PART II: FLOW MEASUREMENTS:ORIFICES, TUBES , WEIRS, ETC.

ORIFICES:
An Orifice is an opening with a closed perimeter through which a fluid flows. Its
primary purpose is the measurement and control of flow.

(a) Orifice in Tanks: Free –Falling

Region (chamber) A
pA
Note: Regions A & B maybe open or
1
L.S • closed in the atmosphere.
VA (velocity h Region (chamber) B
approach) pB
2 V2
Datum •

L.S

Writing the Bernoulli’s energy equation between points 1 and 2, neglect head losses
2 h 2 2 2
V1 p1 V2 p2 0 where p1 = pA V1 p V p
+ + Z1 = + + Z2 + A +h= 2 + B
2g  2g  2g  2g 
p2 = p B

From the equation above the theoretical velocity of flow through the orifice is obtained
 V12 p A p B  orVt = 2 gH
Vt orV2 = 2 g h + + −  V1
2
p A pB
 2 g    where: H = h + + −
2g  
 CHAMBER A
pA  V12 p A p B 
Vt orV2 = 2 g h + + − 
1  2 g   
L.S •
CHAMBER B If velocity anywhere from the upstream is
h represented by the mean velocity of
VA pB
2 approach, V1 ≈ VA
Datum • V2
Then,
 VA 2 p A pB 
L.S Vt = V2 = 2 g h + + − 
 2 g   
orVt = 2 gH (2.1)
2
V p p
where H = h+ A + A − B , the total head which produces the flow
2g  
Note: (1) The velocities Vt and V1 are assumed to be the mean values.
(2) The common conditions encountered in practice are when p1 = p2 =0
and the velocity head V12/2g ≈ 0 for a relative large chamber A. Then the
equation reduces to

Vt = 2 gh (2.2)
in which H = h. Equation (2.2) defines the theorem of Torricelli which states that
“the theoretical velocity through the orifice under a head h is equal to the velocity
acquired by a body falling from rest through a height h”.
(a) Rounded Orifice (b) Sharp-edged Orifice
 CHAMBER A Note: It has been shown experimentally
pA that the actual mean velocity of the jet
1 from a sharp-edged orifice is a little less
L.S • than the theoretical velocity as given in
CHAMBER B equation (2.1) or (2.2). This difference is
VA h attributed to the fluid’s viscosity which
pB
2 V2 was neglected in the derivation of eq.
Datum • (2.1). To correct for the head losses
L.S initially neglected, a correction factor
known as the coefficient of velocity
shall be applied.

(b) Coefficient of velocity and Actual

velocity at point 2,
Va
Cv = Va = CvVt = Cv 2 gH
Vt
where: CV is a correction factor called as the “coefficient of velocity”

( c) The theoretical discharge is given as

Qt = AoVt

where: Ao - area of the orifice

COEFFICIENT OF CONTRACTION

Figure 2.1 shows the magnification of the sharp-edged orifice. The individual particles of
the mass of fluid approaching the orifice follow converging paths. Due to the inertia of the particles
lying close to the inner wall, they cannot make abrupt changes in their direction as they reach the
opening. This causes them to follow curvilinear paths effecting a contraction of the jet up the
section, say m-n, at which the stream paths are assumed parallel, and the pressure having a value
equal to that of the surrounding medium.
The section m-n where the contraction of the jet ceases is called as the vena contracta
and its distance from the inner wall of the orifice is approximately ½ of the diameter of the orifice,
Do.

The dimensionless ratio of the area of the vena

contracta (diameter d) to the area of the orifice
is known as the coefficient of contraction, or

a
Cc = and a = Cc Ao
Ao
where: a = the cross sectional area of
the vena contracta
Ao = the cross sectional area
Figure 2.1 of the orifice
Contraction of Jet
(d) The actual discharge is,
Qa = aVa
where: a – area of the “ vena contracta “

Recall: (1) The “vena contracta is the point on the jet where contraction
stops or where the diameter is the least.
(2) The ratio of the area of the “vena contracta” to the area of the
orifice is known as the “Coefficient of Contraction”,
a
Cc =
Ao

(e) The “ coefficient of discharge” is the ratio of the actual discharge to the
theoretical,
Qa aVa
C= =
Qt AoVt
or C = Cc Cv
Typical flow patterns and contraction coefficients for various round exit
configurations. (a)Knife edge, (b) Well rounded, (c) Sharp edge, (d) Re-entrant.
 TABLE 2.1: VALUES OF C FOR CIRCULAR ORIFICE
Diameter (cm)
Head (cm)
0.65 1.30 2.00 2.50 5.00 10.00

25 0.647 0.627 0.616 0.609 0.603 0.601

40 .635 .619 .610 .605 .601 .599

60 .629 .615 .607 .603 .600 .599

120 .621 .609 .603 .600 .598 .597

180 .617 .607 .601 .599 .596 .596

240 .614 .605 .600 .598 .596 .595

300 .613 .604 .599 .597 .595 .595

360 .612 .603 .599 .597 .595 .595

420 .611 .603 .598 .596 .595 .594

480 .610 .602 .598 .596 .595 .594

600 .609 .602 .598 ..596 .595 .594

760 .608 .601 .597 .595 .594 .594

920 .607 .600 .597 .595 .594 .594

1220 .606 .600 .596 .595 .594 .593

1520 .605 .599 .596 .595 .594 .593

 TABLE 2.2: VALUES OF C FOR SQUARE ORIFICE
Side of Square (cm)
Heads
(cm) 0.60 1.20 2.15 3.05 6.10 18.30 30.50

12.20 — 0.643 0.628 0.621 — — —

18.30 0.660 .636 .623 .617 0.605 0.598 —

24.40 .652 .631 .620 .615 .605 .600 0.597

30.50 .648 .628 .618 .613 .605 .601 .599

45.70 .641 .622 .614 .610 .605 .602 .601

61.00 .637 .619 .612 .608 .605 .604 .602

76.20 .634 .617 .610 .607 .605 .604 .602

91.45 .632 .616 .609 .607 .605 .603 .603

122.00 .628 .614 .608 .606 .605 .603 .602

182.90 .623 .612 .607 .605 ,604 .603 .602

244.00 .619 .610 .606 .605 .604 .603 .602

305.00 .616 .608 .605 .604 .603 .602 .601

610.00 .606 .604 .602 .602 .602 .601 .600

 1 pA
L.S •

VA h pB
2 V2
•

L.S

Formulas derived from energy equation between 1 and 2 neglecting head lost:
E1 = E2 If V1≈ VA , p1=pA and p2=pB
2 2 then
V1 p1 V2 p2
+ + Z1 = + + Z2
2g  2g   VA 2 p A pB 
V2 = 2 g h + + − 
2 2  2 g   
V1 p V p
+ 1 +h = 2 + 2 +0
2g  2g  if both p1=pA= 0 and p2=pB= 0,
(Regions A and B are both open in the atmosphere)
2 2
V2 V p p then
= h+ 1 + 1 − 2
2g 2g    VA 2 
Theoretical velocity at point 2: V2 = 2 g h + 
 V12 p1 p2   2 g 
V2 = 2 g h + + − 
 2g    V2 = 2 gh (for large tank VA ≈ 0)
(f) Head Loss in orifice, pA
L.S •1

 1  Va 2 VA h
H o =  2 − 1 pB
•2 V2
 Cv  2g
or (
H o = 1− Cv H
2
) L.S

2
VA p A pB
where: H = h + + −
2g  
(g) Most common form of expressing the actual discharge is,

Qa = CAo 2 gh when pA = pB = 0 ; VA ≈ 0

or Qa = CAo 2 gH
 Head Lost in an orifice:
Ho Consider a fluid discharging under a total head H.
The velocity discharge is,
lost head
H V = Cv 2 gH

