Ain Shams Engineering Journal xxx (xxxx) xxx

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Ain Shams Engineering Journal

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A multi-criteria assessment of climate change impacts on urban

sustainability in Dammam Metropolitan Area, Saudi Arabia
Umar Lawal Dano a,⇑, Ismaila Rimi Abubakar b, Faez S. AlShihri a, Sayed M.S. Ahmed a, Tareq I. Alrawaf c,
Maher S. Alshammari a
a
Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University, P.O. Box 1982, Dammam 31441, Saudi Arabia
b
College of Architecture and Planning, Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University (formerly, University of Dammam), P.O. Box 1982, Dammam 31441, Saudi Arabia
c
Department of Landscape Architecture, Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University, P.O. Box 1982, Dammam 31441, Saudi Arabia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Climate change (CC) is increasingly causing precarious and pervasive disruption to lives, livelihoods, and
Received 22 April 2022 the environment. The Global South countries are vulnerable to CC impacts due to rapid urbanization, pov-
Revised 21 October 2022 erty, low resilience, and poor governance. While some countries have implemented measures to mitigate
Accepted 24 November 2022
CC impacts, many strive to do so. Saudi Arabia is among the Global South countries with high per capita
Available online xxxx
energy use and carbon emission. However, there is a dearth of studies that assess the impacts of CC for
better mitigation efforts and decision-making. The present study is an effort to attend to this research
Keywords:
need. This article uses experts-based survey (n = 12) to assess the impacts of CC on the Dammam
Carbon emissions
Climate change impacts
Metropolitan Area using an Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP). The findings indicate that the highest
Greenhouse gases ranked CC impacts based on priority weights are sea-level rise then coastal flooding, trailed by the threat
Mitigation approaches to public health and low agricultural productivity. However, groundwater depletion and urban heat
islands were deemed having the least impacts. Also, the experts ranked green infrastructure and sustain-
able transportation as more effective than green buildings in mitigating CC impacts in the study area. The
study recommends that green infrastructure (GI), sustainable transportation (ST), and sustainable urban
form (SUF) are more appropriate mitigation measures to CC impacts in Saudi Arabia and similar geo-
graphical regions. Because CC impacts on humans and the environment are widespread, mitigation
and adaptation efforts can assist in lowering their adverse effects and promoting environmental
sustainability.
Ó 2022 THE AUTHORS. Published by Elsevier BV on behalf of Faculty of Engineering, Ain Shams Uni-
versity. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license ([Link]
by-nc-nd/4.0/).

1. Introduction buildings, which significantly increase global temperatures. For

example, carbon dioxide (CO2) emission – a major GHG– is pro-
There is growing attention to the global climate change (CC) jected to rise by 50 % between 2013 and 2025. Global temperature
impacts by researchers, activists, and non-governmental and inter- has risen beyond the range of natural variability due to the high
national organizations. It is an interference in the usual climate emission of GHGs, which causes the entrapment of a large heat
pattern over an extended period through the emission of green- concentration [77]. It is characterized by global warming, melting
house gases (GHGs) into the atmosphere due to natural and glaciers, thermal expansion, sea-level rise, precipitation changes,
anthropogenic activities, including industries, transportation, and floods, droughts, public health risks, and other environmental
impacts [6,87]. The phenomenon has been associated with threat-
ening and destroying ecosystems, human lives and undermining
⇑ Corresponding author. the socio-economic development of several nations worldwide.
E-mail address: uldano@[Link] (U.L. Dano). Urban areas are both the major contributors to and victims of
Peer review under responsibility of Ain Shams University. CC. Cities constitute nearly 2 % of the earth’s surface but consume
roughly-two-thirds of global energy and contribute more than 70 %
of GHG emissions [96]; causing persistent impacts on lives, proper-
ties and subjecting the ecosystem to a high level of susceptibility
Production and hosting by Elsevier [58]. Therefore, cities must be the key players in combating CC

[Link]
2090-4479/Ó 2022 THE AUTHORS. Published by Elsevier BV on behalf of Faculty of Engineering, Ain Shams University.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license ([Link]

Please cite this article as: U.L. Dano, I.R. Abubakar, F.S. AlShihri et al., A multi-criteria assessment of climate change impacts on urban sustainability in
Dammam Metropolitan Area, Saudi Arabia, Ain Shams Engineering Journal, [Link]
U.L. Dano, I.R. Abubakar, F.S. AlShihri et al. Ain Shams Engineering Journal xxx (xxxx) xxx

