC) or LC (Least count)
Let 'a' MSD = 'b' VSD
3
Unit and Measurement Physics by Ashutosh Garg
If b-a = 1
1. One cm on the main scale of Vernier calipers is divided into ten equal parts. If 20 divisions
of Vernier scale coincide with 8 small divisions of the main scale. What will be the least
count of calipers ?
Reading a Vernier Calipers
Total reading = MSR + n × LC
MSR = main scale reading before on the left of the zero of the Vernier scale.
n = number of Vernier divisions which just coincides with any of the main scale divisions.
2. The diagram below shows part of the main scale and Vernier scale of Vernier calipers, which is
used to measure the diameter of a metal ball. Find the least count and the radius of the ball.
3. Least count of Vernier calipers is 0.01 cm. When the two jaws of the instrument touch each
other the 5th division of the Vernier scale coincides with a main scale division and the zero of the
Vernier scale lies to the left of the zero of the main scale. Furthermore while measuring the
diameter of a sphere, the zero mark of the Vernier scale lies between 2.4 cm and 2.5 cm and the
6th Vernier division coincides with a main scale division. Calculate the diameter of the sphere.
4. The edge of a cube is measured using Vernier callipers. [9 divisions of the main scale is equal to
10 divisions of Vernier scale and 1 main scale division is 1 mm]. The main scale division reading is 10
and 1st division of Vernier scale was found to be coinciding with the main scale. The mass of the
cube is 2.736 g. Calculate the density in g/ cm3 up to correct significant figures.
Zero Error
4
Unit and Measurement Physics by Ashutosh Garg
If the zero of the Vernier scale does not coincide with the zero of the main scale when jaw B
touches A, then the instrument has an error called zero error.
Zero error is always algebraically subtracted from measured length.
Actual Reading = Observed Reading - Zero Error
Zero correction
Zero correction has a magnitude equal to zero error but its sign is opposite to that of the
zero error.
Zero correction = - (Zero Error)
Zero correction is always algebraically added to measured length.
No Zero Error
5
Unit and Measurement Physics by Ashutosh Garg
Positive Zero Error
If zero of Vernier scale lies to the right of the main scale the zero error is positive
(x -division of Vernier scale which just coincides with any of the main scale division)
Negative Zero Error
When the Vernier zero lies before the main scale zero the error is said to be negative zero
error.
(N - total divisions on Vernier scale )
(x -division of Vernier scale which just coincides with any of the main scale division)
5. In the diagram shown in figure, find the magnitude and nature of zero error.
6. The main scale of a Vernier caliper reads in millimeters and its Vernier is divided into 10
divisions which coincides with 9 divisions of the main scale. The reading for the shown situation is
found to be (x/10) mm. Find the value of x.
6
Unit and Measurement Physics by Ashutosh Garg
7. The main scale of vernier calipers reads 10 mm in 10 divisions. Ten divisions of vernier scale
coincide with nine divisions of the main scale. When the two jaws of the calipers touch each other,
the fifth division of the vernier coincides with 9 main scale divisions and the zero of the vernier
is to the right of zero of main scale, when a cylinder is tightly placed between the two jaws, the
zero of the vernier scale lies slightly to the left of 3.2 cm and the fourth vernier division
coincides with a main scale division. Find the diameter of the cylinder.
Screw Gauge
Pitch - It is the distance traveled by the screw in one complete rotation.
7
Unit and Measurement Physics by Ashutosh Garg
To Measure Diameter of a Given Wire Using a Screw Gauge
Total reading = LSR + n × LC
The cap lies ahead of LSR (reading of linear
scale)
nth division of the circular scale lies over the
reference line.
Zero Error and Zero Correction
If the zero mark of circular scale does not
coincide with the zero of the pitch scale when
the faces A and B are just touching each
other, the instrument is said to possess zero
error.
Positive and Negative zero Error
8
Unit and Measurement Physics by Ashutosh Garg
If the zero of the circular scale is left behind the reference line the zero error is positive.
(x -division of circular scale in line of reference line)
If the zero of the circular scale advances beyond the reference line the zero error is negative.
(N - total divisions on circular scale )
(x -division of circular scale in line of reference line)
Backlash Error
When the sense of rotation of the screw is suddenly changed, the screw head may rotate, but the
screw
itself may not move forward or backwards. Thus, the scale reading may change even by the actual
movement of the screw. This is known as backlash error.
1. The pitch of a screw gauge is 1 mm and there are 100 divisions on the circular scale. In
measuring the diameter of a sphere there are six divisions on the linear scale and forty
divisions on the circular scale coincide with the reference line. Find the diameter of the
sphere.
2. Read the screw gauge shown below in the figure.
Given that circular scale has 100 divisions and in one complete rotation the screw advances
by 1mm.
3. The pitch of a screw gauge having 50 divisions on its circular scale is 1 mm. When the two jaws
of the screw gauge are in contact with each other, the zero of the circular scale lies 6 divisions
below the line of graduation. When a wire is placed between the jaws , 3 linear scale divisions are
clearly visible while the 31st division on the circular scale coincides with the reference line. Find
the diameter of the wire.