Then the original head H is,

1 V2
H= 2 Equation (1)
Cv 2 g
2
The head remaining in the jet is velocity head is V .
2g
Horizontal orifice discharging
upward The lost head Ho = original head minus remaining
head, or
1 V 2 V 2 =  1 − 1 V
2

Ho = 2  −  2  2g Equation (2)
Cv 2 g 2 g  Cv 
V2
= Cv H
2
From equation (1) the velocity head in the jet
2g
Hence the lost head,

(
H o = H − Cv H = 1− Cv H
2 2
)
 Substitute the value of
Head loss in a nozzle
V1 from continuity eq. in
energy eq.
2
1 2
 A2  2
  V2 2
 A1  p1
+ + Z1 =
V2 p
+ 2 + Z2
i. Continuity equation for 2g  2g 
incompressible fluid
Rearranging,
A1V1 = A2V2
2   A 2  p p
A 
V2 1 −  2   = 1 − 2 + Z − Z
V1 =  2 V2 2g   A1    
1 2

 A1   
ii. Energy equation for Solve for V2,
incompressible fluid
between 1 and 2 2g  p1 p2 
neglecting head loss V2 = 2 
 − + Z − Z 2
 Eq. 1
  A    
1

1 −  2   
  A1  
2 2
V1 p V p
+ 1 + Z1 = 2 + 2 + Z 2  
2g  2g 
The theoretical velocity at the outlet of the nozzle
i. If head loss is Rearranging and collecting
accounted, then the terms,
energy equation for
V2   A2   p1 p2
2 2
incompressible fluid 1 −   = − + Z1 − Z 2 − H L ,1− 2 Eq. 2
   
  1 
between 1 and 2 is, 2g A

Solve for V2,

1 2

2g  p1 p2 
V2 =  − + Z − Z − H L ,1−2 
  A  2     
1 2

1 −  2   
  A1  
 
2 2
V1 p V p
+ 1 + Z1 = 2 + 2 + Z 2 + H L ,1−2
2g  2g 
Again, substitute the 2g  p1 p2 
Va = V2 =  − + Z − Z − H L ,1−2 
value of V1 from   A  2     
1 2

1 −  2   
continuity eq. in energy
  A1  
eq.   Eq. 3
2
 A2  2
  V2
 A1  p1 V2
2
p2 The actual velocity at the outlet of the nozzle
+ + Z1 = + + Z 2 + H L ,1−2
2g  2g 
Summarizing,

1 2

2g  p1 p2 
Vt = V2 = 2 
 − + Z − Z 2
 Eq. 1
  A    
1

1 −  2   
  A1  
 
The theoretical velocity at the outlet of the nozzle

2g  p1 p2 
Va = V2 = 2 
 − + Z − Z − H L ,1−2 

  A    
1 2

1 −  2   
  A1   Eq. 3
 
The actual velocity at the outlet of the nozzle

Also recall, Va = CvVt

Va = CvVt

In the relation above, substitute

the value of Vt and Va,

2g  p1 p2  2g  p1 p2 
2 
 − + Z − Z − H L ,1− 2 
 = Cv 2 
 − + Z − Z 2

  A       A    
1 2 1

1 −  2    1 −  2   
  A1     A1  
   

Squaring both sides,

2g  p1 p2  2g  p1 p2 
 − + − −  =   − + − 2
2
2 
Z Z H L ,1− 2  C 2 
Z Z 
  A       A    
1 2 v 1

1 −  2    1 −  2   
  A1     A1  
   
 2g  p1 p2  2g  p1 p2 
 − + − −  =   − + − 2
2
2 
Z Z H L ,1− 2  C 2 
Z Z 
  A       A    
1 2 v 1

1 −  2    1 −  2   
  A1     A1  
   
Solve for head loss,

p p  2 p p 
H L ,1−2 =  1 − 2 + Z1 − Z 2  − Cv  1 − 2 + Z1 − Z 2 
     

p p 
(
H L ,1− 2 =  1 − 2 + Z1 − Z 2  1 − Cv
 
2
) Eq. 4
 
2 
A2  p1 p2
2
V2   
Going back to equation 2, 1 −   = − + Z1 − Z 2 − H L ,1− 2
   
  1 
2g A

2
V2   A2  H L ,1− 2

2

1 −   = − H L ,1− 2
2g 
  1 
A  1 (
− C v
2
)
V2   A2 
2 2
 H
= H L ,1− 2 =
(
1 − C )   A 
v
2
1−   2
 V 2 
2
 2 
1 −   L ,1− 2
− H L ,1− 2  A   2 g 
( ) 
2
  1 − Cv 2 Cv   1   
  1
2g A


  A2   V2 2 
( )
2
 A  2
 H  1
 = L ,1− 2 − H L ,1− 2 1 − Cv H L ,1− 2 =  2 − 1 1 −    
2 2
V2 1 −  2  
2g   A1   1 − C
2  Cv   A1   2 g 
  v
head loss from 1 to 2 of the
nozzle,
 A2  V2 
( ) ( )
2
2    2
1 − Cv 1 −     = H L ,1− 2 − H L ,1− 2 1 − Cv 2
  A1   2 g  If the ratio A2/A1 is very small,
  this means A1 is very large
compared to A2, then the energy
 loss is reduced to
A2  V2 
( ) ( )
2
2    2
1 − Cv 1 −     = H L ,1− 2 1 − 1 + Cv 2
  A1   2 g 
   1  V2 2 
H L ,1−2 =  2 − 1 

 Cv  2 g 
 A2  V2 
( ) ( )
2
2    2
Note V2 here is actual velocity,
1 − Cv 1 −     = H L ,1− 2 Cv 2
  A1   2 g 
 
2. Submerged Orifice in Tanks

h = h 1 – h2
h1
h2
• V2

(a) Theoretical velocity,

Vt = 2 gh or Vt = 2 gH
(b) Actual discharge,

Qa = CAo 2 gh or Qa = CAo 2 gH
 TABLE 2.3: VALUES OF C FOR SUBMERGED ORIFICE

Size of Ofice (cm)

Head (cm)
Circle Square Circle Square Rectangle
1.50 1.50 3.00 3.00 1.50 x 9.0

15.25 0.615 0.627 0.616 0.609 0.603

30.50 .610 .619 .610 .605 .601

45.75 .607 .615 .607 .603 .600

61.00 .605 .609 .603 .600 .598

76.25 .603 .607 .601 .599 .596

91.50 .602 .605 .600 .598 .596

122.00 .601 .604 .599 .597 .595

3. Orifice in Pipes,

Piezometer

VA 1• 2 V2
• •

jet

manometer
where:
(a) Theoretical Discharge,
p1
 p1 V A 2  , is measured by using by
Qt = AoVt = Ao 2 g  +   either a piezometer or
  an open manometer at
 2 g 
point 1.
(b) Actual Discharge,
 p1 VA 2 
Qa = CAo 2 g  + 

  2 g 
4. Sluice Gates, a gate which has its lower edge in or near the bed of a
channel

L.S

V1
z1

a z2 V2

(a) Actual velocity at point 2 where:

(b) Actual discharge,

b = width of the channel/Flume.

Applying Bernoulli Equation neglecting energy loss between points on the free
surfaces (1) and (2) to give where:
Free surface
Then the theoretical velocity at 2 is

The actual velocity at 2 is

 The theoretical velocity at 2 can be
written in another form

Going back to the theoretical velocity at 2

Then the theoretical discharge, Q

Also, if the gate has the same width as the
channel so that A1 = bz1 and A2 = bz2, the
continuity equation gives,
Example: Given the property of the sluice
gate shown, determine the theoretical
discharge per unit width

The flow rate per unit width defined by

the equation
5. SHORT TUBES

A short tube is an opening with downstream extensions not sufficiently

long to be classified as pipes.
A Standard short tube is a smooth tube with a sharp internal corner
and a length equal to about 2.5 diameters.

