REED’S PRACTICAL MATHEMATICS SERIES 01421-0692 VOLUME 2 APPLIED MECHANICS for ENGINEERSSUIINISNA 19} SOINVHIAIN GallddV THOMAS REEDAPPLIED MECHANICS for ENGINEERS by W. EMBLETON, 0.B.E., [Link]., [Link].E., [Link].E. Extra First Class Engineers’ Certificate The syllabuses of Applied Mechanics for the Ordinary National Certificate, Ordinary National Diploma, and the Marine Engineers’ Certificates of Competency, are all fairly closeiy related and, although this volume is principally based on the Department of Trade’s syllabuses for Second and First Class Engineers, it should prove of undoubted value to all engineers studying Applied Mechanics. Each section commences at an elementary stage to provide ample and valuable revision, and progresses care- fully to the standards required for the O.N.C., O.N.D., 2nd Class, and 1st Class examinations. The numerous worked examples and diagrammatic illustrations in the text shouid greatly assist in the under- standing of the all-important first principles and funda- mental units involved. Test questions are set at the end of each chapter with fuilly worked solutions later in the book. These and the final set of miscellaneous problems with full solutions are included to enable the keen engineer to do that little extra self-study im his spare time so necessary to ensure the success he deserves.REED’S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS REED’S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS By WILLIAM EMBLETON oBe. EXTRA FIRST CLASS ENGINEERS CERTIFICATE [Link]., [Link].E., [Link].E, PUBLISHED BY THOMAS REED PUBLICATIONS LIMITED SUNDERLAND AND LONDONFirst Edition - 1962 Reprint - 1966 Second Edition - 1970 (in Siunits) Reprint - 1972 Third Edition - 1975 Reprint - 1979 ISBN O 900335 54 8 © Thomas Reed Publications Limited PRINTED BY THOMAS REED AND COMPANY LIMITED. SUNDERLAND, GLASGOW AND LONDON PREFACE The purpose of this book is to cover the Syllabuses on Applied Mechanics in the Examinations for Second and First Class Marine Engineers. In each Section the work progresses from an elementary stage to the standard required by the First Class Examination, Parts of the subject matter and the attendant Test Examples, are marked with the prefix “f” to indicate that they are normally considered to be beyond the syllabus for the Second Class Examination and so can be temporarily disregarded by candidates for it. Throughout the book, emphasis is placed on basic principles, and the profusely illustrated text assists the student to assimilate these principles more easily. From their study of Volume I of this series, Mathematics for Engineers, most students will have acquired a sufficient know- ledge of the pure mathematics needed for the solution of the problems in this volume. However as constant revision is essential, fully worked solutions are given to all the problems and in cases where the author has found that students experience particular difficulty, various mathematical steps are given detailed explanation. The engineer who is prepared to spend some of his spare time studying this book and working systematically through it, will be amply repaid when he finds that his final preparation time at a college will be very much reduced and that his chance of success in his Examination very much increased. W. Embleton South ShieldsCHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER, CHAPTER CHAPTER, CONTENTS 1—vVECTORS AND VECTOR DIAGRAMS. Resultant and equilibrant. Triangle and polygon of forces. Concurrent and parallel forces. Bow’s notation. Com- ponents of a force, Slings, jib cranes, re- ciprocating engine mechanism. Framed structures. Non-coplanar forces. wee 2—VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION. Speed. Linear velocity and acceleration. Velocity-time graphs. Angular velocity and acceleration. Projectiles. Relative velocity. Instantaneous centre. 3—MASS, ACCELERATING. FORCE, TORQUE, MOMENTUM Mass, force of gravity, weight, inertia. Accelerating force. Atwoods machine. Fletcher’s trolley. Momentum. Turning moment. a oe - 4—workK, POWER AND ENERGY. Work, graphical representation. Power. Transmission of power by belt and gears. Energy, potential and kinetic. .... S—CENTRIPETAL ACCELERATION. Centripetal and centrifugal force. Side- skidding and overturning .of vehicles. Balancing. Conical pendulum, gover- nors. Stress in flywheel rims. Simple harmonic motion. Simple pendulum. Vibrations of a spring. .... woe “ 6—SLIDING FRICTION. Coefficient of friction. Inclined planes. Parallel forces to pull up and down. Horizontal and least forces. Efficiency of square thread. o PAGE 31—61 62—16 71—100 101—133 134—153CHAPTER ‘CHAPTER: ‘CHAPTER CHAPTER (CHAPTER ‘7—MOMENTS. First moments and applications. Couple. Centre of gravity. Second moments. Theorem of parallel axis. .... 