impacts by promoting sustainability in all sectors and land uses human activities on the depletion of water resources in the coun-
[5,18]. The importance of addressing climate has been reflected try. Islam et al. [61] studied the impacts of CC on road traffic acci-
in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change dents in the country. They found that rainfall, temperature, and
and the Paris Agreement to limit global temperature rise to less sandstorms are the major factors responsible for road traffic acci-
than 2 °C [17]. Moreover, the Sustainable Development Goal dents. Moreover, Haque and Khan [54] have investigated the
(SDG) 13 highlighted the importance and way forward to combat impacts of CC on crop production and found that crop yield reduces
CC challenges. However, despite increasing interest by global south by 7–25 % due to an increase of 1°C rise in temperature. Lastly,
countries to address CC, the literature indicates that several coun- Chowdhury and Al-Zahrani [30] have explored the effects of CC
tries often prioritized economic development over emissions on the country’s water resources and found that an increase of
reduction [6,24,55]. 1.8–4.1 °C in average temperature can raise the demand for agri-
Several countries of the global south are disinclined to embark cultural water by 5–15 %.
on efforts of minimizing the threat of CC compared to cities of the Since CC challenges are multifaceted, there is a need to employ
global north, although some have employed few initiatives to curb appropriate decision-making modeling tools to evaluate these
GHG emissions [31,45,51]. For example, Ahmed et al. [7] compared impacts and guide decision-makers in prioritizing, implementing,
the indoor CO2 emissions between green and conventional build- and mitigating the adverse effects of CC. This study is important
ing in New Cairo city, Egypt. The study found that reinforced con- because the opinion of experts can contribute to decision-making
crete contributes 78 % of the total carbon emissions, while significantly. Similarly, Saudi Arabia’s population grows at 2.3 %
insulation materials contribute only 2 %. In Baghdad City (Iraq), annually, with about 84 % of the residents living in urban areas
Abdulateef and Al-Alwan [3] report the efficacy of green infrastruc- [6]. It is also one of the countries with high per capita energy con-
ture in reducing urban heat island through their surface cooling sumption and CO2 emission globally. Therefore, the present study
effects. In eastern India, Singh et al. [83] found that CC, elevation can help decision-makers focus on more effective approaches to
and soil type are the most significant determinants of flood addressing CC impacts the country faces.
susceptibility.
However, without profound efforts to mitigate and adapt to CC,
cities will continue to face increasing risks of climate-related disas- 2. Literature review
ters such as storms, floods, landslides, and hurricanes [6,25,55]. In
the global south, the CC mitigation literature largely investigates This section reviews the literature related to the concept of CC,
the initiatives of cities and nations on reducing GHG emissions, its major impacts, and mitigation strategies. Climate change can be
including renewable energy, energy-efficient infrastructure, green defined as an interruption in the usual climate pattern over an
buildings, carbon sequestration, and research and development. extended period due largely to human actions on earth, such as
Little is known about how multi-criteria decision-making model- emissions of CO2, methane, nitrous oxide, deforestation, and inten-
ing can contribute to assessing the CC impacts and identifying their sive farming, with resulting devastating impacts on human liveli-
most appropriate mitigation approaches. This shortcoming indi- hoods, economy, and the natural ecosystem [96]. The
cates the need for more studies on this neglected issues. phenomenon is characterized by an increase in the global temper-
Saudi Arabia is among the global south countries that face sev- ature, drought, melting glaciers, sea-level rise, changes in rainfall
eral environmental and CC challenges. The Global Climate Risk patterns, floods and storms, and health threats [87]. The literature
Index 2018 has ranked the country as the 84th adversely affected indicates that significant CC impacts in the global south include
by CC [44]. The nation’s per capita energy consumption and CO2 urban heat island (UHI), sea-level rise and coastal flooding (SLRCF),
emission are among the highest globally. In 2014, the country’s groundwater depletion (GD), low agricultural productivity (LAP),
per capita energy consumption of 6937 kg of oil equivalent was and threat to public health (TPH). The present study investigates
almost four times the world average, and CO2 emission per capita how these five major CC impacts affect Saudi Arabian cities and
(19.53 metric tons) was ranked the seventh highest globally [97]. the most appropriate approaches to mitigate them.
Major CC challenges are frequent flash floods in coastal areas, First, UHI is a city section that is hotter than the surrounding
declining vegetation cover, drought, high rate of evapotranspira- areas, which occurs due to high surface temperature after built-
tion, a soaring temperature that exceed 50° Celsius in the summer up areas produce and retain heat due to asphalt surfaces, huge
months, and depleting freshwater resources [6]. In recognizing its build masses, and heat generation originating from human activi-
CC challenges, the government has set out some initiatives under ties [26]. It is one of the major impacts of CC intensified by intense
the Saudi Vision 2030 to mitigate climate change threats. These human activities due to rapid urbanization. More than 55 % of the
initiatives include deploying renewable energy [68,84], reducing global population currently resides in cities, anticipated to reach
water and electricity consumptions [47], carbon capture and stor- close to 70 % by 2050 [90]. In Saudi Arabia, for five decades, the
age [8], and the development of smart and sustainable cities [40]. ambient air temperature has approximately increased by 4 °C
Hitherto, no studies have assessed the impacts of CC on major greater than its average. Temperatures within the coastal cities
Saudi cities through the decision-makers’ lens toward alleviating are estimated to rise by 2.0–2.75 °C, with some areas recording
CC adverse effects. up to 52 °C mainly due to lack of water bodies and vegetation
Therefore, the present study was conceived to bridge this and ambient air pollution [12]. The overall climate trend in Saudi
research gap through the following objectives. The first objective Arabia shows general warming nationwide, with temperature
is to assess the impacts of CC on the Dammam Metropolitan Area increases fluctuating between 0.15 – 0.75 °C, and averaging nearly
(DMA) by deploying a multi-criteria tool for decision-making 0.40 °C [85].
based on an Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) mathematical Second, CC also contributes to groundwater depletion: an
model. The second objective is to ascertain the most efficient essential natural resource that serves as a source of drinking water
approach to addressing CC impacts in the study area and similar for over 90 % of the global rural population and provides at least
environments. A literature review shows no similar study has ever 50 % of the water used for irrigation farming [86]. However, since
been carried out in Saudi Arabia. For example, Abubakar and Dano 1960, global GD has doubled, equaling 280 km3annually [91]. In
[6] have assessed how urban planning strategies could help reduce Saudi Arabia, GD is due to an acute decrease in precipitation, over-
the adverse impacts of CC in major cities. In another national study, drawn underground aquifers, and high evaporation. The country is
DeNicola et al. [42] investigated the impacts of CC and related among the regions facing acute water stress on the earth. Its fresh-
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U.L. Dano, I.R. Abubakar, F.S. AlShihri et al. Ain Shams Engineering Journal xxx (xxxx) xxx