4. Which of the following is the most precise for measuring length?
A vernier caliper with 20 divisions on the sliding scale, coinciding with 19 main scale
divisions.
A screw gauge of pitch 1 mm and 100 divisions on the circular scale.
5. When the circular scale of screw gauge carrying 100 divisions is given four complete rotations,
the head of the screw moves through 2 mm. Calculate pitch and least count of the screw gauge.
Indirect Method
Measurement of Large Distances
9
Unit and Measurement Physics by Ashutosh Garg
Parallax method
Let's Do it -
Finding the distance of Planet from the Earth
We observe from two different positions
(observatories) A and B on the Earth, separated by
distance AB = b at the same time.
The distance between the two points of observations is
called the basis.
We measure the angle between the two directions along
which the planet is viewed at these two points. The
∠ASB represented by symbol θ is called the parallax
angle or parallactic angle.
Determination of Diameter of the Planet
If d is the diameter of the planet and
α the angular size of the planet
10
Unit and Measurement Physics by Ashutosh Garg
1. The parallax of a heavenly body measured from two points diametrically opposite on the
equator of earth is 1.0 minute. If the radius of earth is 6400 km., find the distance of the
heavenly body from the center of earth in AU, taking 1 AU = 1.5 x 1011m.
.
Estimation of Very Small Distances: Size of a Molecule
To measure a very small size like that of a molecule (10–8 m to 10–10 m), we have to adopt special
methods.
Optical Microscope Electron Microscope In recent times, tunneling
The resolution to which an We use an electron beam for microscopy has been
optical microscope can be used image formation. developed in which the limit of
is the wavelength of light. Such electron microscopes resolution is better than an
For visible light the range of with a resolution of 0.6 Å have angstrom. It is possible to
wavelengths is from about been built. estimate the sizes of
4000 Å to 7000 Å. molecules.
(1 angstrom = 1 Å = 10-10 m).
Estimating the molecular size of oleic acid (C17H33COOH)
Oleic acid is a soapy liquid with a large molecular size of the order of 10–9 m.
We dissolve 1 cm3 of oleic acid in alcohol to make a solution of 20 cm3. Then we take 1 cm3 of this
solution and dilute it to 20 cm3, using alcohol. So, the concentration of the solution is equal to
(1/20×20) of oleic acid/cm3 of solution.
Next we lightly sprinkle some lycopodium powder on the surface of the water in a large trough
and we put one drop of this solution in the water.
The oleic acid drop spreads into a thin, large and roughly circular film of molecular thickness on
the water surface. Then, we quickly measure the diameter of the thin film to get its area A.
Suppose we have dropped n drops in the water.
Volume of n drops of solution = nV cm3
11
Unit and Measurement Physics by Ashutosh Garg
Amount of oleic acid in this solution = nV(1/400) cm3
This solution of oleic acid spreads very fast on the surface of water and forms a very thin layer
of thickness t.
If this spreads to form a film of area A cm2, then the thickness of the film
t = Volume of the film/ Area of the film.
If we assume that the film has mono-molecular thickness, then this becomes the size or diameter
of a molecule of oleic acid.
Q. If the size of a nucleus (in the range of 10–15 to 10–14 m) is scaled up to the tip of a sharp pin,
what roughly is the size of an atom ? Assume tip of the pin to be in the range 10–5m to 10–4m
Range of Lengths
Tiny nucleus of an atom - 10–14 m
The extent of the observable universe - 1026 m
We use certain special length units for short and large lengths: -
Fermi, .
Angstrom
Astronomical unit
Average distance of the sun from the Earth
Light Year
Parsec
Distance at which average radius of the earth's orbit subtends an angle
of 1 arc second.
Measurement of Mass
For atoms and molecules unified atomic mass unit (u), is used
12
Unit and Measurement Physics by Ashutosh Garg
1 u = (1/12) of mass of an atom of C - 12 isotope including the mass of electrons.
= 1.66 x 10-27kg.
For measurement of small masses of atomic/subatomic particles etc. We make use of mass
spectrographs in which the radius of the trajectory is proportional to the mass of a charged
particle moving in a uniform electric and magnetic field.
Large masses in the universe like planets, stars, etc., based on Newton’s law of gravitation can be
measured by using gravitational method.
Range of Masses
Mass of an electron in the order of 10-30 kg
The known universe 1055 kg.
Measurement of Time
We now use an atomic standard of time, which is based on the periodic vibrations produced in a
Cesium atom. This is the basis of the Cesium clock, sometimes called the atomic clock used in the
national standards.
Accuracy - The cesium atomic clocks - 1 part in 1013 i.e. they lose or gain no more than 3 µs in one
year.
Due to the tremendous accuracy in time measurement, the SI unit of length has been expressed
in terms the path length light travels in certain interval of time (1/299, 792, 458 of a second)
Range of time -
Lifespan of most unstable particle - 10-24s
Life of the universe -1017s.
13