Vc

Standard Short Tubes

5. Pipe Culverts (same as submerged orifice)

V D

Discharge, Q = CA 2 gH

where: C, coefficient of discharge ( Table is available for Beveled-lip

entrance and square – cornered entrance ).
CROSS DRAINAGE TO REDUCE SOIL EROSION
 WEIR

A Weir is an overflow
structure built across an open
channel for the purpose of
measuring the flow.
6. Weirs: Sharp – Crested and Free - Falling

A Weir is an overflow structure built across an open channel for the

purpose of measuring the flow.
(a) Rectangular Suppressed Weir
Drawdown

W.S nappe W.S

H crest

VA L
d
P Weir plate

Channel bed
4H
a.1 Theoretical discharge,
 3
2 2
3

2   VA   VA  
2 2
Qt = 2 g L  H +  −  where: VA is velocity of approach
3 
 2 g   2  
 
 
3
2
If VA ≈ 0 then Qt = 2 g LH 2
3
a.2 Actual discharge, Qa = CQt
 3
2 2
3

2   VA   VA  
2 2
Qa = C  
2g  L  H +  − 
    
    
3 2 g 2 g

 3
2 2
3

  VA   VA  
2 2

Qa = Cw L  H +  − 
    
    
2 g 2 g

2
where: Cw = C  2g
3
Cw = weir factor
H = head over the crest
L = length of the weir = width of the channel
P = height of the weir
d = depth of water upstream

Note : If VA is very small, VA2/2g ≈ 0 and Qa = CwLH3/2.

Standard Weir Factor , Cw Formulas for rectangular weirs

FRANCIS FORMULA: Based on the experiment on rectangular weirs from

1.07 m to 5.18 m long under heads from 180 mm to 490 mm.
 H  
2

C w = 1.84 1 + 0.26   (S.I. units)

  d  
For H/P < 0.40, the value of Cw may be used:

Cw = 1.84 (S.I. Unit)

Cw = 3.33 (USC. Unit)
BAZIN FORMULA: For rectangular weirs of length from 0.5 m to 2.0 m under
Heads from 50 mm to 600 mm.

0.02161   H  
2

C w = 0.5518  3.248 +  1 + 0.55  
 H    d  
REHBOCK AND CHOW FORMULA
H
Cw = 3.27 + 0.40 ( English Unit)
P

H
Cw = 1.8 + 0.22 ( S.I. Unit)
P
(b) Rectangular Contracted Weir

H
0.10H L’ 0.10H
P
L

The length used is L’ instead of L due to the end-contraction effect,

L’ = L – 0.20H for 2 – end contraction

or L’ = L – 0.10H for 1 – end contraction

where: 0.10 H is the Francis correction due to end contraction.

(c) Triangular or V – Notch Weirs

Where:

8 
C = C' 2 g tan
H 15 2
θ
C’ = correction factor

θ = vertex angle
c.1 Theoretical discharge,
8  5
H = head over the vertex
Qt = 2 g tan H 2 (VA ≈ 0)
15 2
c.2 Actual discharge, For standard 90˚ weir: C’ = 0.60
5 5
Qa = CH 2
Qa = 1.4 H 2
( S.I. Units)
5
Qa = 2.5H 2
( English Units)
THEORY ON WEIR
The flow of liquid between two points over a notch follows Bernoulli’s equation
Point 1, a point on the surface of a liquid a distance upstream from the crest of
weir ( usually 4 times the height from the notch bottom).
Point 2, a point in differential area dA above the crest of the weir.
1
• 2
h x h
•
dh H dh
H-h H
H-h 2θ
VA
L V-notch weir
Rectangular weir Front view
Front view

The Bernoulli’s equation between point 1 and 2 in figure gives:

Where : p = pressure, N/m2
2 2
p1V p V V = velocity, m/s
+ 1 + Z1 = 2 + 2 + Z 2
 2g  2g Z = elevation, m
γ = specific weight of liquid, N/m3
g = acceleration due to gravity, m/s2
 1
• x
2 h h
•
dh H dh H
H-h H-h
2θ

L V-notch weir
Rectangular weir Front view
Front view
Side view
Since point 1 is on the surface of the liquid and the cross-section area at point 1 is very large,
then p1 = 0 (atmospheric pressure is not considered) and also point 2 is the jet over the weir
crest then p2 = 0. From the Bernoulli’s equation gives:

V1
2
V
2
 V12 
+ 0 + Z1 = 0 + 2 + Z 2 V2 = V = 2 g  h + 
2g 2g  2g 
2 2
V2 V Then the volume flow rate passing through the
= Z1 − Z 2 + 1 differential area dA will be:
2g 2g
 V1 
2

V2
2
V
2
dQ = dA  V dQ = dA 2 g  h + 

= h+ 1
2g 2g  2 g 
  V1
2

Using dQ = dA 2 g 
 h + 2g


 

For Rectangular notch: h

dh H
H-h
dA = L x dh

L = width of notch, m
L
Then,
12
 V1
2
  V1 
2

dQ = Lxdh 2g h +  dQ = L 2 g  h +  dh

 2g 
  2 g 
Integrating from 0 to H, we obtain
H
 V1 
2 12
2  V
2 32
 2 3 2
 V1 
Q = L 2 g   h +  dh
 Q = L 2 g  H + 1  −  
0
2g  3  2 g   2g  
  

2
Neglecting velocity of approach, V1 ≈ 0, then Q = L 2 g H
32

3
Using dQ = dA 2 gh
(neglecting velocity of approach) x h
For V- Notch H
H-h
2θ
dA = 2 x  dh

dA = 2(H − h ) tan  dh V-notch weir

Front view
then
dQ = 2(H − h ) tan  dh 2 gh

(
dQ = 2 tan  2 g  Hh1 2 − h 3 2 dh )
Integrating

( )
H
Q = 2 tan 2 g   Hh1 2 − h3 2 dh
0
H
 2 Hh 32
2h 
52
Q = 2 tan  2 g   − 
 3 5 0
 H
 2 Hh 32
2h 
52
Q = 2 tan  2 g   − 
 3 5 0

 2H 5 2 2H 5 2 
Q = 2 tan  2 g   − 
 3 5 
8
Q= 2 g tan  H 5 2
15
In practice the actual flow rate is smaller than the theoretical flow rate due the energy
loss caused by the fluid viscosity. Then the actual flow rate will be:
2
Rectangular notch actual flow rate : Q = Cd 2g  b  H 3 2
3
V-Notch actual flow rate:
8
For 90˚ V-notch, Q = Cd 2 g  tan 45  H 5 2
15
8
For 60˚ V-Notch, Q = Cd 2 g  tan 30  H 5 2
15
Where CD = Coefficient of discharge, dimensionless constant
(d) Trapezoidal Weirs

w.s.

