General Physics 2 Page 1 of 13

The Hall Effect

4.1 THE HALL EFFECT

The magnetic field also affects charges moving in a conductor. One result is the Hall Effect, which
has important implications and applications. The following figure shows what happens to charges moving
through a conductor in a magnetic field. The field is perpendicular to the electron drift velocity and to the
width of the conductor.

The Hall Effect (a) Electrons move to the left in this flat conductor (conventional current to the right).
The magnetic field a directly out of the page, represented by circled dots; it exerts a force on the moving
charges, causing a voltage 𝜀 the Hall emf, across the conductor (b) Positive charges moving to the right
(conventional current also to the right) are moved to the side, producing a Hall emf of the opposite sign −𝜀.
Thus, if the direction of the field and current are known, the sign of the charge carriers can be determined
from the Hall effect.
Note that conventional current is to the right in both parts of the figure. In part (a), electrons carry the
current and move to the left. In part (b), positive charges carry the current and move to the right. Moving
electrons feel a magnetic force toward one side of the conductor, leaving a net positive charge on the other
side. This separation of charge creates a voltage 𝜀, known as the Hall emf, across the conductor.
The creation of a voltage across a current-carrying conductor by a magnetic field is known as the
Hall Effect, after Edwin Hall, the American physicist who discovered it in 1879. One very important use of the
Hall Effect is to determine whether positive or negative charges carries the current. Now that in the figure
above, where positive charges carry the current, the Hall emf has the sign opposite to when negative charges
carry the current.
Historically, the Hall Effect was used to show that electrons carry current in metals and that positive
charges carry current in some semiconductors. Today, the Hall Effect is used as a research tool to probe the
movement of charges, their drift velocities and densities, and so on, in materials.
 General Physics 2 Page 2 of 13
The Hall Effect
The Hall Effect has other uses that range from the determination of blood flow rate to precision
measurement of magnetic field strength. To examine these quantitatively, we need an expression for the Hall
emf (𝜀) across a conductor. Consider the balance of forces on a moving charge in a situation where 𝐵, 𝑣,
and 𝑙 are mutually prependicular, such as shown in the following figure. Solving the magnitude of Hall emf
yields 𝜀 = 𝐵𝑙𝑣 −where the magnetic field strength 𝐵, the speed 𝑣 through which the charges move, and
the width of the conductor 𝑙 are mutually perpendicular.
The figure below shows the Hall emf 𝜀. It produces an electric force that balances the magnetic force
on the moving charges. The magnetic force produces charge separation, which builds up until it is balanced
by the electric force, an equilibrium that is quickly reached.

A common use of the Hall Effect is in the measurement of magnetic field strength B through devices
called Hall probes. Another application is to measure fluid flow in any fluid (see the following figure).

The Hall Effect can be used to measure fluid flow in any fluid having free charges, such as blood.
The Hall emf 𝜀 is measured across the tube perpendicular to the applied magnetic field and is proportional
to the average velocity v.
6= BCV
 General Physics 2 Page 3 of 13
The Hall Effect
4.2 MAGNETIC FORCE ON A CURRENT-CARRYING CONDUCTOR

Because charges ordinarily cannot escape a conductor, the magnetic force on charges moving in a
conductor is transmitted to the conductor itself.
We can derive an expression for the magnetic force on a current by taking a sum of the magnetic
forces on individual charges. The magnetic force F on current-carrying conductors is given by 𝐹 =
𝐼𝑙𝐵 sin 𝜃 where 𝐼 is the current, 𝑙 is the length of a straight conductor in a uniform magnetic field B, and 𝜃
is the angle between 𝐼 and 𝐵. The force follows RHR-1 with the thumb in the direction of 𝐼, as in the following
figure.

The magnet force 𝐹. Its direction is given by RHR-1 with its magnitude equal to 𝐹 = 𝐼𝑙𝐵 sin 𝜃.

Example 1. Calculating Magnetic Force on a Current-Carrying Wire

Calculate the force on the wire shown in the following figure, given 𝐵 = 1.50𝑇, 𝑙 = 5.00𝑐𝑚, and 𝐼 =
20.0𝐴.

The magnetic field exerts a force on a current-carrying wire in a direction given by the right hand rule
1 (the same direction as that on the individual moving charges). This force can easily be large enough to
move the wire since typical currents consist of very large numbers of moving charges.

Strategy: The force can be found with the given information by using 𝐹 = 𝐼𝑙𝐵 sin 𝜃 and noting, that the
angle 𝜃 between 𝐼 and 𝐵 is 900 , so that sin 𝜃 = 1.
 General Physics 2 Page 4 of 13
The Hall Effect
Solution: Entering the given values into 𝐹 = 𝐼𝑙𝐵 sin 𝜃 yields 𝐹 = (20𝐴)(0.05𝑚)(1.5𝑇)(1) . The units
𝑁
for tesla are 1𝑇 = 𝐴.𝑚 , thus 𝐹 = 1.50𝑁.

Discussion: This large magnetic field creates a significant force on a small length of wire.