water sources decrease by 241–1435 million m3 yearly in contrast PM2.5 [98]. Air pollution is largely from industries and private auto-
with its recharge rate of approximately 3850 million m3yearly [74]. mobiles encouraged by low-priced gasoline, a high rate of car own-
Through surface evaporation, dams in the southern part of the ership, and a lack of public transportation [33]. The recurring
country are experiencing depletion ranging from 4.7–6.0 m2 annu- growth of some allergens in the air, causing allergies and respira-
ally [69]. tional infections, has been observed [12]. Due to air pollution,
Third, SLRCF is another significant CC impact, which occurs the life of an average Saudi is shortened roughly by 1.5 years
because of thermal expansion of seas and melting glaciers. Over [23]. In 2018, Saudi Arabia’s CO2 emission (15.27 metric tons per
90 % of the heat originating from GHGs emissions is absorbed by capita) was twice regional and global averages (Fig. 1). Since
seas, which in turn causes the thermal expansion to occur [73]. 1990, the country has seen rapid rise in CO2 emissions, except
About 50 % of the sea-level rise in the past 25 years resulted from within the last seven years that a downward trend can be
thermal expansion [73]. This study considers SLRCF as one factor observed.
because sea-level rise (SLR) triggers coastal flooding (CF). There- The nature and severity of CC challenges determine the types
fore, since the study area is coastal city there is a high possibility and degree of impacts a society faces. Therefore, identifying and
of SLR-induced flooding in the area. A study by Hereher [56] categorizing these impacts is fundamental to devising mitigation
revealed that some parts of Iraq, Saudi Arabia, and UAE are vulner- measures for achieving resilient and sustainable cities. To effec-
able to coastal flooding due to SLR due to their low-lying coastal tively mitigate CC impacts on cities, key approaches have been
areas. In Saudi Arabia, coastal cities are experiencing frequent flood identified, including sustainable transportation (ST), green building
disasters, which destroy buildings and infrastructure. Hereher [56] (GB), green infrastructure (GI), and sustainable urban form (SUF).
indicated that the southern and northern parts of Dammam are Therefore, this study could help Saudi Arabia and other countries
more susceptible to SLRCF due to their low-lying elevations. He facing similar threats from CC to understand, strategize, and imple-
further reported that the coastal area of Dammam could be flooded ment appropriate adaptation and mitigations measures. It is also
at 1 m, 2 m, and 3 m SLR, affecting 613.9 km2, 1401.4 km2, and crucial to assess which approaches are more appropriate in miti-
2216.5 km2 of coastal lands, respectively. Moreover, another factor gating CC impacts toward improving the sustainable development
that triggers SLR is soil moisture [29] and land subsidence due to of cities and society’s well-being.
extensive oil and gas abstraction [99,57]. Therefore, land subsi-
dence can accelerate SLR impact in low-lying coastal areas. In
2018, Dammam city witnessed its worst flood that inundated sev- 3. Materials and methods
eral schools, homes, and infrastructure, caused serious traffic acci-
dents, traffic jams, and destruction of properties [37]. Similarly, in 3.1. Study area
2009, the coastal city of Jeddah experienced its worst flood, which
killed 122 people, and displaced 3,861 [12,36]. The present study was conducted in Dammam Metropolitan
Fourth, LAP is also among the impacts of CC, causing food inse- Area (DMA), situated along the coastline of the Arabian-Persian
curity and increasing the chances of hunger and malnutrition for Gulf at about 400 km from Riyadh, the country’s administrative
millions of people worldwide [87]. According to the 2019 report capital (Fig. 2). It is also a major financial powerhouse and the
of the State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World, CC has third-largest city in Saudi Arabia, following Riyadh and Jeddah
subjected more than 820 million people to hunger in 2018 [46]. [9]. It is the headquarters of Saudi Arabia’s Eastern Province and
Due to CC, Saudi Arabia has experienced losses in dates, wheat, the hub of petroleum exploration, processing, and exportation. It
vegetables, and fishing yields because about 50 % of the country’s is one of the seven major cities that are home to 50 % of the coun-
irrigation farming relies on groundwater in the valley basins, try’s 34 million residents [6]. The population of DMA has increased
which periodically dry due to high temperatures and low precipi- from just 100,000 in 1950 to 1.166 million people in 2018, which is
tation [11]. In addition, approximately 80 animal species are sub- projected to reach 2.13 million people in the next decade [10]. Its
jected to climate vulnerability, and rainfall is likely to decrease size expanded from a small fishing village to a mega-city straddling
by 20–25 % annually [85]. Similarly, aquatic animals rapidly face around 562 km2 with a population density of about 2000 persons/
a decline in oxygen levels, high sea temperatures, and acidification km2 [89].
[6]. The DMA comprises three cities: Dammam, Dhahran, and Kho-
Lastly, CC poses severe threats to public health and the well- bar. Dammam city largely consists of regional administrative
being of societies [59]. It undermines the necessary ingredients establishments. While Dhahran city acts as the hub for science
of good health, such as safe drinking water, clean air, adequate and technology and the headquarters of Saudi ARAMCO (Arabian
food, and shelter [94]. Annually, air pollution causes the death of American Oil Company), Khobar city comprises commercial cen-
nearly 7 million people worldwide [95]. Approximately 91 % of ters, corporate head offices, and popular tourist and recreational
the global population lives in areas where air quality exceeds the centers. The area has two distinct seasons: winter and summer.
WHO’s guideline limits: around 9 out of every ten people breaths The winter season, which runs from November and February, is
contaminated air consisting of a high level of pollutants, with the characterized by cold temperatures (as low as 8 °C) and light rains
global south countries suffering the highest exposures [94]. In [65]. Conversely, the summer season, which spans from April to
2016, ambient air pollution caused 4.2 million deaths worldwide, August, is characterized by a hot and humid climate, with temper-
of which around 91 % took place in the global south countries atures exceeding 40 °C. The area has recently been experiencing
[94]. Similarly, from 2030 and 2050, CC is expected to lead to severe flood events that left transportation networks drenched,
around 250,000 mortalities due to malnutrition, diarrhea, malaria, offices, schools, and homes built in low-lying areas inundated,
and heat stress [94]. By 2030, global CC impacts on public health and peoples demoralized when their routine lives were interrupted
are estimated to cost USD 2–4 billion yearly [95]. [37,81].
The global south countries are increasingly facing CC impacts, Saudi Arabia is vulnerable to several disasters such as floods,
undermining the well-being of people and the entire ecosystem. sandstorms, droughts, and limited volcanic and seismic activities
In Saudi Arabia, CC-related threats include heat stress, exposure [76]. Since year 2000, the country recorded 14 natural hazards that
to disease epidemics linked to air pollution, including sandstorms, affected 30,000 inhabitants, with disease epidemics and floods
and exposure to ultraviolet and infrared radiation. It is one of the ranking the first and second, which together killed at least 572
countries with the most contaminated air, containing 108 lg of people [16]; p. 1814) and caused economic losses of about $450
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U.L. Dano, I.R. Abubakar, F.S. AlShihri et al. Ain Shams Engineering Journal xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 1. CO2 emissions (metric tons per capita) in Saudi compared to regional and global averages (Data source: World Bank, 2020).

criteria for selecting the experts are that they have expertise on
the subject, at least 10 years working experience, and cut across
the academia and the industry. In an AHP survey, respondents
must be well-versed in the area, which allows the experts or key
informants to effectively evaluate factors, elements, or processes
and then rate them logically. According to Saaty and Özdemir
[80], an opinion from a single or a few well-versed and experienced
experts in a research area can be relied upon to provide valid and
reliable opinions. Similar studies have used only eight [38], nine
[39], ten [2], and sixteen experts [75]. In this study, the AHP ques-
tionnaire solicited experts’ opinions regarding DMA’s significant CC
impacts and the appropriate approaches for mitigating them. The
following steps were used in designing the questionnaire.
First, five major impacts of CC in the Global South and their mit-
igation approaches were identified after a thorough review of the
literature, as mentioned in the previous section. These CC impacts
are UHI, GD, SLRCF, LAP, and TPH (e.g., [88,73,78,95]). Also, GB, ST,
GI, and SUF were identified as the four most effective CC mitigation
approaches in the study area [6,15,33,32]). Second, the respon-
dents were asked to rank the CC impacts and their mitigation
approaches based on Saaty’s 9-points preference scale (Table 2).
The ranking entails a pair-wise comparison of two CC impacts or
mitigation approaches at a time.
The questionnaire structure consists of two major sections that
allow the respondents to compare and rank each pair of elements:
(a) climate change impacts and (b) the mitigation approaches
(Appendix A). The first draft of the questionnaire was piloted to
check and correct ambiguities to improve the instrument’s validity
Fig. 2. Map of Dammam Metropolitan Area (Source: authors). and obtain any additional suggestions concerning the CC impacts
and their mitigation approaches. The feedback was utilized in
developing the final questionnaire form. Questionnaire and group
brainstorming with experts for consensus ranking are effective
million [49]. Worldwide, out of 335 incidences of catastrophes that
techniques for avoiding bias in the respondents’ opinions [60].
killed 9697 persons in 2017, flood incidences had the highest num-
The study participants were academics and consultants with at
ber of casualties (37.9 %), trailed closely by storms (37.6 %), and
least ten years of expertise in climate science and climate
then earthquakes emerged distant third (6.6 %) [21].
change-related issues in Saudi Arabia and other developing coun-
tries identified during the desktop research. After contacting sev-
3.2. Data collection and analyses eral experts via email, 12 of them finally agreed to participate in
the survey. A digital copy of the questionnaire was emailed to
This study employed an expert-based questionnaire survey for them, and they replied with their responses. Information on how
primary data collection and a desktop research method to collect to fill the questionnaire and the significance of the study was pro-
secondary data from relevant literature using the Google search vided in the introductory section of the questionnaire to facilitate
engine. The AHP-based survey involved 12 well-versed experts the respondents’ understanding of the questions and avoid incon-
on CC, climate change challenges, and climate change mitigation sistent/biased responses. The questions were close-ended, needing
in Saudi Arabia and other developing countries (Table 1). The responses on Saaty’s 9-point scale: 1 to 9 (Table 2).

