3 | Assessment in Learning 2

UNIT 4: Affective Assessment

4.0 Intended Learning Outcomes
a. Identify the different levels of the affective domain of learning.
b. Distinguish the different instruments for assessing affective learning outcomes
c. Create an affective assessment tool

[Link]
Aside from the academic performance of the students, there are other dimensions
of the learners that need to be assessed. Affect describes a variety of non-cognitive
variables which include attitude, interests and values. The learners’ attitude toward
academic tasks and their interest in learning influence their academic performance
(Kpolovie, Joe, & Okoto, 2014). Cognitive and affective domains are inseparable aspects
of a learner. Each complements one another with respect to learners’ important domains.

4.2. Topics
4.2.1 Affective Domain of Learning
Assessment of the affective domain is one of the requirements of the 21 st teaching-
learning proposition. A holistic approach is required so as to have a meaningful evaluation
of student learning. Proper, ongoing assessment of the affective domain—students
attitudes, values, dispositions, and ethical perspectives—is essential in any efforts to
improve academic achievement and the quality of the educational experience provided.
The affective taxonomy, which describes objectives that reflect underlying
emotions, feelings, or values rather than cognitive or thought complexity, has been
developed by Krathwohl, Bloom, and Masia (1999). This taxonomy describes a process by
which another person’s, group’s, or society’s ideas, beliefs, customs, philosophies,
attitudes, and so on are gradually accepted and internalized by a different person, group,
or society. This process usually begins with a minimal, partial, or incomplete acceptance
of an alternative point of view and culminates with the complete integration of this point
of view into an individual’s personal belief system. As with the cognitive taxonomy, the
levels and sublevels are generally considered to be hierarchical.

[Link]. Receiving (Attending)

Responses at the receiving level require that a student have at least an awareness of
some stimulus. Once this has occurred, a willingness at least to listen or attend to the
stimulus must be present (i.e., tolerance). A student will next be able to attend selectively to
various aspects of the context within which the stimulus exists, differentiating those that
are relevant to the stimulus from those that are not.
[Link]. Responding
Student responses at the responding level indicate more than passive listening or
attending; they require active participation. In the most basic form of responding, a
student will at least acquiesce to a teacher’s or other’s request, although given a choice, the
student might choose some other activity. More complete responding would be indicated
by a student’s willingness to engage in an activity, even when allowed a choice. The highest
level within this category is indicated by satisfaction after engaging in a response. Not only
does the student participate, but it is evident that the student enjoys the activity.
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[Link]. Valuing
At the valuing level, students judge an activity as to its worthiness and tend to do
so consistently enough that the pattern is recognizable to others. The most basic sublevel
involves the acceptance of a belief, idea, attitude, and the like. The individual may not be
willing to publicly defend the idea but has internalized it. When a student actively pursues
an idea, he or she is demonstrating a preference for it, the next sublevel of valuing. Finally,
after becoming convinced of the validity of an idea, a student expresses commitment to the
idea. At this point the student demonstrates conviction by pursuing the goal or idea
diligently.
Figure 1

Source: [Link]
taxonomy/

[Link]. Organization
As ideas are internalized, they become increasingly interrelated and prioritized.
That is, they become organized into a value system. This requires first that a student
conceptualize a value by analyzing interrelationships and drawing generalizations that
reflect the valued idea. It may be noted that such an activity is cognitive. However, it is
classified here because such conceptualizing would only be undertaken after an idea or
philosophy was valued. Next, values that have been conceptualized are subject to the
organization of a value system. That is, the valued ideas are arranged to foster their
consistency and compatibility with one another.
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[Link]. Characterization by a Value (Value Complex or Internalizing)

Students operating at the value level behave in a way that is consistent with their
value system, avoiding hypocrisy and behaving consistently with an underlying
philosophy “automatically.” The first sublevel is characterized by a generalized set . This
means the individual is predisposed to perceive, process, and react to a situation in
accordance with an internalized value system. The next level, characterization, is evident in
the consistency between an individual’s thoughts and behaviors. Such individuals would
never say “Do as I say, not as I do.”

Figure 2
Common Verbs used in the Affective Domain

Source: [Link]
Reflection:
Why is assessment of the affective domain important? Cite an example wherein affective
assessment becomes a crucial part in the teaching and learning process. What do you
think are the challenges in doing affective assessment and how can they be overcome?