4.3 MAGNETIC FIELDS PRODUCED BY CURRENTS: AMPERE'S LAW

Right Hand Rule 2

Magnetic fields have both direction and magnitude. As noted before, one way to explore the direction
of a magnetic field is with compasses, as shown for a long straight current-carrying wire in the following figure

The figure above shows (a) Compasses placed near a long straight current-carrying wire indicate
that field lines from circular loops centered on the wire. (b) Right hand rule 2 states that if the right hand
thumb points in the direction of the current, the fingers curl in the direction of the field. This rule is consistent
with the field mapped for the long straight wire and is valid for any current segment.
The field around a long straight wire is found to be in circular loops. The right hand rule 2 (RHR-2)
emerges from this exploration and is valid for any current segment-point the thumb in the direction of the
current and the fingers curl in the direction of the magnetic field loops created by it.
The magnetic field strength (magnitude) produced by a long straight current-carrying wire is found
𝜇 𝑙
by experiment to be 𝐵 = 2𝜋𝑟
0
(long straight wire), where 𝐼 is the current, r is the shortest distance to the
wire, and the constant 𝜇0 = 4𝜋 x 10−7 𝑇. m/𝐴 is the permeability of free space, 𝜇0 is one of the basic
constants in nature. Since the wire is very long, the magnitude of the field depends only on distance from the
wire r, not on position along the wire.

Ampere's Law and Others

The magnetic field of a long straight wire has many implications. Each segment of current produces
a magnetic field like that of a long straight wire, and the total field of any shaper current is the vector sum of
the fields due to each segment. Integral calculus is needed to sum the field for an arbitrary shape current.
This results in the Ampere's Law, which relates magnetic field and current in a general way. The Ampere's
law is a part of Maxwell's Equations, which give a complete theory of all electromagnetic phenomena. The
 General Physics 2 Page 5 of 13
The Hall Effect
Maxwell's Equations led to the modern theory of relativity and the realization that electric and magnetic fields
are different manifestations of the same thing.

Magnetic Field: Current-Carrying Circular Loop

The magnetic field near a current carrying loop of wire is shown in the following figure. Both the
direction and the magnitude of the magnetic field produced by a current-carrying loop are complex. RHR-2
can be used to give the direction of the field near the loop, but mapping with compasses and the rules about
field lines are needed for more detail.

The figure above shows (a) RHR-2 gives the direction of the magnetic field inside and outside a
current-carrying loop. (b) More detailed mapping with compasses or with a Hall probe completes the picture
The field is similar to that of a bar magnet.
𝜇0 𝑙
The formula for the magnetic field strength at the center of a circular loop is 𝐵 = (at center of
2𝑅
loop), where R is the radius of the loop. This equation is very similar to that for a straight wire, but it is valid
only at the center of a circular loop of wire. The similarity of the equations does indicate that similar field
strength can be obtained at the center of a loop. To get a larger field is to have (N) loops; then, the field is
𝑁𝜇0 𝑙
= . Note that the larger the loop, the smaller the field at its center, because the current is farther away.
(2𝑅)

Magnetic Field: Current-Carrying Solenoid

A solenoid is a long coil of wire with many turns or loops, as opposed to a flat loop. Because of its
shape, the field inside a solenoid can be very uniform and also very strong. The field just outside the coils is
nearly zero. The following figure shows how the field looks and how its direction is given by RHR-2.
 General Physics 2 Page 6 of 13
The Hall Effect

The figure above shows figure (a) Because of its shape, the field inside a solenoid of length 𝑙 is
remarkably uniform in magnitude and direction as indicated by the straight and uniformly spaced field lines.
The field outside the coils is nearly zero, (b) This cutaway shows the magnetic field generated by the current
in the solenoid.

The magnetic field inside of a current-carrying solenoid is very uniform in direction and magnitude.
Only near the ends does it begin to weaken and change direction. The field outside has similar complexities
to flat loops and bar magnets. The magnetic field strength inside a solenoid is 𝐵 = 𝑢0 𝑛𝑙 (inside a solenoid),
𝑁
whene n is the number of loops per unit length of the solenoid (𝑛 = , with N being the number or loops
𝐼
and 𝑙 the length). Note that B is the field strength anywhere in the uniform region of the interior and not just
at the center. Large uniform fields spread over a large volume are possible with solenoids as the following
example 2 implies.

Example 2. Calculating the Field Strength inside a Solenoid

What is the field inside a 2.00-m-long solenoid that has 2000 loops and carries a 1600 A current?

Strategy: To find the field strength inside a solenoid, we use 𝐵 = 𝑢0 𝑛𝑙. First, we note the number of loops
per unit length is
𝑁 2000
𝑛= =
𝐼 2m
𝑛 = 1000m−1 = 10cm−1

Solution: Substituting known values gives

m
𝐵 = 𝑢0 𝑛𝑙 = (4𝜋 x 10−7 𝑇. 𝐴 ) (1000m−1 )(1600𝐴)
𝐵 = 2.01 𝑇

Discussion: This is a large field strength that could be established over a large-diameter solenoid, such as in
medical uses of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). The very large current is an indication that the fields of
this strength are not easily achieved, however. Such a large current through 1000 Loops squeezed into a
 General Physics 2 Page 7 of 13
The Hall Effect
meter's length would produce significant heating, Higher currents can be achieved by using superconducting
wires, although this is expensive. There is an upper limit to the current since the superconducting site is
disrupted by very large magnetic fields.