θ/2 H θ/2

L
Actual discharge,

2
3
8  5
Qa = C ' 2 g LH 2 + C" 2 g tan H 2
3 15 2
Where: VA ≈ 0

C’ and C” are correction factors

Note: When tan θ/2 = ¼, the weir is called as the Cipolletti weir and
3
Qa = 1.859 LH 2 ( S.I. Units)
3
Qa = 3.367 LH 2 (English Units)
e. Broad-Crested: Square Upstream Corner

b
3
Qa = CLH 2

When 2 < b/H < 5 S.I: C≈1.49; English: C≈2.7

When b/H < 2 S.I: C≈1.82; English: C≈3.3

f. Broad-Crested: Rounded Upstream Corner

3
S.I: Qa  1.70 LH 2

3
English: Qa  3.09 LH 2
g. Submerged Weirs
W.S
HU HD
VA

Villemonte Formula gives,

Qa = Q' (1 − S )
n 0.385

Where: Q ' = Discharge using free- falling weir formula

n = 1.5 for rectangular weir
= 2.5 for triangular weir
HD
S=
HU
H. UNSTEADY FLOW IN ORIFICES: DISCHARGE UNDER A FALLING OR RISING
HEAD

If, in addition to the outflow Qo (at time, t = 0) through the orifice in the tank,
There is a constant inflow Qi which supplies the tank, the type of flow may be classified
as steady or unsteady depending upon the relative values of Qi and Qo:

(a)The flow is steady if Qi = Qo, that is, when h1 is maintained constant.

(b)The flow is unsteady if Qi ≠ Qo. The liquid surface may rise or drop as to whether Qi is
greater or smaller than Qo at time, t = 0. A special case of unsteady flow is attained if the
inflow Qi is cut off, that is when Qi = 0.
Qi
Initial W.S. elev.

dh
Elemental volume, dV
h1
h
h2 Final W.S. elev.

Qo = CAo 2 gh
Case 1: When Qi = 0: the surface drops and the volume decrease or dV/dt < 0.
The rate of change in the volume of the contained liquid is the Qo (Qi = 0).
dV
− Qo =
dt Qi
Initial W.S. elev.
1

dh
Elemental volume, dV
h1 2
h
h2 Final W.S. elev.

Qo = CAo 2 gh dV
also − Qo =
dt
i. If there is no inflow, the time required for the W.S. to drop from
position 1 to 2, where:
h2 h1 h1 As is a function of h
dV As dh 1 As dh h = head above the orifice
t=  −Q =
o
= 
h2
Qo CAo 2g  h2
h1 2
h1
Case 2: When Qi ≠ Qo at time, t = 0. Under this condition there are two related subcases:

(a) Qi < Qo: the liquid surface drops as in the first case. The rate of change of the
contained volume is
h2
dV
dV
= −(Qo − Qi ) and t = −
dt h1
(Qo − Qi )
Qi
h2 Initial W.S. elev.
dV
t = −
h1 CAo 2 gh − Qi dh
Elemental volume, dV
h1 h1
As dh
t=
h
h2 Final W.S. elev.
h2 CAo 2 gh − Qi

where: As = f(h) Qo = CAo 2 gh

(b) Qi > Qo: the liquid surface rises and the volume increases or dV/dt > 0. Then

h2
dV dV
= Qi − Qo and t=
dt Q − Qo
h1 i

h2
As dh Qi
t= Initial W.S. elev.
h1 Qi − CAo 2 gh

dh
where: As = f(h)
Elemental volume, dV
h1
h
h2 Final W.S. elev.

Qo = CAo 2 gh
ii. If two tanks are connected by an orifice or a short tube, the time
required for the head to change from H1 to H2 is,

As1 
Vlost

As1 As 2 −21
h1
h2 h1 1
As2
Vgain 
t=
CAo 2 g 
h2
As1 + As 2
h dh

Tank 1 Tank 2

where: As1 and As2 is the water surface areas in the tanks at any time.
h is the difference in water surfaces in the two tanks at any time.
If As1 and/or As2 will vary, it must be expressed in terms of h.
If As1 and As2 are constant ( the two tanks have uniform cross-
sectional area, the formula becomes:

t=
As1 As 2 2
As1 + As 2 CAo 2 g
( h1 − h2 )
Problem 1. Experimental determination of the three coefficients C, Cv, Cc
of an orifice.

Solution.
Y
L.S

Voy gx 2
h y= x− 2
Vox 2Vox
X
P (x, y)

1. Measure the constant head h, the diameter of the orifice, Do.

2. At any point P (x, y) on the jet, measure the distances x and y.

orifice & jet flow

3. Collect the liquid passing through the orifice in a tank over a
predetermined period of time, t and weigh the liquid in the tank, say
the weight is W.

4. W = (Vol )
W = Q t 
W = CAo 2 gh  t  
From this equation C can be solved knowing W, Ao, h, t and γ.
W
C=
Ao 2 gh  t  
Voy gx 2
5. The equation of the jet’s trajectory is, y = x− 2
Vox 2Vox
where: Voy = 0 and Vox = Cv 2 gh

gx 2
y = 0−
(
2 Cv 2 gh )2
 gx 2
y = 0−
(
2 Cv 2 gh )
2

gx 2
y=− 2
4Cv gh

x2
y=− 2
4Cv h

From this equation Cv can be solved knowing x, y, and h.

6. The coefficient of contraction is determined by

C
Cc =
Cv
Problem 2. The horizontal orifice in the figure shown is 75 mm in diameter
with Cc = 0.63, Cv = 0.98. When H = 2.30 m compute the height to which
the jet will rise above the orifice. What will be the diameter of the jet 1.0 m
above the orifice?
Solution:
3 (
a. H o = 1− Cv H
2
)
lost head, Ho
H
y
( )
H o = 1 − 0.98 2 2.30 = 0.091m
•2

1.0 m b. V1 = Cv 2 gH = 0.98 2 x9.81x 2.30

• Datum m
1 V1 = 6.573
s
 m
3 V2 = 4.674
lost head, Ho s
H
y •2 d. Diameter, d, of the vena contracta

1.0 m
a d2
Datum Cc = = 4

•
1 A0 (0.075)2
4
d2
0.63 = d = 0.059 m
c. Energy equation (1 – 2) (0.075)2
2 2
e. Continuity equation
V1 p V p
+ 1 + Z1 = 2 + 2 + Z 2 + H o
2g  2g  A1V1 = A2V2

(0.059)2 (6.573) =  (d 2 )2 (4.674)
0 0 0

(6.573)2 =
V2
2
+ 1.0 + 0.091
4 4
19.6 2g d 2 = 0.070 m
Problem 3. A Calibration test of a 12-mm circular sharp-edged orifice in the
vertical side of a large tank showed a discharge of 60 kg of water in 81 sec
at a head of 4.72 m. Measurement of the jet showed that it traveled 2.35 m
horizontally while dropping 0.30 m. Compute the three orifice coefficients.

Solution:

h = 4.72 m x = 2.35 m
W = 60 kg x 9.81N/kg = 588.6 N y = -0.30 m
γ = 9810 N/m3 Do = 12 mm = 0.012 m
t = 81 sec

Ao = (0.012m)2 = (36 x10−6  )m 2
4
a. W = CAo 2 gh (t )( )
(
588 .6 = C 36 x10 −6  ) 2(9.81)(4.72 )(81)(9810 )
C = 0.681
b. The vertical distance at any point in the jet from the center of the orifice
is expressed by
x2 x = CvVt t
y=− 2
(1)
4Cv h
x
Derivation: t= (3)
Cv 2 gh
1
y = Vo y t + a y t 2
2 Substitute (3) in (2), we obtain
0 -g
1 2 2
y = − gt (2) 1  x 
2 y=− g 
2  Cv 2 gh 
and
x2
1 2
x = Vox t + axt y=− 2
2 4Cv h
where: Vo = Vo cos 0= C V
x v t
ax = 0
Therefore, using equation (1) to determine Cv

x2
y=− 2
4Cv h

− 0.30 = −
(2.35)
2

4Cv (4.72)
2

Cv = 0.987
C
c. Cc =
Cv
0.681
Cc =
0.987
Cc = 0.690
Problem 4. In the figure shown, determine the theoretical velocity in the
jet, the actual velocity and discharge considering:

(a) p A = p B = 0 Cc = 1.00 (rounded orifice)

h = 5m (oil ) Cv = 0.97
Do = 50 mm
(b) p A = pB = 0 Cc = 0.62 (sharp-edged orifice)
h = 5m (water ) Cv = 0.98
pA
Do = 50 mm
( c) p A = 70 kPa C = Cv = 0.95 (rounded)
h pB
pB = 0 Do = 75 mm
h = 1 .5 m
s = 3.00
Solution.