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U.L. Dano, I.R. Abubakar, F.S. AlShihri et al. Ain Shams Engineering Journal xxx (xxxx) xxx

Table 1
The survey respondents by expertise.

Expertise Sector Years of Experience Number Percentage

Smart and sustainable cities Academia 10–20 4 33.3
Climate change: floods Industry 10–15 6 50.0
City and Regional Planning Academia 10–25 2 16.7
Total 12 100

Table 2 b) Defining the criteria and the alternatives;

The 9-point Saaty’s scale of preference (. Source: [79] c) Generating the AHP pair-wise comparison matrix based on
Scale Definition Description experts’ rankings as shown in Equation (2). More details regarding
1 Equally important Two criteria contributing constructing pair-wise comparison matrixes are found in Abba
equal input to the goal et al. [1] and Dano et al. [34].
3 Moderately important Moderately important over its 0 1
1 a12 a13 a14  a1n
sister criterion
B 1=a12 1 1=a13 1=a14  1=a2n C
5 Strongly important Strongly important over its B C
A¼B
B .. .. .. .. .. .. C
C
sister criterion @ . . . . . . A
7 Very strongly important Very strong importance over
its sister criterion
1=a1n 1=a2n 1=a3n 1=a4n  1
9 Extremely important Extreme importance over its ð2Þ
sister criterion
Scale, 2.4, Intermediary values Intermediary values are used
d) Adopting the eigenvalue method to compute the relative
6 and 8 when comparing two rank of each climate change impact and mitigation option;
neighboring judgments when e) Assessing the quality of pair-wise comparison using the Con-
necessary. sistency Ratio (CR). First, the CI is estimated using Equation (3).
Reciprocals If option i is scored on one of
the abovementioned scales kmax  n
compared with option j, CI ¼ ð3Þ
n1
option j is the reciprocal value.
where CI represents the value of the consistency index; k is the
eigenvalue with the highest value within the entire matrix, which
(a) Combining the experts’ rankings. can be calculated using Equation (3); n is the number of factors
The respondents’ numerical rankings were combined to obtain under investigation. Finally, equation (4) is used to calculate the CR.
the relative weights of the elements, which in turn reflect a single CI
consensus judgment. Therefore, the present study utilized the Geo- CR ¼ ð4Þ
RI
metric Mean Method (GMM) to combine the respondents’ rank-
ings. The study used GMM because of its capability to handle where RI represents the value of the random consistency index.
pair-wise comparison rankings. Moreover, in the case of the resul- Table 3 is a standard table randomly generated to represent n
tant pair-wise comparison matrix, GMM can maintain its recipro- criteria. Therefore, the random inconsistency index is determined
cal property involved in the AHP’s mathematical modeling [1]. by calculating the average consistency index of the reciprocal
GMM was employed in several previous studies to aggregate the matrices generated from the 9-point scale of preference (Table 2).
Q A consistent pair-wise comparison is denoted by a CR of less than
respondents’ rankings [1,36]. GMM ( ) is expressed mathemati-
cally as the root of the product of numbers, as shown in Equation or equal to 0.1 [79]. Therefore, the steps above were used to assess
(1). the climate change impacts and select the most effective mitiga-
tion approaches to curb climate change challenges in Saudi Arabia.
 1n The authors acknowledge the evolution of various forms of
n p ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
P xi ¼ n
x1 x2          xn ð1Þ multi-criteria decision making techniques over time. However,
i¼n
there is no consensus yet on an optimal one since all of them,
Where,
P = geometric mean.
n = number of values.
xi = value to average.
(b) Assessment structure of the AHP.
The AHP model, proposed by Saaty in the 1980s is a technique
for multi-criteria decision-making or modeling multifaceted
decision-making problems, including identifying regions vulnera-
ble to natural disaster risks [20,37]. The model represents a quan-
titative technique wherein experts allocate weights according to
the order of importance or influence [63]. Therefore, by involving
experts in the assessment, the model can help solve various
decision-making problems. Furthermore, the AHP’s hierarchy of
structures and decision elements into units and subunits (Fig. 3)
allows the integration of the experts’ rankings.
The AHP algorithm employed in this study consists of five main
steps to decompose the decision problem into some components.
The steps are succinctly outlined here:
a) Establishing the research objectives and splitting the problem
into various components; Fig. 3. Analytic Hierarchy Process structure (authors).