4.2.2 Affective (Dispositional) Traits and Learning Targets

According to Mcmillan (2018) there are set of student attributes that are equally
important to the cognitive learning target and skills, especially with the new emphasis on
21st-century dispositions. These traits are often referred to as either “affective,”“social-
emotional,” or “noncognitive,” mostly to distinguish them from so-called cognitive targets
such as knowledge, understanding, and thinking skills such as critical thinking and
reasoning. The terms disposition and trait refer to attitudes, beliefs, grit, mindset, self-
control, goal orientation, and values that are part of a student’s character and personality.
Skills in this context are both interpersonal and intrapersonal (such as self-regulation and
recognizing one’s own emotional state).
Dispositions consist of a range of intrapersonal attitudes, interests, values,
character, and personality traits. Many use the term affective to refer to noncognitive traits.
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Affect, however, has a technical meaning that is rather restrictive: the emotions or feelings
we have toward someone or something. Since attitudes, values, self-concept, citizenship,
and other noncognitive traits involve thinking and beliefs, they involve more than
emotion or feelings. Table 1 provides a list of dispositional traits as summarized by
McMillan (2018).

Table 1. Noncognitive Traits and Skills

Trait Definition
Predisposition to respond favorably or unfavorably to
Attitudes specified situations, concepts, objects, institutions, or
persons
Interests Personal preference for certain kinds of activities
Importance, worth, or usefulness of modes or conduct
Values
and end states of existence
Conscious awareness of being on-track, on-task, and
Self-Monitoring
evaluating work
Integrity Honesty and truthfulness of one’s actions
Desire and willingness to be engaged in behavior and
Motivation
intensity of involvement
Self-Efficacy Self-perceptions of capabilities to learn
Attitudes toward oneself; degree of self-respect,
Self-Esteem
worthiness, or desirability of self-concept
Adaptability Ability and willingness to cope with changing conditions
Nature of interpersonal interactions and functioning in
Interpersonal Relationships
group settings
Altruism Willingness to help others
Willingness to continue trying in the face of difficulties
Perseverance
or barriers
Perseverance of effort to achieve long-term goals in the
Grit
face of obstacles and challenges

[Link] Attitude Targets

Attitudes are internal states and beliefs that vary from positive to negative. The
internal state is some degree of positive/negative or favorable/unfavorable reaction
toward an object, situation, issue, activity, person, group of objects, general environment,
or group of persons. Thus, we typically think about attitudes toward something. In schools,
that may be learning, subjects, teachers, other students, homework, tests, and other
referents. Usually, then, you can identify the positive or negative attitudes that you want
to foster or at least monitor.
Attitudes consist of three elements or contributing factors:
1. An affective component of positive or negative feelings
2. A cognitive component describing worth or value
3. A behavioral component indicating a willingness or desire to engage in specific
actions
[Link] Value Targets
Values generally refer either to desirable end states of existence or to modes of
conduct. End states of existence are conditions and aspects of ourselves and our world
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that we want, such as a safe life, world peace, freedom, happiness, social acceptance, and
wisdom. Modes of conduct are reflected in what we believe is appropriate and needed in
our everyday existence, such as being honest, cheerful, ambitious, loving, responsible, and
helpful.
Popham (2018) has suggested some values as being sufficiently admirable and
noncontroversial:
 Honesty. Students should learn to value honesty in their dealings with others.
 Integrity. Students should firmly adhere to their own code of values, for example,
moral or artistic beliefs.
 Justice. Students should subscribe to the view that all citizens should be the
recipients of equal justice from governmental law enforcement agencies.
 Freedom. Students should believe that democratic nations must provide the
maximum level of freedom to their citizens.
[Link] Motivation Targets
In the context of schooling, motivation can be defined as the extent to which
students are involved in trying to learn. This includes the students’ initiation of learning,
their intensity of effort, their commitment, and their persistence. In other words, motivation
is the purposeful engagement in learning to master knowledge or skills; students take
learning seriously and value opportunities to learn. There are two factors that influence
motivation: expectations of success and value of the activity. Expectations refer to the self-
efficacy of the student, the student’s selfperception of his or her capability to perform
successfully.
Another important consideration in assessing motivation is knowing why students
are learning, the reasons they give for their actions. When students do something because
it is inherently interesting, enjoyable, or challenging, they are intrinsically motivated. In
contrast, extrinsic motivation is doing something because it leads to a separate outcome
(e.g., reward or punishment; Ryan & Deci, 2000). Students who are motivated by a need
to understand and master the task (mastery orientation) demonstrate more positive
behavior and thinking than students who are doing something for the result or outcome
(performance orientation). Mastery orientation students are more engaged, have a natural
inclination to generate solutions to difficulties, display better persistence, and generate
more positive attributions to success and failure (success attributed to ability and
moderate effort; failure to lack of effort).
[Link] Self-Concept Targets
There is an extensive literature on self-concept and its cousin, self-esteem. Many
educators refer to these characteristics when discussing students who have problems with
school and learning (e.g., “Sam has a low self-concept,” “Adrianne has a low opinion of
herself”). There is no question that these beliefs are important, even with the controversy
over whether self-concept and self-esteem precedes or results from academic learning. For
setting targets, it is helpful to remember that self-concept and self-esteem are
multidimensional (Marsh & Craven, 2013). There is a bodily self, an athletic self, a
mathematics self, a social self, and so forth. Each of us has a self-description in each area,
which is our self-concept or self-image. In addition, we also have a sense of self-regard,
self-affirmation, and self-worth in each area (self-esteem). Thus, a student can have a self-
concept that he is tall and thin, but feel very comfortable with that and accept this
description. Another student can have the same self-concept but feel inferior or
inadequate.
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[Link] Self-Efficacy Targets