(a) Vt = 2 gh = 2(9.81)(5) (b) Vt = 2 gh = 2(9.81)(5)

m m
Vt = 9.904 Vt = 9.904
s s
Va = CvVt = 0.97 9.904  Va = CvVt = 0.98 9.904 
m m
 s  s
m m
Va = 9.607 Va = 9.706
s s

Qa = CAo 2 gh = Cc Cv Ao 2 gh Qa = CAo 2 gh = Cc Cv Ao 2 gh
 
  ( )( )
Qa = 0.62 0.98  x0.0502  2(9.81)(5)
Qa = (1.00)(0.97 ) x0.0502  2(9.81)(5) 4 
4 
m3 m3
Qa = 0.019 Qa = 0.012
s s
  pA   70 x10 3 
( c) Vt = 2 g  h +  = 2(9.81)1.5 + 
    3 x9810 

m
Vt = 19.612
s

Va = CvVt = 0.9519.612 
m
 s
m
Va = 18.631
s
 pA    70 x10 3 
Qa = CAo 2 g  h +  = 0.95 x x0.075 2(9.81)1.5 +
2

   4  3 x9810 
m3
Qa = 0.082
s
Problem 5. The vertical orifice in the figure shown is 50 mm in diameter
with Cc = 0.63, Cv = 0.97. The diameter of the pipe is 150 mm. The liquid is
water and stands 2.90 m above the centerline of the pipe in the piezometer.
Compute the mean velocity in the jet, the diameter of the jet, the discharge,
and the lost head.
2 2
V1 V
+ 2.90 = 2
2g 2g
2.90 m 2
150 mm  50 
where: V1 =   V2
Region A V ≈ V Region B  150 
A 1
1• •2 1
V1 = V2
9
therefore
Solution: 2
1 
 V2  2
a. Energy equation (1 – 2)  9  + 2.90 = V2
V1
2
p V
2
p 2g 2g
+ 1 + Z1 = 2 + 2 + Z 2 m
2g  2g  V2 = Vt = 7.59
0 s
The mean velocity in the jet is, c. The discharge is

Va = CvVt = 0.97 7.59 

m
Qa = aVa
 s
Va = 7.362
m  m
Qa = 0.00124m 2  7.362 
s  s
m3
a Qa = 0.0091
b. Cc = s
Ao
 d. The head lost is
a = 0.63x (0.050m)
2

4  1  Va 2
H o =  2 − 1
a = 0.00124 m 2  Cv  2g

 1  (7.362)
2
Therefore the diameter of the jet is,
Ho =  − 1
  (2 x9.81)
2
0.97

(d )2 = 0.00124
4 H o = 0.174 m
d = 0.040 m = 40 mm
Problem 6. Oil of specific gravity 0.72 flows through a 75 mm-diameter
orifice with Cv = 0.95, Cc = 0.65. What must be the pressure of the oil so
that the jet will be capable of producing 8 H.P?

 Va 2 
aVa (0.72 x9810)
pA

o.s
2g 
8=  
h = 2.75 m
746
8(746 )(2 x9.81) = Cc Ao (0.72 x9810 )Va
3


8(746)(2 x9.81) = 0.65 x (0.075)2 (0.72 x9810)Va 3
4
m
Solution: Va = 17.939
s
QE
a. H .P. =
746 2
V
where: E = a The only energy possessed
2 g by the jet as it flows through
the orifice.
  p 
b. Va = CvVt = Cv 2 g  h + A 
  
 
 pA 
17.939 = 0.95 2 x9.81 2.75 + 
  

Squaring both sides,

Problem 7. A cylindrical tank 0.90 m in diameter and 3.0 m high contains
1.0 m of water, 1.20 m of oil (s = 0.80) and air 110.311 kPa, abs. Find the
theoretical velocity of the jet through a 50 mm-diameter orifice 0.30 m above
the bottom of the tank.

Solution:

Air therefore
0.80 m p = 110.311 kPa

1.20 m Oil Vt = 2(9.81)(2.573 )

s= 0.80

m
Vt = 7.105
1.00 m Water s
0.30 m

Vt = 2 gH
where: H = ( hw + ho + ha) in m. of water

 110.311 − 101.356 
H = 0.70 + 0.80(1.20) +  (1000) = 2.573 m
 9810 
Problem 8. In the figure is a submerged orifice. Find the theoretical velocity
at the orifice.

pA = 27.578 m
kPa Vt = 11.643
pB = 82.732 s
kPa, abs.

h1 = 3.70 m
h2 = 1.50 m

Solution:

 p A pB 
Vt = 2 g  h1 − h2 + − 
   
 27 .578 x10 3 (82 .732 − 101 .356 )10 3 
Vt = 2 x9.81 3.70 − 1.50 + − 
 9810 9810 
 #9. Oil ( s = 0.85 ) at 20 °C flows through the orifice in figure, which is monitored by a
mercury manometer. If d = 5 cm, Neglecting head lost (a) determine y when the flow rate is
30 m3/h, and (b) what is Q in m3/h when y = 85 cm?

Oil ( s = 0.85)
10 cm • 1 d •2

y
Mercury (s = 13.6)

(a) Determine y
Solution:
Energy equation between 1 and 2 (neglecting head loss)
2 2
V1 p V p
+ 1 + z1 = 2 + 2 + z2
2g  o 2g  o
2 2 2 2
V2 V1 p p V2 V1 p1 p2
− = 1− 2 or − = − Eq. 1
2g 2g  o  o 2 g 2 g 0.85 w 0.85 w
 Oil ( s = 0.85)
10 cm 1• d= 5 cm •
2

y Mercury (s = 13.6)
2
1 2
 V
1  p1 p2 
2
V2  4  2
− =  − 
Continuity equation between 1 and 2: 2g 2g 0.85   w  w 

1  p1 p2 
2 2
D  15V2
=
V1 =  2  V2  −  Equation 3
32 g 0.85   w  w 
 D1 
2 where: m3 1h
5 30 x
V1 =   V2 Q h 3600s = 4.244 m
 10  V2 = =

A2 (0.05m)2 s
1 then 4
V1 = V2 Equation 2
4
15(4.244)
2
Substitute equation 2 in equation 1: p1 p2
− = 0.85 x Equation 4
w w 32 g
1  p1 p2 
2 2
V2 V1
− =  − 
2 g 2 g 0.85   w  w 
 Oil ( s = 0.85)
10 cm 1• d= 5 cm •
2

y
Mercury (s = 13.6)

Apply addition and subtraction of pressure heads in meters of water

p1 p2
+ 0.85 y − 13.6 y =
w w
p1 p2
12.75 y = − Eq. 5
w w
Substitute equation 4 to the equation 5 , we obtain

1  15(4.244) 
2
y= 0.85 
12.75  32 x9.81 

y = 0.057 m
(Q) Determine Q when y = 85 cm.

From equation 5 in part (a) if y = 85 cm = 0.85 m

p1 p2
12.75 y = − Eq. 5
w w

12.75(0.85) =
p1 p2
−
w w
p1 p2
− = 10.8375m
w w
Substitute the value above in equation 3, we obtain can V2.

