1058735

article-commentary2022
PHRXXX10.1177/00333549211058735Public Health ReportsCook et al

Commentary
Public Health Reports

Addressing Racism in the Domestic Minor 2022, Vol. 137(Supplement 1) 10S­–16S

© 2022, Association of Schools and

Sex Trafficking of Black Girls: The Role of

Programs of Public Health
All rights reserved.
Article reuse guidelines:
Public Health Critical Race Praxis [Link]/journals-permissions
[Link]
DOI: 10.1177/00333549211058735
[Link]/home/phr

Mekeila C. Cook, PhD1 ; PhuongThao D. Le, PhD, MPH2;

and Jennifer J. García, PhD, MPH3

Keywords
sexual exploitation, child trafficking, structural racism, public health, critical race praxis

In the United States and worldwide, the Black Lives Matter reflect racial bias in policing14,15 or the existing dispropor-
movement and the disproportionate impact of COVID-19 on tionality in the child welfare system16—the data are never-
communities of color have sparked challenging conversa- theless alarming and deserve critical analysis.
tions about the deeply ingrained structural causes of racial A recent push has been made toward using a public health
disparities in the criminal justice system and other health- approach to sex trafficking, which emphasizes prevention
related aspects of life in the United States. In the anti–sex and population-level factors instead of the reactionary, crimi-
trafficking field, the relationship between racial inequity nal justice perspective that has historically dominated the
among Black girls and domestic minor sex trafficking field.17-20 Public health directs our attention upstream to
(DMST) is largely unexplored. In this article, we define identify risk factors and potential points of intervention to
DMST as the commercial sexual exploitation of a minor prevent or mitigate poor health outcomes.21-23 A focus of this
aged <18 years in the United States.1 public health approach in sex trafficking includes an exami-
nation of social determinants, such as structural racism, that
put certain groups at increased vulnerability for sex traffick-
DMST Among Black Girls ing. However, a public health approach alone is insufficient.
Several initiatives aimed at increasing awareness of and We argue that as researchers, practitioners, and policy mak-
compelling action to prevent human trafficking generally, ers reflect on the progress made in the sex trafficking field
and DMST specifically, have been enacted, including the thus far, and how to chart the paths forward in the coming
Polaris Project2 (established in 2002) and the Office on decades, an important part of this journey is Public Health
Trafficking in Persons within the Administration for Children Critical Race Praxis (PHCRP). PHCRP brings race con-
and Families division of the US Department of Health and sciousness to DMST and strengthens our explicit recognition
Human Services (established in 2001).3 As a result of these of the role of race and racism in contributing to the apparent
efforts, public awareness of human trafficking has increased, increased vulnerability of Black females involved in DMST.
evident in the steady increase in the number of suspected
cases of human trafficking reported to the Human
Viewing DMST From a Race-Conscious
Trafficking Hotline each year.4,5 Yet, no national database
exists to measure the prevalence rates of DMST, because Perspective
of a lack of agreement on which indicators to use and myr- In a 2001 publication, the United Nations unequivocally
iad methodological challenges in reaching the clandestine recognized that racial discrimination is linked to trafficking
populations.6,7 Published statistics on sex trafficking often risk24 and recommended that the anti-trafficking field
do not include racial or ethnic backgrounds of victims, but pursue an intersectional examination of gender and race
in a rare albeit dated publication, data on confirmed federal
cases of sex trafficking from 2008-2010 revealed that 40% of
1
survivors were primarily Black females (40%), compared  ivision of Public Health Practice, Meharry Medical College, Nashville,
D
TN, USA
with 26% who were White females.8 In addition, in studies 2
New York University School of Global Public Health, New York, NY, USA
that sample from primary point-of-contact agencies (ie, juve- 3
Engage R+D, Pasadena, CA, USA
nile courts, medical facilities, and child protective services),
Corresponding Author:
Black females aged ≤24 years represented 38% to 80% of
Mekeila C. Cook, PhD, Meharry Medical College, School of Graduate
DMST survivors.9-13 Although it is difficult to conclude from Studies and Research, Division of Public Health Practice, 1005 Dr. DB
these data alone that Black girls are disproportionately Todd Blvd, Nashville, TN 37208-3501, USA.
affected by DMST—for example, these statistics might also Email: mcook@[Link]
Cook et al 11S