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U.L. Dano, I.R. Abubakar, F.S. AlShihri et al. Ain Shams Engineering Journal xxx (xxxx) xxx

including Fuzzy-AHP and ANP, have strengths and limitations. For ing sustainable transportation (ST), it is ranked the best approach
instance, concerns have been raised regarding the rank reversal to mitigating both TPH and UHI with priority weights of 0.35 and
problem of the ANP while fuzzifying AHP could cause problems 0.29, respectively. This finding is not surprising as fossil-based
of over-fuzzification which could invalidate model results transportation contributes to CO2 emissions substantially and
[20,19]. The traditional AHP is adopted in the present study increases ambient temperature, with attendant negative impacts
because earlier studies have confirmed its ability to successfully on human health and heat generation in built-up areas. Also, ST
classify flood susceptibility (e.g., [41,53]). Another advantage of and sustainable urban form (SUF) have been ranked the second-
AHP is its relative simplicity and ease of use. best approaches to reducing the risks of SLRCF with priority
weights of 0.27 and 0.27, respectively. In the same vein, SUF has
4. Results been ranked the second-best mitigation approach for reducing
the risks of LAP (0.25) and GD (0.25). This viewpoint is likely
This section presents the study’s findings based on the research because the experts believed SUF would not be the most effective
objectives. First, the study explores experts’ viewpoints on the sig- approach. Most Saudi Arabian cities are planned with some ele-
nificant CC impacts in DMA and their effective mitigation ments of sustainable urban form such as compactness, mixed uses,
approaches using pair-wise comparison derived from Saaty’s 9- and dense and walkable neighborhoods. A study by Dano et al. [35]
point scale of relative importance. Next, the results present the has highlighted the importance of smart and SUF in curbing traffic-
analysis of priority vectors for each impact and its mitigation related challenges in the Lagos Metropolitan Area.
approaches. Then, it further examines the extent to which the mit- Surprising, despite the importance of green buildings (GB) in
igation approaches can reduce the identified CC change impacts. mitigating CC impacts and Saudi Arabia’s initiatives of reducing
energy consumption and CO2 emissions in buildings, the experts
ranked it as the least effective approach to mitigating all the five
4.1. Prioritization of the CC impacts
impacts with 0.11 (SLRCF), 0.17 (TPH), 0.14 (LAP), 0.12 (GD), and
0.17 (UHI) weights. This finding is likely because the GB initiative
The five identified CC impacts were presented to the experts in
is new in the country, and many developers are yet to implement
a pair-wise comparison table to assess two impacts simultanously
the GB principles in their building projects. Therefore, the inconsis-
to explore which ones significantly affect the study area. As illus-
tency ratios for these matrices are 0.01 (SLRCF), 0.03 (TPH), 0.08
trated in Table 4, the findings reveal that, despite short rainfall
(LAP), 0.08 (GD), and 0.04 (UHI), implying acceptable levels of less
duration in DMA, the experts ranked SLRCF as the most significant
than 0.10 as the rule-of-thumb of calculation a CR. Tables B1-B5 in
CC impact in the study area with 0.36 weight (36 %). This finding is
Appendix B present judgment matrices of the approaches for mit-
likely due to the location of DMA on the coast and inadequate drai-
igating SLRCF, TPH, LAP, GD, and UHI.
nage that cause frequent floods. The second-ranked CC impact is
Fig. 4 depicts the experts’ scores for the efficacy of each
TPH (0.22), trailed closely by LAP (0.20). However, the experts
approach to mitigating CC, suggesting that GI is the most effective
opined that GD and UHI have less impact in the study area, with
in reducing UHI, SLRCF, GD, and LAP. Similarly, to reduce TPH, ST is
0.13 and 0.10 weights, respectively. The inconsistency ratio for
considered the best mitigation approach. On the other hand, GB
the matrix is 0.07, which is within the tolerable limits of  0.10
has emerged as a less promising approach because of the afore-
as a rule-of-thumb in the AHP methodology. This finding indicates
mentioned reasons. Furthermore, the priority weights of the CC
that the survey participants attached more importance to SLRCF
impacts were synthesized with the mitigation approaches to
over the rest of CC impacts investigated in this study.
obtain the global priorities, as shown in Table 6. This synthesis is
This finding is not surprising as floods are the first ranked, most
another way of minimizing bias among decision criteria to ascer-
recurrent, and most destructive natural disaster affecting Saudi
tain the consistency of the comparison matrix. Hence, a new set
Arabia [4,78]. Floods have caused injuries, deaths, property dam-
of weights (global priorities) are calculated, providing high consis-
age, and economic loss in several parts of the country, especially
tency without changing the experts’ inputs. Lastly, the synthesized
Jeddah and Riyadh [14]. Therefore, its probability of occurrence is
weights of the initial judgments show that GI (0.34) is ranked as
high compared to other impacts explored in this study. As elabo-
the best approach to mitigating SLRCF, UHI, LAP, and GD. On the
rated earlier, the inconsistency ratio for the pair-wise comparison
other hand, ST (0.28) is considered the best approach to reducing
matrix is 0.07, which is within the tolerable boundary of lower
TPH, UHI, and SLRCF as the third-best approach. Also, SUF (0.26)
than 0.10.
is considered the second-best approach for mitigating SLRCF and
the best approach to mitigating GD and LAP.
4.2. Prioritization of the climate change mitigation approaches

Four major CC mitigation approaches were also presented to the 5. Discussion

experts for prioritization using the 9-point scale of relative impor-
tance (Table 2) to select the most effective in mitigating each CC The present study conducted an expert-based assessment of CC
impact in the study area. This selection is made by comparing impacts and their most effective mitigation approach in DMA,
the effectiveness of each approach relative to another using the Saudi Arabia. When asked to judge multifaceted decision-making
AHP pair-wise comparison questionnaire. As summarized in problems, the respondents expressed consistent and contrasting
Table 5, the experts have placed much importance on green infras- judgments. Based on their expertise, they have a strong basis for
tructure (GI) as the most effective approach to mitigating SLRCF understanding the phenomenon in question to provide solid and
(0.35), LAP (0.39), GD (0.41), and UHI (0.29), and the second-best unbiased judgments on the decision-making problem under inves-
approach to mitigating TPH with a priority score of 0.25. Concern- tigation. The findings have several important implications. First,

Table 3
Random inconsistency index (. adapted from [79]

Size of matrix 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Random consistency 0 0 0.58 0.90 1.12 1.24 1.32 1.41 1.45 1.49

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U.L. Dano, I.R. Abubakar, F.S. AlShihri et al. Ain Shams Engineering Journal xxx (xxxx) xxx

Table 4
Judgment matrix on the significant CC impactsfordevising effective CC mitigation approaches.

CC impacts UHI SLRCF GD LAP TPH Priority weights

UHI 1.00 0.46 0.97 0.22 0.32 0.10
SLRCF 2.18 1.00 3.71 2.88 1.43 0.36
GD 1.03 0.27 1.00 0.77 0.92 0.13
LAP 4.47 0.35 1.30 1.00 0.76 0.20
TPH 3.08 0.70 1.09 1.31 1.00 0.22
Inconsistency ration = 0.07

Table 5
Judgment matrix of the climate change impacts mitigation approaches.

Climate change reduction approaches Mitigation options

GB GI ST SUF Inconsistency ratio
UHI (0.10) 0.17 (4th) 0.29 (1st) 0.29 (1st) 0.25 (3rd) 0.04
SLRCF (0.36) 0.11 (4th) 0.35 (1st) 0.27 (2nd) 0.27 (2nd) 0.01
GD (0.13) 0.12 (4th) 0.41 (1st) 0.22 (3rd) 0.25 (2nd) 0.08
LAP (0.20) 0.14 (4th) 0.39 (1st) 0.22 (3rd) 0.25 (2nd) 0.08
TPH (0.22 0.17 (4th) 0.25 (2nd) 0.35 (1st) 0.23 (3rd) 0.03
Inconsistency ratio = 0.07

Fig. 4. Contribution of the mitigation approaches in reducing CC impacts.