1  p1 p2  m
2
15V2
= V2 = 16.335
 − 
32 g 0.85   w  w  s
Then
2
15V2
=
1
10.8375m 
32 g 0.85 Q = A2V2 = (0.05m )2 16.335 m 
2 4  s
15V2
=
1
10.8375m m3
32 g 0.85 = 0.032
s
 Problem 10. In the figure shown, the orifice in the side of the closed tank is
50 mm square with C = 0.60, Cc = 0.62. An open mercury manometer
Indicates the pressure of the air. Compute the discharge when the upper
3 m of liquid is oil (s = 0.82) and the remainder is water.

Solution:

air a. Qa = CAo 2 gH

20 cm where: H = (hw + ho + ha) in m of water

Oil b. In the open manometer
s = 0.82 3m
pair
Hg (s = 13.6) 0 − 0.20(13.6) =

pair = −0.20(13 .6)(9810 )
water 3m
pair = −26683 Pa = −26 .683 kPa
therefore
− 26683
H = 3 + 3(0.82) +
9810
 − 26683
H = 3 + 3(0.82) +
9810
H = 2.74 m

So,

Qa = 0.60(0.050 x0.050 ) 2 x9.81x 2.74

m3
Qa = 0.011
s
Problem 11. In the figure, the cylinder weighs 80 kg and is empty at the time
the orifice is opened. Neglecting the thickness of the cylinder walls,
determine the value of W if the water enters inside the cylinder is 0.90 m
high from its bottom in 2 minutes.
80 kg
then
w.s V = Volume of water entered in the
h
0.60 m cylinder

V= (0.60)2 (0.90) = 0.081 m 3
4
Fb1 Orifice, and
Ao = 1290 mm2
24 kN/m3 C = 0.60
W Discharge x time = Volume of water

CAo 2 gh (2 min x60 s / min ) = 0.081

Solution: Fb2

a. The amount of water entered in the tank

in 2 minutes is equal to the amount of water
displaced by the tank as it sinks inside 0.90 m.
 CAo 2 gh (2 min x60 s / min ) = 0.081
 1m 2 
0.601290mm x
2

2 
2 gh (2 min x 60 s / min ) = ( 0.081  ) m 3

 (1000mm )  80 kg

2 gh = 2.740 w.s
0.60 m
2 h
2.740
h=
2g
Fb1
h = 0.383 m Orifice,
Ao = 1290 mm2
b. ΣFv = 0, 24 kN/m3
W
C = 0.60

 N
Fb1 + Fb2 − 80kg 9.81  − W = 0
 kg  Fb2

(0.60) (h)(9810) + Vw (9810) − 80kgx
2 9.81N
− Vw (24 x103 ) = 0
4 kg

(0.60) (h)(9810) + Vw (9810) − 80kgx
2 9.81N
− Vw (24 x103 ) = 0
4 kg

14190Vw = (0.60)2 (0.383)(9810) − 80(9.81)
4
Vw = 0.020 m 3
Therefore

W = Vw (24 x10 3 )
N
W = (0.020m )(24 x10 3 )
3 3

m
W = 480 N
PROBLEMS ON WEIRS

Problem 12. A sharp-edged weir 1.20 m high extends across a rectangular

channel 3.0 m wide. If the measured head is 0.40 m determine the discharge
using the Francis and Rehbock formulas. Compare with the discharge by
the approximate Francis formula.

Solution:
P = 1.20 m H = 0.40 m
L = 3.00 m d = P + H = 1.20 + 0.40 = 1.60 m
3

a. Francis : Q = Cw LH 2

 H  
2

where: C w = 1.84 1 + 0.26  

  d  
   
H
2 3
Q = 1.84 1 + 0.26   LH 2
  d  
  0.40  
2
m3
  (3.00 )(0.40 )2 = 1.419
3
Q = 1.84 1 + 0.26
  1.60   s
 3

b. Rehbock: Q = Cw LH 2

H
where: Cw = 1.8 + 0.22
P
 H
3
Q = 1.8 + 0.22  LH 2
 P

 0.40  m3
(3.0)(0.40)2 = 1.422
3
Q = 1.8 + 0.22 x
 1.20  s
3

c. Approx. Francis: Q = 1.84 LH 2

Q = 1.84(3.0)(0.40 )
3
2

m3
Q = 1.396
s
Problem 13. A rectangular channel 6.0 m wide has a depth of 0.90 m
flowing with a mean velocity of 0.747 m/s. Determine the height of standard
sharp-crested weir that will increase the depth of water in the channel to
1.524 m
Solution:
W.S W.S
H crest

VA L = 6.0 m
d = 1.524 m
P Weir plate

Channel bed
Q 4.034
a. Without the weir, b. V A = =
A 1.524 x6.0
Q = AV = (0.90 x6.0 )(0.747 ) m
VA = 0.441 (velocity of approach)
m3 s
Q = 4.034
s
c. Using the Francis Formula,
 3
2 2
3

  VA   VA  
2 2

Q = 1.84 L  H +  − 

 2 g   2 g  
 
2
VA (0.441) 2
where: L = 6.0 m = = 9.912 x10 −3 m
2g 2 x9.81

 
( ) − (9.912x10 )
3 3
4.034 = 1.84(6.0) H + 9.912 x10−3 2 −3 2

 
0.375 = (H + 9.912 x10 )
3
−3 2

H = 0.510 m

Therefore, P = d − H = 1.524 − 0.510

P = 1.014 m
 2
VA
NOTE: If is neglected
2g
3
Q = 1.84 LH 2

3
4.034 = 1.84(6.0)H 2

H = 0.511m

and P = 1.524 m − 0.511m

P = 1.013 m
Problem 14. A sharp-crested weir 0.90 m high extends across a rectangular
channel 6.0 m wide, in which there is 2.834 m3/s flowing. Determine the
depth of water upstream from the weir.

Solution:
Check:
2
VA
a. Assume 0 Q
2g 3 VA =
A
b. Use the Francis Formula, Q = 1.84 LH 2
2.834
3 VA =
2.834 = 1.84(6.0)H 2 1.304(6.0)
m
H = 0.404 m VA = 0.362
s
Therefore, d = P + H = 0.90 + 0.404 VA
2
( 0.362 ) 2

d = 1.304 m = = 0.0067
2g 2 x9.81
(assumption is justified)
Problem 15. A contracted rectangular sharp-crested weir 1.80 m long
discharges water under a head of 0.50 m. Compute the discharge using
the Francis correction.

Solution:
3
Q = 1.84 L' H 2

where: L ' = L − 0 .2 H
L' = 1.80 m − 0.2(0.50 m)
L' = 1.70 m

Q = 1.84 (1.70 )(0.50 )

3
2

m3
Q = 1.106
s
Problem 16. In a river 18.0 m wide, having an average depth of 1.04 m and
a mean velocity of 0.35 m/s, a contracted weir (rectangular) 12.0 m long is
to be constructed. Determine the head over the weir.

Solution:
12.0 m
W.S
H

P
orig. W.S
1.04 m

18.0 m
a. Without the weir,
Q = AV = (18 .0 x1.04 )0.35 = 6.552
m
s
b. Velocity of approach with the weir,
2
Q = 6.552 V
VA = Assume A  0 ( P is not given)
A d (18.0) 2g
c. Use the Francis formula and correction

3
Try H = 0.45 m
Q = 1.84 L' H 2
5 3

3
(0.45) − 60(0.45) + 17.804  0
2 2

6.552 = 1.84(12 − 0.2 H )H 2

3 5
− 0.172  0
6.552 = 22.08H − 0.368H
2 2
Try H = 0.447 m
5 3 5 3
H − 60 H + 17.804 = 0
2 2
(0.447) − 60(0.447) + 17.804  0
2 2

To find H use TRIAL and ERROR

0.006  0 O.K.
Try H = 0.50 m
5 3 So, H = 0.447 m
(0.50) − 60(0.50) + 17.804  0
2 2

− 3.232  0
Problem 17. A contracted weir 3 m long is built in the center of a rectangular
channel 6 m wide. How high is the weir if the depth of water upstream is
1.067 m when the discharge is 1.134 m3/s?