discrimination. Yet, few scholars have explicitly explored economy.” Similarly, domestic minor sex trafficking in the
racial bias and discrimination in DMST, with the excep- United States occurs within a racialized context—in a sys-
tions of Butler,25 Chong,26 and others.27-29 Butler contends tem in which girls of color are socially and economically
that sexual exploitation is racialized and names structural marginalized.
racism as a root cause of the disparity of Black females in PHCRP provides a guide to the research process that is
sex trafficking, arguing that contemporary anti-trafficking organized along 4 focus areas—(1) contemporary racializa-
paradigms, rooted in racial bias (eg, the myth of the “iconic” tion, (2) knowledge production, (3) conceptualization and
White female victim), continue to marginalize people of measurement, and (4) action—and 10 principles (for a full
color and Black females in particular.25 Similarly, Chong’s description of the principles and the entire PHCRP frame-
study of international sex trafficking argues that discrimi- work, see Ford and Airhihenbuwa33). Each focus area is
nation based on race and gender, in conjunction with accompanied by at least 1 principle that further delineates
poverty and marginalization, contributes to vulnerability the affiliated concepts (Table). To demonstrate its applica-
for sexual exploitation, violence, and sex trafficking.26 bility to DMST, we provide an overview of the PHCRP focus
An upstream and race-conscious approach, which PHCRP areas and selected principles, as they relate to Black girls and
brings, is necessary to fully explicate and address the DMST.
underlying causes of the apparent racial inequity of Black
females in DMST.
Contemporary Racialization
The first focus area, contemporary racialization, considers
Using PHCRP to Address DMST the proper racial and historical context to understand how
PHCRP is an extension of Critical Race Theory (CRT), a racism and racialization operate at a given point in time. In
race-conscious legal movement focused on “transforming this focus area, the principle race as a social construct is key.
the relationship between race, racism, and power.”30 Central For example, the contemporary “adultification” of Black
to CRT is the understanding that race is a social construct and girls—the misconception that Black girls are less innocent
that in racialized societies such as the United States, white- and more adultlike than their White peers37—is not based on
ness is privileged in the racial hierarchy. Furthermore, con- biological traits but is a result of the historical exoticism of
temporary racism is subtle and covert, requiring an enhanced Black female bodies and the oversexualization of Black
set of legal tools (eg, counterstorytelling, intersectionality) to women and girls in modern media.25
address inequities that stem from implicit and systemic rac- Applying the principle of structural determinism, we can
ism. Although PHCRP is new to the anti-trafficking field, further explicate how this oversexualization and devaluing
other theories related to CRT have been applied to the issue of Black girls and the accepted belief that Black girls are
of human trafficking. For example, literature from the field violent and out of control25,37 contributed to racially biased
of social work draws on Critical Theory to improve child responses by law enforcement and the justice system. The
welfare systems31 and client practices when working with case of Cyntoia Brown38,39 sheds light on how Black girls are
trafficked people.28 In addition, Butler,32 a legal scholar, perceived and treated by the justice system. Brown, a Black
applied Critical Race Feminism to examine the role of race 16-year-old survivor of DMST, who shot and killed her
and racism in the commercial sex industry and anti-traffick- 46-year-old “John” after exchanging sex for money, was sen-
ing movement in the United States. tenced to 51 years in prison without parole in 2004. She
PHCRP, first articulated by Ford and Airhihenbuwa in received clemency from the governor of Tennessee 15 years
2010,33 adapts and reshapes CRT, merges tenets of the pub- later, after multiple failed court appeals.38 Brown received
lic health approach, and has been applied in HIV research34 clemency because the governor believed imposing a life sen-
and in the study of policing behaviors.35 PHCRP is a sys- tence on a juvenile was too harsh.39 Brown’s initial convic-
tematic framework that unites science, theory, experiential tion and the legal proceeding that followed illustrate how the
knowledge, and action to pursue racial equity in all aspects macro-level forces and institutions (in this case, the justice
of public health research and practice.33,34,36 Race conscious- system) contribute to and perpetuate racial inequities and are
ness—attentiveness to the racialized dynamics in society and a major determinant of outcomes for DMST survivors.
the contribution of these dynamics to research, practice, and
one’s personal experiences—is a central feature of PHCRP.33
Knowledge Production
Using a race-conscious approach to DMST means recogniz-
ing that race matters and race is connected to economic The second focus area, knowledge production, questions how
resources and educational opportunities. Chong26 argues that anti–sex trafficking efforts are shaped by racialized beliefs,
for women globally, “Both race and ethnicity are the reasons uncovering the ways in which racial bias may be reinforced.
for their poverty. . . . With no opportunities offered by the Here, the social construction of knowledge principle, which
welfare state and its policies, these women have been histori- refers to how the established knowledge in a discipline is
cally engaged in low-profit activities and the informal shaped by the norms and culture of that discipline and by
12S Public Health Reports 137(Supplement 1)