Table 6
Computing the global priorities through the synthesis of the local priorities.

UHI SLRCF GD LAP TPH Global priorities

Local priorities 0.10 0.36 0.13 0.20 0.22
GB 0.17 0.11 0.12 0.14 0.17 0.14
GI 0.29 0.35 0.41 0.39 0.25 0.34
ST 0.29 0.27 0.22 0.22 0.35 0.28
SUF 0.25 0.27 0.25 0.25 0.23 0.26

the experts adjudged SLCF as the most significant CC impact in the and damaged infrastructure and properties worth 20.3 billion dol-
study area. Like in the present study, Abubakar and Dano [6], lars [21]. Climate change provokes SLRCF due to thermal expansion
Alshehri et al. [16], Dano [37], and Dano [36] have reported coastal caused by GHGs emissions. The coastal cities of Saudi Arabia (Dam-
and flash floods as the most recurring natural disaster affecting mam and Jeddah) are the hardest hit cities suffering from flood
Saudi Arabia, which is strongly associated to CC. catastrophes. According to IPPC estimates, by 2100, a 1 % annual
Globally, floods were ranked highest (0.34) in terms of human increase in coastal development is projected to trigger sea-level
loss, followed by storms (0.26), landslides (0.24), and earthquakes rise that could inundate 1087 and 4674 ha of sandy beaches along
(0.10) among natural disasters [21]. Moreover, in 2017, the world the Arabian Gulf and the Red Sea, respectively [40]. Furthermore,
recorded 126 incidences of flood hazards which killed 3331 lives

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U.L. Dano, I.R. Abubakar, F.S. AlShihri et al. Ain Shams Engineering Journal xxx (xxxx) xxx

an inadequate drainage system to collect runoff in cities con- population, influenced by subsidized petrol prices and adequate
tributes tremendously to triggering floods [37]. roadside parking areas [33]. On the other hand, ST can help keep
The second-ranked CC impact in the study area is TPH. In a the air cleaner through low-carbon transportation such as cycling,
public-based perception study conducted by Qahtany and Abuba- carpooling, and public transit, thereby reducing trips frequency
kar (2020), the respondents have ranked floods as the second and urban sprawl while improving public health, urban livability,
impactful natural disaster (0.67) in Saudi Arabia, even though and environmental quality.
floods cause the highest human casualties in the country. Their Also, the respondents have ranked SUF the second-best
perceptions were likely due to lack of information and expertise approach to mitigating SLRCF (0.27), LAP (0.25), and GD (0.25).
on CC. Saudi Arabia has witnessed 14 natural disasters that The SUF plays a vital role in mitigating various CC impacts by pro-
affected 30,000 people, with disease epidemics and floods causing moting compact, walkable, and mixed land-use, smart infrastruc-
economic losses of nearly 450 million USD and a death toll of no ture, and articulated neighborhoods emphasizing the health and
less than 572 people (Fig. 3) [48]. Disease epidemics such as severe livelihood of urban residents [27]. These findings concur with Liu
acute respiratory syndrome, Rift Valley fever, and flu are the most et al. [67] that urban air pollution is mitigated by reducing built-
common ailments in the country [16,13,4,78]. For example, in up areas’ disintegration while increasing compactness and conti-
2009, 15850 people were infected by swine flu, which resulted in guity. Spatial urban planning initiatives, including ST and SUF,
the death of 124 people across the country [13]. Globally, CC signif- are fundamental in curbing local oil and natural gas consumption,
icantly exacerbates the spread of diseases. For example, people and which has grown at 7 % yearly in the last decade [22]. In 2016,
animals are forced to relocate to uninhabited areas due to domestic consumption of natural gas and oil had gulped 100 %
droughts, rising temperatures, floods, and scarcity of vegetation and 28 % of the country’s total productions, respectively [22].
caused by the changing climate. Consequently, some diseases are Lastly, the experts have chosen GB as the least effective
carried to new areas with a possibility of disease transmission approach to mitigating all the investigated CC impacts: SLRCF
between humans and animals [72]. The next section focuses on (0.11), TPH (0.17), LAP (0.14), GD (0.12), and UHI (0.17). This study
CC mitigation approaches. finding contrasts with the importance of GB in minimizing CC
Pertaining the most effective approach to addressing the ranked reported in the study by Abubakar and Dano [62]. Globally, the
CC impacts in the study area, GI was adjudged the best approach in building sector consumes around 40 % of the total energy gener-
reducing SLRCF (0.35), LAP (0.39), GD (41), and UHI (29) and ated while consequently responsible for nearly one-third of GHGs
ranked the second-best for TPH (0.25) reduction. These findings emissions in most countries across the globe [87]. In Saudi Arabian,
are quite encouraging because GI initiatives include developing the government has initiated the implementation of GB in its con-
low-carbon power options, water conservation, and supply effi- struction industries to reduce energy consumption and GHG emis-
ciency, pervious pavement, storm water system, rain gardens, sea- sions through energy-saving appliances [6]. In the same vein, the
shore protection, green roofs, green streets, green alleys, parks, estimated growth of GBs in the housing sector is proposed to reach
urban forests, waste volarization, and landfill gas collection system 30–40 % in 2018, with around 250,000 square meters of residential
to generate power [34,87,92]. This finding tallies well with similar area projects, which is likely to rise by 25–40 % in the next five
studies that supported the ability of GI to offset carbon emissions years [6]. However, despite its merits, the AHP technique has some
[28], capture and store storm water and lessen runoff [70], and limitations that could affect its accuracy such as assuming decision
improve water quality [50]. Similarly, a study conducted by Li criteria and alternatives to be independent [71], its problem of
et al. [66] in Shenyang, Northeast China, highlighted the impor- rank reversal [60], and likely bias in the experts judgments
tance of GI in rainfall storage capacity and found that GI could pro- [64,20]. In spite of these limitation, earlier studies affirmed the
vide 110.7 mm average runoff storage capacity, which in turn AHP’s ability to successfully classify flood susceptibility, obtaining
reduces flood runoff. Furthermore, another study conducted by an Area Under Curve (AUC) of 0.84 [41,53]. This is in addition to its
Gunnell et al. [52] found that the GI has a high capacity for storing relative simplicity and ease of use. Therefore, the AHP-based
flood runoff water. The roles of GI in improving human health have decision-making model is crucial to managing CC risks for reducing
also been highlighted in the literature. For example, a study con- human, environmental, and economic losses. Furthermore, expert-
ducted by Dennis et al. [43] revealed that the effect of GI on resi- based opinion can offer CC managers of relevant state agencies and
dents’ health is mediated by the type of green space, size, non-governmental organizations reliable approaches to assessing
accessibility, and plants health. They concluded that older and different CC impacts and recommend more effective mitigation
lower-income residents were healthier if their neighborhoods approaches in line with their desires and resources.
comprised accessible, sizeable, and good quality green spaces such
as parks and lawns. Moreover, in Oslo, Norway, Venter et al. [93]
revealed that heat-related ailments for heat-sensitive residents 6. Conclusion
aged 75 years and above were becoming less infected from heat
exposure due to the availability of GI such as trees canopy, reduc- This study found that GI, ST, and SUF are crucial in minimizing
ing monthly air temperatures. the risks of SLRCF, TPH, LAP, GD, and UHI in the study area. The
The experts have also rated sustainable transportation as the study has empirically underscored the effectiveness of employing
best approach to mitigate TPH (0.35) and UHI (0.29) and the an AHP-based decision-making technique in assessing CC impacts
second-best approach to mitigating SLRCF (0.27). Similar findings and their mitigation approaches. Moreover, it presents key impli-
have been reported in the literature. For example, some local stud- cations of the findings for practice. Expert opinions of CC impacts
ies have stressed the importance of public buses and trains in mit- and their effective mitigation approaches could offer vital informa-
igating CC [6,33,32]. Also, the key role of ST in reducing SLRCF, TPH, tion, especially helpful for CC decision-makers, officials, and
and UHI has been reported in Tehran [82]. Globally, the transporta- experts working in the country’s General Directorate of Climate
tion sector contributes around 23–30 % of the energy-related GHG Change and Environmental Agreements and the General Authority
emissions worldwide [87]. In Saudi Arabia, a lack of public trans- of Meteorology and Environmental Protection.
port exacerbates CC due to cars’ high consumption of fossil fuels, Undoubtedly, planning and implementing CC mitigation mea-
leading to rising carbon emissions, temperature, and thermal sures could be facilitated by taking cognizance of experts’ risk
expansion. The dominant mode of transportation is the private opinions and the awareness level of the society. Adequate mitiga-
automobile, with a car ownership rate of 219 cars for every 1000 tion, adaption, and resiliency measures can help reduce the sprout-
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U.L. Dano, I.R. Abubakar, F.S. AlShihri et al. Ain Shams Engineering Journal xxx (xxxx) xxx