8—LIFTING MACHINES. Velocity ratio, mechanical advantage, efficiency. Rope pulley blocks, wheel and axle, differential pulley blocks, worm and worm wheel, screw jack, warwick screw, crab winches, hydraulic jack, Experimental results, linear law. 9—STRESS AND STRAIN. Ultimate tensile strength, working stress, factor of safety. Strain. Modulus of elasticity. Tensile test. Compound bars. Restricted expansion. Resilience. Suddenly applied and shock loads. Stresses on oblique planes, 10—PRESSURE VESSELS AND RIVETED JOINTS. Circumferential and longitudinal stres- ses in thin cylinders. Working pressure. Various types of riveted j ints, ni rivet and plate strengths. .... os - 11—BENDING OF BEAMS, Conditions of equilibrium. Simply sup- ported beams and cantilevers. Concen- trated and distributed loading. Shearing force and bending moment diagrams..... 12--STRESSES IN BEAMS. Neutral axis. Fundamental bending equation. Modulus of section. Deflec- tion. Combined bending and direct stress. sees PAGE 154—180 181—208 209—241 242—258 259—279 280—298 CHAPTER 13-—TORSION. Fundamental torsion equation. Rela- tionships between torque, stress and power. Torsional resilience. Maximum and mean torque. Coupling bolts. Reciprocating engine mechanism. De- flection of closely coiled helical spring. Hydraulic steering gear. CHAPTER 14—HYDRAULICS. Density, specific gravity. Volumetric expansion. Apparent loss of weight, floating bodies. Pressure head, pres- sures on immersed surfaces, centre of pressure. Flow through pipes and ori- fices. Bernouilli’s equation, venturi meter. Friction in pipes. Impact of water jet. Centrifugal pump. SOLUTIONS TO TEST EXAMPLES .... SECOND CLASS MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS SOLUTIONS TO SECOND CLASS PROBLEMS FIRST CLASS MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS... SOLUTIONS TO FIRST CLASS PROBLEMS .... ‘PAGE 299—322 323—356 357—500 501—SI5 516—5S74 575—590 591—660INTRODUCTION TO SI UNITS SI is the abbreviation for Systéme International d’Unités, the metric system of measurement now in international use and adopted by British industry. itis a system in which the product or quotient of any two unit quantities produces the unit of the resultant quantity, that is, it isa coherent system and built upon the six basic units, the metre (length), kilogramme (mass), second (time), kelvin (temperature), ampere (electrical current), and the candela (luminous intensity). Thus, to give a few examples, unit length (1 metre) multiplied by unit length (1 metre) gives unit area (1 square metre). Unit length or distance (1 metre) divided by unit time (1 second) produces unit velocity (1 metre per second). When unit mass (1 kilogramme) is multiplied by unit acceleration.(1 metre per second?) the result is unit force (1 newton). If unit force (1 newton) acts through unit distance (1 metre), unit work (1 joule) is done. A list applicable to the subject of Mechanics within the scope of this book, consisting of the basic units, and derived units related by definition to the basic, is given on the next page but one. Note that the symbols representing units are in lower case letters except those named after famous persons when capital letters are used. The symbol is always in the singular and no full stops are used as in other abbreviated words. MULTIPLES AND SUB-MULTIPLES. In order to keep the number of names of units to a minimum, multiples and sub- multiples of the fundamental units, in chosen powers of ten, represented in each case by a prefix, is combined with the symbol of the unit. STANDARD MULTIPLICATION FACTOR FORM PREFIX SYMBOL, 1.000 000 000 000 1912 tera T 1.000 000 000 10° giga G 1.000.000 106 mega M 1000 10 kilo k 100 10? hecto h 10 10! deca da oO 10" deci d 0-01 102 centi c 0-001 103 milli m 0-000 001 1oe micro u 0-000 000 001 109 nano n 0-000 000 000 001 107 pico P No more than one prefix is used with each symbol. When a prefix is attached to a unit, it becomes a new unit symbol on its own account and this can be raised to positive or negative powers of ten.Multiples of 103 are recommended but others are recognised because of convenient sizes and established usage and custom. For instance, although the cross-section dimensions of ships’ frames and beams are measured in millimetres, their second moments of areas are more conveniently expressed in centimetre* units. High pressures are commonly expressed in bars, one bar being equal to 105 N/m2, and low pressures in millibars [102 N/m2]. Some industries have already adopted the hectobar [107 N/m2]as the unit of stress in metals. In such cases as these, where the basic unit consists of a numerator and denominator (load area), any modification