Self-efficacy is a student’s belief that he or she is capable of learning a specific task
or area of knowledge (Bandura, 2006). These are self-perceptions of the degree of
confidence they have of reaching learning targets. Students estimate what they think they
are able to accomplish and the likelihood of success if they exert sufficient effort. Students
with a positive self-efficacy are more likely to persist and remain engaged in learning,
whereas students with a low self-efficacy tend to give up or avoid what they believe are
difficult tasks. They are skilled at knowing when they are learning, the degree of effort
required for further learning, when they are right or wrong, and which strategies for
learning are needed. self-efficacy is at the heart of learning and motivation. It is well
established that a positive self-efficacy is critical to future learning and related to the
development of many 21st-century skills. Like self-concept, self-efficacy is task-specific,
pertaining to different domains of functioning. That is, we can have a positive self-efficacy
in learning math but a weak sense of confidence that we can do well in English. For
example, you may be sure about learning to drive, but unsure about learning to scuba
dive.
[Link] Interpersonal Skill Learning Targets
Interpersonal skills involve the nature of social relationships that students have
with one another and with the teacher. They constitute a complex set of interaction skills,
including the identification of and appropriate responses to social cues. Peer relations,
friendship, functioning in groups, assertiveness, cooperation, collaboration, prosocial
behavior, empathy, taking perspective, and conflict resolution are examples of the nature
of social relationships that can be specified as targets. Social interaction is a key element
of knowledge construction, active learning, and deep understanding (Borich & Tombari,
2004). As interaction occurs, students are forced to adjust their thinking to accommodate
alternative viewpoints, to defend their ideas, and to debate their opinions. These processes
encourage a deep, rather than superficial, understanding and keep students engaged.
Also, interaction can promote good reasoning and problem-solving strategies through
observation and the give-and-take that ensues. Table 2 provides the list of collaborative
skills as suggested by Mcmillan (2018).
Table 2. A Taxonomy of Collaborative Skills
Component Definition Skills
Basic Interaction Students like and Listening
respect each other. Making eye contact
Answering questions
Using the right voice
Making sense
Apologizing
Getting Along Students sustain Taking turns Sharing
their respect and Following rules
liking for one Assisting
another. Asking for help or a favor
Using polite words
Coaching Students both give Suggesting an action or activity
and receive Giving and receiving compliments or praise
corrective feedback Being specific
and encouragement. Giving advice
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Correcting and being corrected

Role-Fulfilling Fulfilling specific Summarizer
roles creates positive Checker
interdependency Researcher
and individual Runner
accountability. Recorder
Supporter
Troubleshooter

Classroom environment is made up of a number of characteristics that can be used as

targets, most of which are influenced by social relationships. These include:
Affiliation—the extent to which students like and accept each other
Involvement—the extent to which students are interested in and engaged in learning
Task orientation—the extent to which classroom activities are focused on the
completion of academic tasks
Cohesiveness—the extent to which students share norms and expectations
Competition—the emphasis on competition between students
Favoritism—whether each student enjoys the same privileges
Influence—the extent to which each student influences classroom decisions
Friction—the extent to which students bicker with one another
Formality—the emphasis on enforcing rules
Communication—the extent to which communication among students and with the
teacher is genuine and honest
Warmth—the extent to which students care about one another and show empathy
These dimensions arise primarily from the nature of student relationships and their
abilities to cooperate, trust another, listen, and collaborate.