ing threats of CC in the country. As such, there is an urgent need for Funding
more efforts in promoting the implementation of more GI, ST, SUF,
and GBs. In addition, public enlightenment about CC risks and the This study has not received any funding.
importance of these approaches in reducing CC risks such as dis-
ease epidemics, mortality rates, floods, and economic loss is
Declaration of Competing Interest
needed. Future research on other cities is essential to provide
broader assessments of CC impacts and mitigation measures,
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
including assessments of future exposure to climate risks. Accord-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
ing to the State of the World Cities 2012/2013, cities of the 21st
to influence the work reported in this paper.
century should be capable of reducing the threats triggered by nat-
ural hazards and vulnerabilities for all [88]. Given that CC impacts
on people and ecosystems are widespread, mitigation and adapta- Appendix A:. AHP questionnaire
tion efforts can help lower their adverse effects and promote envi-
ronmental sustainability. See Tables A1 and A2.

Table A1
Comparison of the criteria.

Question: With respect to climate change impacts, which criterion is more likely to occur?
Factor 1 Extremely Very strong Strongly Slightly Equal Slightly Strongly Very strong Extremely Factor 2
favors (9) favors (7) favors (5) favors (3) (1) favors (3) favors (5) favors (7) favors (9)
Urban heat island Sea-level rise &
coastal flooding
Urban heat island Groundwater
depletion
Urban heat island Low agricultural
productivity
Urban heat island Threat to public
health
Sea-level rise & Groundwater
coastal flooding depletion
Sea-level rise & Low agricultural
coastal flooding productivity
Sea-level rise & Threat to public
coastal flooding health
Groundwater Low agricultural
depletion productivity
Groundwater Threat to public
depletion health
Low agricultural Threat to public
productivity health

Table A2
Comparison of the mitigation approaches (alternatives).

Question: With respect to urban heat island reduction, which mitigation approaches are more important?
Factor 1 Extremely Very strong Strongly Slightly Equal Slightly Strongly Very strong Extremely Factor 2
favors (9) favors (7) favors (5) favors (3) (1) favors (3) favors (5) favors (7) favors (9)
Green buildings Green
infrastructure
Green buildings Sustainable
transportation
Green buildings Sustainable
urban form
Green
infrastructureSustainable transportationGreen infrastructureSustainable urban formSustainable transportationSustainable urban form

Question: With respect to sea-level rise & coastal flooding reduction, which mitigation approaches are more important?
Factor 1 Extremely Very strong Strongly Slightly Equal Slightly Strongly Very strong Extremely Factor 2
favors (9) favors (7) favors (5) favors (3) (1) favors (3) favors (5) favors (7) favors (9)
Green buildings Green
infrastructure
Green buildings Sustainable
transportation
Green buildings Sustainable
urban form
Green
infrastructureSustainable transportationGreen infrastructureSustainable urban formSustainable transportationSustainable urban form

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U.L. Dano, I.R. Abubakar, F.S. AlShihri et al. Ain Shams Engineering Journal xxx (xxxx) xxx

Question: With respect to groundwater depletion reduction, which mitigation approaches are more important?
Factor 1 Extremely Very strong Strongly Slightly Equal Slightly Strongly Very strong Extremely Factor 2
favors (9) favors (7) favors (5) favors (3) (1) favors (3) favors (5) favors (7) favors (9)
Green buildings Green
infrastructure
Green buildings Sustainable
transportation
Green buildings Sustainable
urban form
Green
infrastructureSustainable transportationGreen infrastructureSustainable urban formSustainable transportationSustainable urban form

Question: With respect to low agricultural productivity reduction, which mitigation approaches are more important?
Factor 1 Extremely Very strong Strongly Slightly Equal Slightly Strongly Very strong Extremely Factor 2
favors (9) favors (7) favors (5) favors (3) (1) favors (3) favors (5) favors (7) favors (9)
Green buildings Green
infrastructure
Green buildings Sustainable
transportation
Green buildings Sustainable
urban form
Green
infrastructureSustainable transportationGreen infrastructureSustainable urban formSustainable transportationSustainable urban form
Question: With respect to threat to public health reduction, which mitigation approaches are more important?
Factor 1 Extremely Very strong Strongly Slightly Equal Slightly Strongly Very strong Extremely Factor 2
favors (9) favors (7) favors (5) favors (3) (1) favors (3) favors (5) favors (7) favors (9)
Green buildings Green
infrastructure
Green buildings Sustainable
transportation
Green buildings Sustainable
urban form
Green
infrastructureSustainable transportationGreen infrastructureSustainable urban formSustainable transportationSustainable urban form

Appendix B. Judgement matrices

See Tables B1-B5.