to the basic unit of N/m? should be made to the numerator. Imetre = 10’ millimetres Im? = (10?mmy = 106mm? For example, In square measure A force of one newton on one square millimetre is the same intensity as 106 N on 10 mm2, which is 10°N/m? or | MN/m?, Hence MN/m? = N/mm?, and GN/m? = kN/mmz2, of these alternatives, the former is usually preferred. COMPARATIVE VALUES. During the period of change-over, and until engineers begin to think in terms of SI, it may sometimes be useful to compare the magnitudes of the units with the corres- ponding imperial units, therefore a selection of imperial units in terms of SI is given below. LENGTH FORCE lin 25-4mm I Ibf 4:448N ft 0-3048 m Itonf 9-964 kN lyd 0-9144 m I mile 1-609 km PRESSURE Inauticalmile — 1-852km Vbf/in? 6895kN/m? (international) (0-06895 bar) latm 1-013 bar VOLUME STRESS fe 3 1 Ibf/in? 6-895 KN/m? teal em tonfjin? 15:44 MN/m? (Ilitre = 1dm3) ENERGY 1 ft Ibf 13563 MASS Btu 1-055 kJ IIb 0-4536kg Iton 1016 tonne POWER (1016 kg) I hp 0-7457 kW BASIC OR AND. | OTHER RECOMMENDED Quanity DERIVED UNIT SYMBOL UNITS Length metre[m] millimetre [mm], kilometre [km] Area square metre[m?] square millimetre [mm?] Volume cubic metre[m>] litre [1] Time second[s} day, hourfh}, minute [min] Linear velocity metre persecond[m/s] _ | kilometre perhour Angular velocity Linear acceleration Angular acceleration Mass Force Moment of force Work, Energy Power Stress Pressure Momentum Angular momentum Second moment of area Moment of inertia Mass flow Volume flow Density radian per second [rad/s] metre per second? [m/s?] radian per second? [rad/s] kilogramme[kg] newton[N} newton-metre[N m] joule[J = Nm] watt [W = J/s=N m/s] newton per metre? [N/m?] newton per metre? [N/m2] kilogramme metre per _second [kg m/s] kilogramme metre? per second [kg m?/s] metre* [m¢] kilogramme metre? kgm?) kilogramime per second Ike/s] cubic metre per second [m?/s] kilogramme per cubic metre [kg/m] [km/h] International knot megagramme [Mg] ortonne[t] kilonewton [kN] kilonewton-metre [kN m] kilojoule[kJ] kilowatt-hour [kW h] kilowatt [kW] hectobar[hbar]= 10MN/m? bar = 105N/m? millibar [mbar] mm of mercury [mm Hg] mm of water [mm water] centimetre [em*] kilogramme per hour kg/h] 8) tonne per hour[t/h] cubic metres per hour m3/h) tre per hour[1/h] gramme per centimetre? [g/om! gramme per millilitre [g/ml gramme per litre [g/l]CHAPTER 1 VECTORS AND VECTOR DIAGRAMS As stated in the introductory notes, the newton is the unit of force. This is explained in greater detail in Chapter 3 wherein it is stated that the newton is that force which, if applied to a body having unit mass (1 kg), it will give it unit acceleration (1 m/s*), The newton is represented by the symbol N, a prefix against the symbol represents the multiplication factor of the basic unit so that forces of large or small magnitudes can be more conveniently expressed. Thus, one kilonewton, written KN, is 1000 newtons (108 N); one meganewton, written MN, is 10° N, and so on. The weight of a body is the gravitational force on the mass of that body and therefore weight should be expressed in units of force, that is, in newtons or in multiples of the newton. Although the kilogramme is strictly the unit of mass, outside of design work such as in the home, in commerce, and in the loading of ships’ stores and cargo, normal weights may be expressed in kilo- grammes and heavy weights in tonnes (1 tonne = 1000 kilo- grammes). When loads are expressed in kilogrammes it is necessary to convert into newtons (1 kilogramme = 9-81 newtons) when deal- ing with calculations of forces in structures, loading of beams, etc., leading to the design of safe working dimensions. To describe a force completely, its magnitude and also its direction must be known. When two such facts are required to express a quantity it is called a vector quantity because it can be represented by a vector, A vector is a line drawn to scale, in the case of a force the length of the line represents the magnitude of the force and the direction in which the line is drawn with an arrow on it represents the direction of the line of action of the force.2 REED’S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS Fig. 1 shows some vectors representing forces. 