4.2.3. Affective Assessment Tools

The term affective refers to feelings, attitudes, or moods. In contrast to cognitive
instruments, which capture people’s knowledge or skills, affective instruments attempt to
capture people’s feelings, attitudes, or inner emotional states. In developing an affective
instrument, the goal is to be able to differentiate among people in terms of the degree to
which they possess a latent construct or in terms of their level on a given latent construct.
A construct is a trait, a concept, or a schematic idea. The dictionary defines construct
as an image, idea, or theory, especially a complex one formed from a number of simpler
elements. Constructs are generally latent, meaning that they cannot be observed. Instead,
latent constructs must be inferred by observing behaviors that are indicators of the
underlying constructs. In the social sciences, we study many latent constructs such as
creativity, intelligence, motivation, attitude, academic self-concept, anxiety, self-efficacy.
There are three feasible methods of assessing affective traits and dispositions. These
methods are: teacher observation, student self-report, and peer ratings. (McMillan, 2018).

[Link] Teacher Observation

Teacher observation is one of the essential tools for formative assessment.
However, in this chapter, the emphasis is on how to use this method so that teachers can
make more systematic observations to record student behaviour that indicates the
presence of targeted affective traits.
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a.) Unstructured Observation

Unstructured observation (anecdotal) may also be used for the purpose of making
summative judgements. This is normally open-ended, no checklist or rating scale is used,
and everything observed is just simply recorded. In using unstructured observation, it is
necessary to have at least some guidelines and examples of behaviors that indicate
affective trait. Thus it is a must to determine in advance what to look for, however it should
not be limited to what was predetermined, it also needs to be open to include other actions
that may reflect on the trait.
Unstructured observation is more realistic, which means teachers can record
everything they have observed and are not limited by what is contained in a checklist or
rating scale.
b.) Structured Observation
Structured observation is different from unstructured observation in terms of
preparation needed as well as in the way observation is recorded. In structured
observation, more time is needed since checklist or rating forms are to be made since it
will be used to record observations. The form is generated from a list of positive and
negative behaviors to make it easy and convenient in recording.
[Link] Student Self-Report
There are varied ways to express students’ affect as self-report. The most common
and direct way is while having a casual conversation or interview. Students can also
respond to a written questionnaire or survey about themselves or other students.
a.) Student Interview
There are different types of personal communication that teachers can use with
their students, like individual and group interviews, discussions, and casual conversations
to assess affect. It is similar to observation but in here, there is an opportunity that teachers
may have direct involvement with the student wherein teachers can probe and respond
for better understanding.
b.) Surveys and Questionnaire
The second type under self-report method is questionnaires and surveys. The two
types of format using questionnaires and surveys are: Constructed-Response format and
Selected-Response format.
i. Constructed-Response format
It is a straight forward approach asking students about their affect by responding
to simple statement or question. Another way to implement constructed-response format
is by means of an essay. Essay items provide more in-depth and extensive responses than
that of the simple short sentences. Reasons for their attitudes, values and beliefs are
expressed better using essays.
ii. Selected-Response format
There are three ways of implanting the selected response format in assessing
affective learning outcomes. These are rating scale, Likert scale, semantic differential scale,
and checklist.
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The advantage of selected-response formats is that it assures anonymity. It is an

important aspect when considering the traits that are personal such as values and self-
concept. This self-response formats are considered to be an efficient way of collecting
information.
Rating Scale
A rating scale is used to indicate the degree to which a particular dimension is
present, beyond a simple yes/no. It provides a way to record and communicate
qualitatively different levels of performance. Several types of rating scales are available;
we will consider three: numerical, qualitative, and numerical/qualitative combined.
The numerical scale uses numbers on a continuum to indicate different levels of
proficiency in terms of frequency or quality. The number of points on the scale can vary,
from as few as 2 to 10 or more. The number of points is determined on the basis of the
decision that will be made. If you are going to use the scale to indicate low, medium, and
high, then 3 points are sufficient. More points on the scale permit greater discrimination,
provide more diagnostic information, and permit more specific feedback to students.
Here are some examples of numerical scales:
Example:
Complete Understanding 54321 No Understanding
of the Problem of the Problem
Little or No Organization 1234567 Clear and Complete Organization
Emergent Reader 123 Fluent Reader

A qualitative scale uses verbal descriptions to indicate student performance. There

are two types of qualitative descriptors. One type indicates the different gradations of the
dimension:

A second type of qualitative scale includes gradations of the criteria and some
indication of how the performance compares to established standards. This is the most
frequently used type of rating scale for performance assessments. Descriptors such as the
following are used:
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Likert Scale
Another simple and widely used self-report method in assessing affect is the use of
Likert scale wherein a list of clearly favourable and unfavourable attitude statements are
provided. The students are asked to respond to each of the statement.
Likert scale uses the five-point scale: Strongly Agree (SA); Agree (A); Undecided
(U); Disagree (D); and Strongly Disagree (SD).

