Civil rights leaders and groups adopted varied strategies to combat racial inequalities. Martin Luther King Jr. promoted nonviolent protest and civil disobedience, exemplified by campaigns such as the bus boycotts and marches . In contrast, Malcolm X, initially aligned with the Nation of Islam, advocated for black self-reliance and defended the use of violence if necessary for self-defense . The Black Panthers also emerged, symbolizing a more militant stance and focusing on black empowerment and self-defense . Each approach uniquely contributed to raising awareness and challenging systemic racism in America.

Literacy tests and poll taxes were tools used primarily in southern states to disenfranchise African American voters by imposing discriminatory barriers to registration . To combat these practices, the Voting Rights Act of 1965 was enacted, abolishing literacy tests and authorizing federal oversight of voter registration in areas with historical discrimination . Moreover, the Twenty-fourth Amendment, ratified in 1964, prohibited poll taxes in federal elections . These measures were crucial in securing African Americans' voting rights, significantly increasing voter registration and participation among disenfranchised communities.

The Civil Rights Act of 1964 had a profound impact on American society, as it was pivotal in dismantling institutionalized discrimination. It banned segregation in public accommodations and outlawed employment discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin . The Act empowered the federal government to enforce desegregation in schools, fundamentally altering the social fabric by legally mandating equal treatment across various facets of public life . Its passage marked a significant victory for the civil rights movement, paving the way for subsequent reforms in civil rights laws.

The SNCC (Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee) primarily aimed to increase African American voter registration and fight segregation through nonviolent means . They were instrumental in organizing Freedom Rides, sit-ins, and the Freedom Summer campaign, which enlisted volunteers to help southern African Americans register to vote . These activities were often met with violent opposition, as exemplified by their volunteers' murders, yet SNCC's efforts significantly contributed to the passage of landmark legislation such as the Voting Rights Act of 1965.

The Kerner Commission, established by President Johnson, was tasked with investigating the causes of the violent race riots that erupted in the summer of 1967 . It determined that systemic racial discrimination and the neglect of urban communities were significant contributors to unrest. The Commission recommended programs to address inequalities in education, employment, and housing, advocating for 'enriched opportunities' in urban areas . However, despite identifying key issues, many of its policy suggestions were not fully implemented, limiting their long-term impact on addressing racial disparities.

There were two primary types of segregation: de jure segregation and de facto segregation. De jure segregation was imposed by law, primarily occurring in the southern United States. This type forced African Americans to live apart from whites in virtually all public spaces through legally mandated separation . In contrast, de facto segregation occurred through unwritten customs or traditions, predominantly in the northern United States. It was characterized by discriminatory practices in housing and employment, limiting African Americans to low-paying jobs and specific neighborhoods .

The Freedom Rides were aimed at challenging segregation in interstate bus travel. Participants, known as Freedom Riders, traveled from Washington D.C. to New Orleans, facing violent resistance in the South, particularly in Alabama where they were nearly killed . The intense violence led President Kennedy to intervene by sending federal protection for the riders . This significant federal involvement highlighted the government's role in enforcing civil rights and drew national attention to the deep-seated racial hostilities in the South, pressuring further legislative actions against segregation.

The Brown v. Board of Education decision was a landmark ruling by the Supreme Court that declared the doctrine of 'separate but equal' unconstitutional in public education, as it violated the 14th Amendment's Equal Protection Clause . This decision was pivotal in dismantling legalized segregation in schools across America and ignited broader civil rights movements. It faced significant opposition, notably from 100 Southern Congress members who endorsed 'The Southern Manifesto' to lawfully resist desegregation . Despite this resistance, the ruling inspired further actions towards equality and set a precedent for challenging institutionalized racism.

The Southern Manifesto, co-signed by 100 Southern Congress members, formally opposed the Brown v. Board of Education decision, advocating for lawful resistance to desegregation . The Manifesto argued that the Supreme Court's ruling violated states' rights and sought to maintain segregation through legislative means, particularly by supporting states' efforts to impose legal barriers against integration . This organized political opposition aimed to preserve the status quo of segregation in public education and delay the implementation of desegregation policies in the South.

The Montgomery Bus Boycott launched the modern civil rights movement . Triggered by Rosa Parks' arrest for refusing to give up her bus seat to a white person, the boycott represented a pivotal moment in the struggle for civil rights. It lasted more than a year, showcasing the power of nonviolent protest and civil disobedience, and eventually led to the Supreme Court ruling that segregation on public buses was unconstitutional .