Table B1
Judgment matrix concerning SLRCF reduction.

SLRCF GB GI ST SUF Priority Weights

GB 1.00 0.35 0.34 0.43 0.11
GI 2.86 1.00 1.43 1.29 0.35
ST 2.91 0.70 1.00 0.93 0.27
SUF 2.33 0.78 1.07 1.00 0.27

Table B2
Judgment matrix concerning TPH reduction.

TPH GB GI ST SUF Priority Weights

GB 1.00 0.66 0.33 1.04 0.17
GI 1.51 1.00 0.78 1.06 0.25
ST 3.03 1.29 1.00 1.15 0.35
SUF 0.96 0.94 0.87 1.00 0.23

Table B3
Judgment matrix concerning LAP reduction.

LAP GB GI ST SUF Priority Weights

GB 1.00 0.30 0.76 0.65 0.14
GI 3.30 1.00 2.16 1.20 0.39
ST 1.31 0.83 1.00 0.87 0.22
SUF 1.54 0.83 1.15 1.00 0.25

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U.L. Dano, I.R. Abubakar, F.S. AlShihri et al. Ain Shams Engineering Journal xxx (xxxx) xxx

Table B4
Judgment matrix concerning GD reduction.

GD GB GI ST SUF Priority Weights

GB 1.00 0.19 0.60 0.63 0.12
GI 4.30 1.00 2.37 1.23 0.41
ST 1.68 0.82 1.00 0.80 0.22
SUF 1.59 0.82 1.26 1.00 0.25

Table B5
Judgment matrix concerning UHI reduction.

UHI GB GI ST SUF Priority Weights

GB 1.00 0.85 0.44 0.56 0.17
GI 1.17 1.00 1.03 1.62 0.29
ST 2.27 0.97 1.00 0.92 0.29
SUF 1.79 0.62 1.09 1.00 0.25

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U.L. Dano, I.R. Abubakar, F.S. AlShihri et al. Ain Shams Engineering Journal xxx (xxxx) xxx

Umar Lawal Dano is an Associate Professor at Imam Dr. Sayed M S Ahmed is an assistant professor in the
Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University, Dammam, Saudi Department of Urban and Regional Planning (DURP),
Arabia. He earned a Ph.D. in Civil Engineering from UTP, College of Architecture and Planning at IAU, Saudi Ara-
Malaysia, a Master in Planning-Information Technology bia. He earned Ph.D. in Urban Development and New
from UTM, Malaysia. He is a member of Global Science towns from Newcastle University, School of Architec-
and Technology Forum (GSTF), Singapore, Surveying ture, Planning and Landscape, UK. He is teaching
and Spatial Sciences Institution (SSSI), Australia, and undergraduate and graduate courses in DURP. He has
Asia-Pacific Chemical, Biological & Environmental some scientific publications and one funded project. His
Engineering Society (APCBEES), Hong Kong. He has focus of research is in urban and regional planning,
published several research articles in peer-reviewed sustainable development, smart cities, new towns and
journals, book, book chapters, and conference proceed- public participation.
ings. His research interest include applications of GIS,
remote sensing, and multi-criteria decision analysis (Analytic Hierarchy Process
and Analytic Network Process Models) tools in flood hazards forecasting, climate
change, urban planning, and land suitability modeling. Profile: [Link]
[Link]/citations?user=e1UDiz8AAAAJ&hl=en Tareq I. Alrawaf is an Associate Professor with the
Department of Landscape Architecture, Imam Abdul-
rahman Bin Faisal University. He earned his PhD from
Ismaila Rimi Abubakar is a full professor of urban Edinburgh University and MLA in Colorado at Denver.
sustainability with 20 years of experience in teaching, Dr. Tareq I. Alrawaf is currently the Dean, College of
research, and professional consultancy across four Architecture and Planning, Imam Abdulrahman Bin
continents. He earned a Ph.D. in Urban and Regional Faisal University. He has authored a book and tens of
Planning from Florida State University (USA), a Master scientific research articles. His research interests
in City & Regional Planning from KFUPM, Saudi Arabia, include sustainability and sustainable development,
and an MSc in Computing from Robert Gordon Univer- landscape and environmental assessment, urban design,
sity, UK. He has published over 100 papers in high- rehabilitation of historical and environmentally affected
impact journals, edited book chapters, and conferences. sites, environmental resources conservation and man-
His research focuses on urban sustainability, climate agement, wild plants utilization in beautification and landscaping, green infras-
change, sustainable urbanization, and basic urban ser- tructure, and resilience of urban and natural ecosystems.
vices. He has supervised several postgraduate students,
received four research grants, and is currently listed by stanford University among
the world’s top 2% scientists. He is an Associate Editor of the International Journal of Maher Sayel Alshammari, graduated from the Depart-
Climate Change Strategies and Management, a fellow of the Population Reference ment of Urban and Regional Planning, College of
Bureau, Washington DC, and a member of several international professional orga- Architecture and Planning, Imam Abdulrahman Bin
nizations. Profile: [Link] Faisal University, Dammam, Saudi Arabia in 1994. He
n&oi=ao obtained a master’s degree in Urban and Regional
Planning from the University of Texas at Arlington,
Texas, USA in 1999. He completed his Ph.D. in Urban
Following his Ph.D. in Environmental Urban and Planning and Public Policy from the University of Texas
Regional Planning and Sustainable Development from at Arlington, Texas, USA in 2007. Dr. Maher Sayel
University of Newcastle Upon Tyne, School of Archi- Alshammari has been teaching Urban and Regional
tecture, Planning and Landscape, UK, in 2001, Dr. Planning at Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University
Alshihri is currently a Professor and Head of the (2007-2020). He has worked on several funded projects
Department of Urban and Regional Planning, College of and research related to Urban and Regional Planning.
Architecture and Planning, Imam Abdulrahman Bin
Faisal University, Dammam, Saudi Arabia. He has
supervised several Master’s and Doctoral theses and
taught undergraduate and graduate courses in URP. He
has 32 scientific publications, four funded projects, and
many public newspaper articles and four books cover-
ing issues in Urban & Regional Planning, Sustainable Development, Smart city, and
Public Participation. He is the Head of Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University
Consulting House for URP. He is a fellow of Advanced HE in the United Kingdom.

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