Example:
Directions: put a check on the column for each of the statement that applies to you.
Legend: SA – Strongly Agree, A – Agree, U – Undecided, D – Disagree, SD – Strongly Disagree

(SA) (A) (U) (D) (SD)

Statements
5 4 3 2 1
1. I am happy during Mathematics class.
2. I get tired doing board work and drills.
3. I enjoy solving word problems.

Semantic Differential Scale

Another common approach to measuring affective traits is to use variations of
semantic differential. These scales use adjective pairs that provide anchors for feelings or
beliefs that are opposite in direction and intensity. It tries to assess an individual's reaction
to specific words, ideas or concepts in terms of ratings on bipolar scales defined with
contrasting adjectives at each end. Students would place a check between each pair of
adjectives that describes positive or negative aspects of the traits. An example is shown
below:

Example:
Traits/attitude toward Mathematics subject
Mathematics
Boring __ __ __ __ __ Interesting
Important ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ Useless

Semantic differential like other selected-response formats, is that it makes it easier

to assure anonymity. Anonymity is important when the traits are more personal, such as
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values and self-concept. It is also an efficient way of collecting information. Though this
may be an efficient way note that it is not good to ask too many questions. It is important
to carefully select those traits that are concerned or included in the defined affective targets
or outcomes. It is also a good point to have open-ended items such as “comments” or
“suggestions”.
Checklist
A checklist is a simple listing of the criteria or dimension, and you will simply check
whether or not each criterion was met or each dimension demonstrated. It is a yes/no type
of decision. It is the most common and perhaps the easiest instrument to construct in the
affective domain. A checklist consists of simple items that the student or teacher marks as
"absent" or "present". It is one of the effective assessment strategies to monitor specific
skills, behaviors, or dispositions of individual or group of students (Burke, 2009).
Checklists contain criteria that focus on the intended outcome or target. Checklists
help student in organizing the tasks assigned to them into logically sequenced steps that
will lead to successful completion of the task. For the teachers, a criteria checklists can be
used for formative assessments by giving emphasis on specific behaviors, thinking skills,
social skills, writing skills, speaking skills, athletic skills or whatever outcomes are likely
to be measured and monitored. Checklists can be used for individual or group cases.
Example: Checklists for Structured Observations of Reading Behavior

Sentence Completion
Sentence completion tests are a class of semi-structured projective techniques.
Sentence completion tests typically provide respondents with beginnings of sentences,
referred to as "stems", and respondents then complete the sentences in ways that are
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meaningful to them. The responses are believed to provide indications

of attitudes, beliefs, motivations, or other mental states. Therefore, sentence completion
technique, with such advantage, promotes the respondents to disclose their concealed
feelings. Notwithstanding, there is debate over whether or not sentence completion tests
elicit responses from conscious thought rather than unconscious states. This debate would
affect whether sentence completion tests can be strictly categorized as projective tests.

Example:
I think Mathematics as a subject is ________________________________.
I like my Mathematics teacher the most because ______________________.

Reflection:
Which of the affective assessment tool would be the most effective in the classroom?
Explain your choice.

4.2.4 Development of Affective Assessment Tools

[Link] Teacher Observation
In using observation, the first thing to do is determine in advance how specific
behaviours relate to the target. Its starts with a vivid definition of the trait, then followed
by list of student behaviours and actions are identified initially by listing what the students
with positive and negative behaviours and say. Classify those and create a separate list of
the positive student behaviours and another list for the negative student behaviours.
These lists will serve as the initial or starting point of what will be observed. Contained in
Table 3 are some possible student behaviours indicating positive and negative attitude
toward learning.
Table 3. Student Behaviours Indicating Positive and Negative Attitudes Toward
Learning (Source: McMillan, 2018)
POSITIVE NEGATIVE
Rarely misses classRarely late to class Is frequently absent
Asks lots of questions Is frequently tardy
Helps other students Rarely asks questions
Works well independently without Rarely helps other students
supervision Needs constant supervision
Is involved in extracurricular Is not involved in extracurricular activities
activities Says he or she doesn’t like school
He or she likes school Rarely comes to class early
Comes to class early Rarely stays after school
Stays after school Doesn’t volunteer
Volunteers to help Often does not complete homework
Completes homework Doesn’t care about bad grades
Tries hard to do well Never does extra credit work
Completes assignments before they Never completes assignments before the due
are due date complains
Rarely complains Sleep in class
Is rarely off-task Bothers other students
Rarely bothers students Stares out window
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These behaviors provide foundation in developing guidelines, checklists or rating