Solution:
Q 1.134 m
a. V A = = = 0.177
A 1.067(6) s
2
VA 0.177 2
= = 1.597 x10 −3 m (negligible)
2 g 2 x9.81

b. Use the Francis formula and correction

3
Q = 1.84 L' H 2

3
1.134 = 1.84(3 − 0.2 H ) H 2
 3
1.134 = 1.84(3 − 0.2 H ) H 2
Therefore:

3 5
P=d −H
1.134 = 5.52 H − 0.368H
2 2
P = 1.067 − 0.354
5 3
P = 0.713 m
H − 15H + 3.082 = 0
2 2

H determined by trial and error

Try H = 0.35
5 3 ?
(0.35) − 15(0.35) + 3.082 = 0
2 2

0.0485  0
Try H = 0.354
5 3 ?
(0.354) − 15(0.354) + 3.082 = 0
2 2

− 2.778 x10 −3  0 O.K

Problem 18. A trapezoidal canal, 6 m wide at the bottom and having side
slope 2 horizontal to 1 vertical carries water to a depth of 0.366 m and a
mean velocity of 0.610 m/s. What length of contracted weir (rectangular)
0.838 m high should be placed in the middle of the canal if the depth of
water upstream is to be 1.22 m?

Solution:
L

d =1.22 m 1
2 0.366 m P = 0.838 m

z z
6.0 m

a. Discharge without the weir,

Q = AV =
1
(6 + 6 + 2 z )(0.366)(0.610)
2
z = 2(.366 m) = 0.732
m3
Q = (12 + 2 x0.732)(0.366)(0.610) = 1.503
1
2 s
b. Velocity of approach with the weir,
Q
VA =
A
1.503 m
VA = = 0.146
1
6 + 6 + 2(2 x1.22 )(1.22 ) s
2
and
2
VA 0.1462
= = 1.086 x10 −3 m (negligible)
2 g 2 x9.81
c. Use the Francis formula and correction,
3 But L’ = L – 0.2H
Q = 1.84 L' H 2
( H = d − P)
or L = L’ + 0.2H

1.503 = 1.84 L' (1.22 − 0.838 )

3
2 L = 3.460 m + 0.2(0.382 m)
L' = 3.460 m L = 3.536 m
Problem 19. Determine the theoretical discharge of water over a 60˚
triangular weir if the measured head is 0.190 m.

Solution:

The theoretical discharge for V-Notch weir assuming the velocity of

approach is zero is,

8  5
Qt = 2 g tan H 2
15 2
5
8
Qt = 2 x9.81(tan 30)(0.190) 2
15
m3
Qt = 0.021
s
NOTE: The actual discharge is determine by applying correction factor
(discharge coefficient).
8  5
Qa = C ' 2 g tan H 2
15 2
Problem 20. The discharge of water over a 45˚ triangular weir is 0.021 m3/s.
What is the head?

Solution:

Assume a correction factor C’ = 0.60

8  5
Qa = C ' 2 g tan H 2
15 2
45 2
5
8
0.021 = 0.60 x 2 x9.81(tan )H
15 2
H = 0.264 m
Problem 21. What length of Cipolletti weir should be constructed if the
measured head will not exceed 0.457 m when the discharge is 3.40 m3/s?

Solution:
3
Qa = 1.859 LH 2

3
3.40 = 1.859 L(0.457) 2

L = 5.920 m
Problem 22. The flow in a rectangular channel varies from 0.227 to 0.850
m3/s and it is desired to regulate the depth by installing 90˚ V-notch weirs at
the end. How many such weirs are needed to limit the variation in depth
to 0.06 m? Find the maximum head?

Solution:

Hmin

where: Hmax = Hmin + 0.06 m

For 90˚ standard triangular weir the discharge is expressed by Q = 1.4 H 2.5

a. For minimum flow,

Qmin = (1.4 H min )n
2. 5
then
0.227 = (1.4 H min )n
2.5
(1)
where: n = no. of weirs
 2
b. For maximum flow,  0.850  H min + 0.06
5   =
Qmax = (1.4 H max )n
2.5
 0.227  H min

0.850 = (1.4 H max )n

2.5
H min + 0.06
1.695732 =
0.850 = (1.4)( H min + 0.06 ) 2.5 n (2) H min

c. Divide (2) by (1) H min = 0.086 m

0.850 ( H min + 0.06) 2.5 therefore

=
0.227 H min
2.5
H max = 0.086 m + 0.06 m

H max = 0.146 m
0.850  (H min + 0.06)
2.5

=  Substitute Hmin to (1)

0.227  H min 
0.227 = (1.4 H min )n
2.5

n = 75 weirs
Problem 23. An overflow masonry dam is to be constructed across a stream.
the stream is estimated to have a maximum flood discharge of 850 m3/s
when the elevation of water surface at the dam site is 345.122 m. Six sluice
gates each 2.4 m high and 1.80 m wide (C = 0.85) are to be constructed in
the dam with their sills at elevation 342.226 m. The main overflow weir for
which C = 1.45 will be 61 m long with a crest elevation at 360.976 m. An
auxilliary weir 183 m long with a crest elevation at 361.372 m will operate
during floods. For this weir, C = 1.87. With all the sluice gates open, what will
be the W.S elevation when the discharge is 850 m3/s?
W.S. in reservoir
ELEV. H – 0.396 H ELEV.
361.372 m Auxilliary Weir (AW)
Main Weir (MW) 360.976 m

ELEV. W.S. of stream

345.122 m 2.4 m x 1.80 m submerged gates
ELEV.
342.226 m
 W.S. in reservoir
ELEV. H – 0.396 H ELEV.
361.372 m Auxilliary Weir (AW)
Main Weir (MW) 360.976 m

ELEV. W.S. of stream

345.122 m 2.4 m x 1.80 m submerged gates
ELEV.
342.226 m

Q = QMW + QAW + 6QG

3 3
850 = 1.45LM H + 1.87 LA ( H − 0.396) + 6CA 2 g ( H + 17.55)
2 2

3 3
850 = 1.45(61) H + 1.87(183)( H − 0.396) + 6(0.85)(2.4 x1.80) 2(9.81)( H + 17.55)
2 2

3 3 1
850 = 88.45H + 342.21( H − 0.396) + 97.59( H + 17.55)
2 2 2
 3 3 1
850 = 88.45H + 342.21( H − 0.396) + 97.59( H + 17.55)
2 2 2

Use trial and error method to find H

1. Try H = 1.2 m
3 3 1
?
850 = 88.45(1.2) + 342.21(1.2 − 0.396) + 97.59(1.2 + 17.55)
2 2 2

850  785 .552

2. Try H = 1.3 m
3 3 1
?
850 = 88.45(1.3) + 342.21(1.3 − 0.396) + 97.59(1.3 + 17.55)
2 2 2

850  848 .939

Using H = 1.302 m gives 850 ≈ 850.24 (O.K)

Therefore, The W.S elev. Is at 360.976 + 1.302 = 362.278 m

 PROBLEMS ON UNSTEADY FLOW: ORIFICE AND WEIRS
Problem 24. A cylindrical vessel 1.20 m in diameter and 1.80 m high, has
a rounded circular orifice 50 mm in diameter at the bottom with C = 0.95.
If the vessel is filled with water, how long it will take to lower the water 1.50 m ?
−1

1.80
(1.2) 2 (h) dh 2

t=
Solution: 4
1.20 m
w.s. 0.30 
0.95 (0.050) 2 2 g
4
1.50 m dh 1.80 −1
h1 =1.80 m t = 136.883  h dh 2

h 0.30
1.80
 1
h2 
h2 = 0.30 m

 t = 136.883 
(1.2) 2 dh 1
dVh1  
t=
1.80

h2 Q
= 0.30 CAo 2 gh
4  2  0.30
 1.80
 1
h2 
t = 136.883 
1
 
 2  0.30

 
 1.8 − 0.30 
t = 136.883 
1
 
 2 
t = 217 .348 s
Problem 25. A tank is in the shape of a frustum of a cone having its bases horizontal
and axis vertical, is 3.0 m high and filled with water. It has a diameter of 2.40 m at
the top and 0.80 m at the bottom. What is the time required to empty the tank
through a sharp-edged orifice 75 mm square with C = 0.60?