12.5 N FORCE OF 12.5 N ACTING DUE WEST FORCE OF 20 N FORCE OF ISN ACTING NE, ACTING DUE SOUTH Fig. | RESULTANT The resultant of a number of coplanar forces is that one force which would have the same effect if it replaced those forces. Fig, 2 shows three forces of 8, 10 and 5 N respectively alt pulling on a. body in the same direction; it is obvious that the resultant of these is a single force of 23 N in the same direction. This is a simple case of parallel forces involving only the addition of the forces. The “‘space diagram” is an illustration of the system of forces, The “vector diagram” is a diagram drawn to scale with the vectors joined end to end. Ny ION BN ION SN oN RESULTANT = 23N SPACE DIAGRAM VECTOR DIAGRAM Fig. 2 When the forces are not parallel the vector diagram is “bent” at the joints of the vectors so that each vector is drawn in the direction in which its respective force acts. Taking forces of the same magnitude as above but slightly different directions, Fig. 3 illustrates how the vector diagram is constructed. Note how the arrows of the vectors of the given forces form a continuous path in the vector diagram. The vector diagram is drawn to scale, the resultant is the “vector addition” of the given forces, it measures 21-9 N and its direction is 23 degrees to the VECTORS AND VECTOR DIAGRAMS 3 8 N force. This single force can replace the three given forces to have exactly the same effect. BN s ON Qa SPACE DIAGRAM DIAGRAM Fig. 3 EQUILIBRANT The equilibrant is a single force which, if added to a system of forces acting on a body, would place the body in equilibrium. In other words, the equilibrant will neutralise the other forces. Taking the last example again, if a force of the same magnitude but opposite in direction as the resultant of the three given forces was added, it would neutralise the effect of those three forces and the body would be in equilibrium. Fig. 4 shows the equilibrant. Note the vector diagram. The equilibrant “closes the vector dia- gram” and the direction of its arrow forms a continuous path with the others, often referred to as being “nose to tail”. This gives us an introduction to the theorems of the triangle and polygon of forces to follow. SPACE DIAGRAM DIAGRAM Fig. 4 TRIANGLE OF FORCES Jf three forces acting at a point are in equilibrium, the vector diagram drawn to scale representing the forces in magnitude and direction, taken in order, forms a closed triangle,4 REED’S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS POLYGON OF FORCES If any number of forces acting at a point are in equilibrium, the vector diagram drawn to scale representing the forces in magnitude and direction, taken in order, forms a closed polygon. The above theorems are therefore the same except that the triangle of forces refers only to three forces and the polygon of forces refers to any number greater than three. It is now obvious that the magnitude and direction of any one of a system of forces in equilibrium could be unknowns to be solved, The given forces are taken in order and their vectors are drawn to scale, the vector required to close the diagram represents the magnitude and direction of the unknown force, Alternatively, instead of the unknown quantities being the magnitude and direc- tion of one force, they could be the magnitudes of two forces if their directions were known, or the directions of two forces if their magnitudes were known. CONCURRENT AND PARALLEL FORCES The lines of action of three coplanar forces in equilibrium, or any number of forces in equilibrium which can be reduced to three, must either pass through a common point or be parallel to each other. Fig. 5 Fig. 5 shows three forces pulling on a plate. If this system of forces is balanced, i.e. the plate is in equilibrium, the lines of action of the three forces must pass through a common point because they are not parallel, VECTORS AND VECTOR DIAGRAMS 5 4n on ION Fig. 6 Fig. 6 shows parallel forces pulling on a plate, these forces can be in equilibrium without being concurrent because they are parallel, BOW’S NOTATION This is a method of lettering the spaces of the space diagram with capital letters, A, B, C, etc., so that each force can be referred to by the letters of the two spaces the force Separates, such as force AB, force BC, and so on. The vector of each force in the vector diagram is labelled with its Corresponding small letters on the two ends of the vector, ab, be, etc., in the direction of the arrow. Fig. 7 illustrates this method of notation, The spaces between the forces on the space diagram is lettered in a continuous (clock- wise or anticlockwise) direction, preferably commencing with a vertical or horizontal force for convenience of beginning the con- Struction of the vector diagram, The vector diagram is constructed by first drawing vector ab to represent the force AB, then vector be to represent force BC, and so on. Although the lettering of the Space diagram for one system of forces can be clockwise or anti- clockwise so long as it is continuous, it is advisable for the student to adopt one method, say clockwise, and adhere to this for all problems. This is essential when combining vector diagrams of More than one system of forces which we do in framed structures,