scales. The positive behaviors are called approach behaviors while the negative ones are
termed avoidance behaviors. Approach behaviors result in less direct, less frequent, and
less intense contact. These dimensions are helpful in describing the behaviors that indicate
positive and negative attitudes.
These behaviors may serve as a vital input on how to perform observation,
particularly the teacher observation. McMillan (2018) suggested that the best approach is
to develop a list of positive and negative behaviors. Although published instruments are
available, the unique characteristic of a school and its students are not considered in these
instruments when they were developed.
After the list of behaviors has been developed, the teacher needs to decide whether
to use an informal, unstructured observation or a formal one and structured. These two
types differ in terms of preparation and what is recorded.
Below are the things that should be considered if teacher observation method will
be used to assess affect.

 Determine behaviors to be observed in advance.

 Record student’s important data such as time, data, and place
 If unstructured, record brief descriptions of relevant behaviour
 Keep interpretations separate from description
 Record both positive and negative behaviors
 Have as much observations of each student as necessary
 Avoid personal bias
 Record immediately the observations
 Apply a simple and efficient procedure

[Link]. Student Self-Report

Self-report assessment procedures are recommended as the most practical way to

gather affective data in classrooms. With self-reports, there is no question that cognitions
are used to generate responses. According to Duckworth and Yeager (2015), the process
involves five steps, as illustrated in Figure 3 for responding to this question used to assess
attitudes toward math: “How often do you feel you will do well on your math tests?” You
can see that this student first needs to determine what “doing well” means. Once that is
established, relevant information is recalled and integrated into a summary judgment. In
the fourth step, the judgment is applied to the response scale, with subsequent feelings
and thoughts about what it means.

According to Stiggins (2008), one key to the successful use of student self-reports is
to get students to take the questionnaires seriously. This will happen if students see that
what you are asking about is relevant to them and that actions are taken as a result of the
findings. You want to help students understand that they have nothing to lose and
something to gain by being cooperative. This may be especially important for students
with English language learning difficulties and those from various cultures.
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Figure 3. Steps students take in responding to self-report questions.

Another key is using questions to which students are willing and able to provide
thoughtful responses. This is accomplished if the wording of the questions is precise, if
the format is easy to understand and respond to, and if the response options make sense.
The questions can use either a constructed-response or selected-response format.
a.) Student Interview
An important prerequisite for getting students to reveal their true feelings and
beliefs is establishing trust. Without a sense of trust, students may not be comfortable
expressing their feelings. They will tend to say what they think their teachers want to hear,
say what is socially acceptable or desirable, or say very little, if anything. Younger students
are usually pretty candid about themselves; older students may be more reserved. You
enhance trust by communicating warmth, caring, and respect and by listening attentively
to what the students communicate.
b.) Surveys and Questionnaire
i. Constructed-Response format
A straightforward approach to asking students about their attitudes, feelings, and
beliefs is to have them respond to a simple statement or question. Often, incomplete
sentences can be used.
Examples
I think mathematics is …
When I have free time, I like to …
The subject I like most is …
What I like most about school is …
What I like least about school is …
Science is …
I think I am …
Essay items can be used with older students. These items provide a more extensive, in-
depth response than incomplete sentences.
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Example
Write a paragraph on the subject you like most in school. Tell me why. Comment
on what it is about the subject and your experience with it that leads you to like
it the most. Describe yourself as a student. Are you a good student? What are
you good at? How hard do you try to get good grades? Does learning come easy
or hard for you?