Solution:
z z + 3.0
2.40 m
1. = z = 1.50 m
0.80 2.4

D 0.80
D 2. =
dh z+h z
h1 = 3.0 m
D 0.80
=
 h 1.5 + h 1.5
dV = D 2 dh
4
h2 = 0 D=
0.80
(1.5 + h)
1.5
0.80 m
z (
D 2 = 0.284 2.25 + 3.0h + h 2 )
D 2 = 0.639 + 0.852 h + 0.284 h 2
 h1
dV t = 358 .416 s = 5.974 min .
3. t = 
h2 CAo 2 gh


3. 0 (0.639 + 0.852h + 0.284h ) 2

t= 0
4
0.61(0.075)
2
2 x9.81h
dh

−1
( )
3.0
t = 51.676  0.639 + 0.852h + 0.284h 2 h dh 2

 3. 0 −1 1 3
2
t = 51 .676   0.639 h 2 + 0.852 h 2 + 0.284 h dh
 
0  3.0
 0.639h1 2 0.852h3 2 0.284h5 2 
t = 51.676 + + 
 1 2 3 2 5 2 0


t = 51 .676 1.278 (3)1 2 + 0.568 (3) 3 2 + 0.1136 (3) 5 2 
 Problem 26. A hemispherical shell, with base horizontal and uppermost,
is filled with water. If the radius is 2.40 m, determine the time required to
empty through a sharp-edged orifice 150 mm diameter with C = 0.60
located at lowest point.
h1
dV
Solution: t=
Y h2 CAo 2 gh
2.40
x 2 dy
t= 
L.S. C(0, 2.4)

dy x x
0 0.60 (0.15) 2 2 gy
4
dV = x 2 dy
h1=2.4 m
2.4
h =y
t = 66.892  x 2 y −1 2 dy
X
h2= 0 0
2.4
x + ( y − 2.40 ) = 2.40 t = 66.892  (4.80 y − y 2 ) y −1 2 dy
2 2 2

0
x + y − 4.80 y + 2.40 = 2.40
2 2 2 2
2.4

x = 4.80 y − y
2 2 t = 66.892  (4.80 y1 2 − y 3 2 )dy
0
 2.4
t = 66.892  (4.80 y1 2 − y 3 2 )dy
0

2.4
 4.80 y 32
y 
52
t = 66.892 − 
 32 5 2 0


t = 66 .892 3.2(2.4) 3 2 − 0.4(2.4) 5 2 
t = 557 .108 s = 9.285 min
Problem 27. A reservoir has an outlet through a rectangular suppressed
weir with a crest length of 2 m. If its horizontal area is constant of 2000 m2,
how long will it take to lower the reservoir level from elevation 195 m to
elevation 194.80 m. If the crest is at elevation 194.50? Use the Francis
formula.

Elev. 195 m t1=0

Elev. 194.8 0 m dH t= ?
H H1=0.50 m
H2=0.30 m
Elev. 194.50 m crest

2.0 m

Canal leading from

the reservoir
 Elev. 195 m t1=0

Elev. 194.8 0 m dH t= ?
H H1=0.50 m
H2=0.30 m
Elev. 194.50 m crest

2.0 m

Canal leading from

the reservoir
Solution:
The discharge through the weir at head H is Qw = 1.84 LH 3 2

The time required to lower the reservoir level H1 to H2 is

H1
AdH
t=  32
H2
1.84 LH
With L = 2 m and A = 2000 m2, then
0.50
2000  H −1 2 
0.50 0.50
2000 dH 2000
 
−3 2
t= = H dH =   = 447 .31s
1.84(2) 0.30 H 32
1.84(2 ) 0.30 1.84(2)  − 1 2  0.30
Exercise:
1. A reservoir having a constant horizontal sectional area of 1860 m2
discharges water over a Cipolleti weir, the initial head being 40 cm.
How long is the crest if 1800 seconds are required to lower the water
level in the reservoir by 35 cm?
2. A 90° V – notch weir is located at one end of a tank having a square
cross section 10 m by 10 m. If the initial head on the weir is 1.20 m,
how long will it take to discharge 100 m3 of water over the weir?
3. A cylindrical tank 1 m in diameter and 3 m high contains 1 m of water,
1.20 m of oil (s = 0.80) and air under a pressure of 16 KPa. Find the
theoretical velocity of the jet through a 5 cm diameter orifice 30 cm
above the bottom of the tank.
4. What will be the discharge through a 2.5 cm orifice (C = 0.61) in the
bottom of a tank moving upward with an acceleration of 3 m/s2 if
water stands 2.50 m over the orifice?
5. The horizontal orifice in the figure below has a diameter of 10 cm with
Cc = 0.60, Cv = 0.97. When h = 2.50 m., what pressure, applied on the
surface, will cause the jet to rise 20 cm higher than the free surface?
2
•

lost head, Ho
h
y

• Datum
1
6. A swimming pool with plan and section shown in figure is filled with
water. It has two short tubes both with diameter 20 cm and C = 0.80 located
at the lowest point. Find the time needed to empty the pool through these
tubes.

Plan 15 m

30 m

1.2 m section
3m

2 tubes
7. A trapezoidal canal, 6 m at the bottom and having side slopes 2
horizontal : 1 vertical carries water to a depth of 40 cm and mean
velocity of 0.60 m/s. What length of a rectangular contracted weir 85
cm high should be placed in the middle of the canal if the depth of
water upstream is to be 1.20 m?
8. What length of Cipolleti weir should be constructed if the measured
head will not exceed 50 cm when the discharge is 3.40 m3/s?
9. A concrete spillway with permanent crest elevation at 100 m controls a
reservoir 4.65 hectares in area. Determine the length of the spillway if,
by removing flashboards, water can be lowered from El. 102 m to El.
101 m in 30 minutes. Use C = 1.94
Homework 1:

1. Oil of specific gravity of 0.72 flows through a 7.5 cm diameter orifice with
Cv = 0.95, Cc = 0.65. What must be the pressure of the air on the oil surface in
kPa so that the jet’s available power is 6 kW?

Air

h = 3.00 m

Oil ( s =0.72)
 2. The horizontal orifice shown in figure has a diameter of 10 cm with Cc = 0.60,
Cv = 0.97. When h = 2.50 m, what pressure in kPa, applied on the liquid surface,
will cause the jet to rise 20 cm higher than the free surface assuming energy lost
is caused only in orifice.

P
20 cm

Submit your solution in your CEP 324 class notebook under section “
Assignment-Homework” PDF file with file name “ Homework 1” within 1 hr and
15 minutes with complete drawing properly labeled and solution.