An advantage of the incomplete sentence format is that it taps whatever comes to

mind from each student. You are not cuing students about what to think or suggesting
how they should respond, so what you get is what is foremost and most salient in the
student’s mind. Of course, students need to be able to read and write and take the task
seriously. If you use this method, be sure to give students enough time to think and write
and encourage them to write as much as they can think about for each item.

ii. Selected-Response format

There are many different types of selectedresponse formats to choose from when
assessing noncognitive targets. When you decide to create your own instrument and
wonder which of these response formats would be best, try to match the format with the
trait. There is no single best response format. Some work better with some traits, and some
work better with others, depending on the wording and the nature of the trait. Your job
will be to make the best match.
The advantage of selected-response formats is that it assures anonymity. It is an
important aspect when considering the traits that are personal such as values and self-
concept. This self-response formats are considered to be an efficient way of collecting
information.
Checklist for Using Student’s Self-Response to Assess Affect (McMillan, 2018):

 Keep measures focused on specific affective traits

 Establish trust with students
 Match response format to the trait being assessed
 Ensure anonymity if possible
 Keep questionnaires brief
 Keep items short and simple
 Avoid negatives and absolutes
 Write items in present tense
 Avoid double-barreled items
Most selected-response formats create a scale that is used with statements concerning the
trait.
Rating Scale
According to Nitko (2013), rating scales can be used for teaching purposes and assessment.

1. Rating scales help students understand the learning target/outcomes and to focus
students’ attention to performance.
2. Completed rating scale gives specific feedback to students as far as their strengths
and weaknesses with respect to the targets to which they are measured.
3. Students not only learn the standards but also may internalize the set standards.
4. Ratings helps to show each student’s growth and progress.
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Types of Rating Scales

i. Numerical Rating Scales

A numerical rating scale translates the judgements of quality or degree into
numbers. To increase the objectivity and consistency of results from numerical rating
scales, a short verbal description of the quality level of each number may be provided.
Example:
To what extent does the student participate in team meetings and discussions?
1 2 3 4

ii. Descriptive Graphic Rating Scales

A better format for rating is this descriptive graphic rating scales that replaces
ambiguous single word with short behavioural descriptions of the various points along
the scale.

Example: Descriptive Graphic Rating Scale of Student Participation

To what extent does the student participate in team meetings and discussions?
Directions: Make your ratings on each of the following by placing X anywhere along the
horizontal line under each item. In the space for comments(s), include anything that
helps clarify your rating.

Comment(s):___________________________________________________________________

Common Rating Scale Errors

The table below contains the common rating scale errors that teachers and students
must be familiar with in order to avoid committing such kind of errors during assessment.
Error Description
Occurs when a teacher tends to make almost all ratings
Leniency Error towards the high end of the scale, avoiding the low end of
the scale.
A teacher tends to make almost all ratings toward the low
Severity Error
end of the scale. This is the opposite of leniency error.
Occurs when a teacher hesitates to use extremes and uses
Central Tendency Error
only the middle part of the scale.
Occurs when a teacher lets his/her general impression of
Halo Effect the student affect how he/she rates the student on specific
dimension.
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Occurs when a teacher has a general tendency to use

inappropriate or irrelevant stereotypes favouring boys over
Personal bias
girls, from rich families over from middle-income families,
etc..
Occurs when a teacher gives similar ratings to two or more
Logical Error dimensions that the teacher believes to be related where in
fact they are not related at all.
Occurs when the raters, whose ratings originally agreed,
Rater Drift
begin to redefine the rubrics for themselves.

Likert Scale
A widely used format to assess attitudes, for example, is the Likert scale
(pronounced Lí kert). This scale is very versatile; it can be adapted to almost any type of
noncognitive trait. Students read statements and then record their agreement or
disagreement with them according to a five-point scale (strongly agree, agree, undecided,
disagree, strongly disagree). The statements are generated from your list of positive and
negative behaviors or beliefs and are put in a form that makes sense for the response scale.
The statements contain some indication of the direction of the attitude, as illustrated in the
following examples. The response scale indicates intensity.
The scoring of a Likert scale is based on assigning weights from 1 to 5 to each
position of scale. In using attitude scale, it is best to ask for anonymous responses. And in
interpreting the results, it is important to keep in mind that these are verbal expressions,
feelings and opinions that individuals are willing to report.
Constructing Likert Scale Instrument
Below are the steps in constructing Likert scale instrument:

1. Write a series of statements expressing positive and negative opinions toward

attitude object.
2. Select the best statements expressing positive and negative opinions and edit as
necessary.
3. List the statements combining the positive and negative and put the letters of the
five-point scale to the left of each statement for easy marking.
4. Add the directions, indicating how to mark the answer and include a key at the top
of the page if letters are used for each statement.
5. Some prefer to drop the undecided category so that respondents will be forced to
indicate agreement or disagreement.
Semantic Differential Scale
In developing a semantic differential, the first step is to identify the concept or
target object you want to measure and then review of all possible bipolar adjective pairs
that could be used to capture the concept. Next, select appropriate bipolar adjective pairs
for differentiating the targeted attitude, selfconcept, or value concept. In most
applications, the adjectives represent the evaluative dimension. Within the evaluative
dimension there may be several subdimensions or factors defined by clusters of adjectives.
The next step is to select about 10 adjectives that seem logically interrelated. Measuring
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another evaluative dimension for the same concept would necessitate using another set of
about 10 logically interrelated adjectives. The result would be one concept to be rated on
20 bipolar adjective pairs or scales. These scales are then mounted on a single sheet of
paper below the concept to be rated. For college students, Osgood suggests the use of a 7-
step scale, whereas a 5-step scale may be more appropriate for elementary students
(McCoach., Gable, & Madura, 2013). A set of clear instructions, including examples, is then
written and the pilot form of the instrument is completed.

Checklist
In planning for criteria that will be used in checklists, the criteria must be aligned
with the outcomes that need to be observed and measured. Generally criterion is defined
as a standard that serves as reference for judgement or decision. Popham (1999) explains
that when teachers set criteria, the main emphasis is to use these criteria in making
judgement regarding the adequacy of student responses and the criteria will influence the
way the response is scored. Here are steps in constructing a checklist:
1. Enumerate all the attributes and characteristics you wish to observe relative to
the concept being measured. For instance, if the concept is "interpersonal
relation", then you might want to identify those indicators or attributes which
constitute evidence of good interpersonal relation
2. Arrange these attributes as a shopping list of characteristics.
3. Ask the students to mark those attributes or characteristics which are present
and to leave blank those which are not
Importance of Checklists
Checklists should be utilized because these

1. Make a quick and easy way to observe and record skills, criteria, and behaviors
prior to final test or summative evaluation.
2. Provide information to teachers if there are students who need help so as to avoid
failing.
3. Provide formative assessment of students of students’ learning and help teachers
monitor if students are on track with the desired outcomes.

Sentence Completion
A sentence completion test form may be relatively short, such as those used to
assess responses to advertisements, or much longer, such as those used to assess
personality. An example of a long sentence completion test is the Forer Sentence
Completion Test, which has 100 stems. The tests are usually administered in booklet form
where respondents complete the stems by writing words on paper.
The structures of sentence completion tests vary according to the length and
relative generality and wording of the sentence stems. Structured tests have longer stems
that lead respondents to more specific types of responses; less structured tests provide
shorter stems, which produce a wider variety of responses.
The advantage of using the incomplete sentence format is that it captures whatever
comes to mind from each student. However, there are disadvantages too for this. One is
students’ faking their response thinking that the teacher will notice their penmanship,
hence students will tend to give answers favourable to be liked responses of the teacher.
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Another is scoring, which takes more time and is more subjective than the other traditional
objective formats.

Create:
Create your own affective assessment tool (Checklist, Likert Scale, Semantic Differential
scale, and Sentence completion). Identify the affective trait and the affective learning
outcome that you want to assess.

4.3 References
Anderson, L. W., & Krathwohl, D. R. (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and
assessing : a revision of Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives. New York:
Longman.
Bloom, B. S., Krathwohl, D. R., & Masia, B. B. (1984). Bloom taxonomy of educational
objectives. In Allyn and Bacon. Pearson Education.
Borich, G. D., & Tombari, M. L. (2004). Educational assessment for the elementary and middle
school classroom (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.
Duckworth, A. L., & Yeager, D. S. (2015). Measurement matters: Assessing personal
qualities other than cognitive ability for educational purposes. Educational
Researcher, 44(4).
Kpolovie, P. J., Joe, A. I., & Okoto, T. (2014). Academic achievement prediction: Role of
interest in learning and attitude towards school. International Journal of Humanities
Social Sciences and Education (IJHSSE), 1(11), 73-100.
McCoach, D. B., Gable, R. K., & Madura, J. P. (2013). Instrument development in the
affective domain. New York, NY: Springer. doi, 10, 978-1.
McMillan, J. H. (2018). Classroom Assessment: Principles and Practice That Enhance
Student Learning and Motivation. Pearson.
Marsh, H. W., & Seaton, M. (2013). Academic self-concept. International guide to student
achievement, 62, 63.
Popham, W. J. (2017). Classroom assessment: What teachers need to know. Boston, MA:
Pearson Education.
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions
and new directions. Contemporary educational psychology, 25(1), 54-67.

4.4 Acknowledgement
The images, tables, figures and information contained in this module were taken
from the references cited above.