Table.  Public Health Critical Race Praxis (PHCRP)a principles and focus areas applied to domestic minor sex trafficking (DMST) among
Black girls in the United States

Application to DMSTc

Principleb Affiliated focus areab Definitionb Conventional approach PHCRP approach

Race All Deep awareness of “Colorblind” perspective that Identify and challenge
consciousness one’s racial position ignores the role of race and personal, institutional,
and awareness of racial racism in contributing to and societal racial biases
stratification processes Black girls’ vulnerability to and how they influence
operating in colorblind DMST research, practice, and
contexts policymaking (eg, Black girls
do not fit the purview of
DMST victims)
Primacy of Contemporary The fundamental Practices based on the notion Design and evaluate DMST
racialization racialization contribution of racial that DMST is a consequence responses with the explicit
stratification to societal of primarily economic goal to address racial
problems; the central conditions inequities
focus of Critical Race
Theory scholarship
on explaining racial
phenomena
Race as a social Contemporary Significance that derives Biological determinism—the Recognize that Black girls
construct racialization; from social, political, and belief that race is based on are not at risk of DMST
conceptualization and historical forces one’s biology (eg, Black girls because of their race, but
measurement are physiologically ready for because of a racialized
sex at younger ages than social order that places
non-Black girls or Black girls Black girls at the margins
are biologically prone to of society and increased
violence) vulnerability to DMST
Ordinariness of Contemporary Racism is embedded in the Racism is rarely considered Incorporate an antiracist
racism racialization social fabric of society when examining DMST lens by acknowledging that
vulnerability Black girls are chronically
racialized and experience
racism in the context
of DMST (eg, history of
exoticism of Black female
bodies including the
oversexualization of Black
girls in contemporary
media)
Structural Contemporary The fundamental role of Focus on individual-level Examine how institutional-
determinism racialization macro-level forces in factors such as trauma level factors such as
driving and sustaining history or criminal record the criminalization of
inequities across time and prostitution among
contexts; the tendency of adolescents perpetuates
dominant group members the cycle of violence and
and institutions to make trauma for Black girls
decisions or take actions
that preserve existing
power hierarchies
Social Knowledge production The claim that established Belief that the status quo for Examine current DMST
construction knowledge within a addressing DMST is free theoretical frameworks for
of knowledge discipline can be re- from bias the presence or absence of
evaluated using antiracism antiracism principles
modes of analysis

(continued)
Cook et al 13S

Table.  (continued)

Application to DMSTc

Principleb Affiliated focus areab Definitionb Conventional approach PHCRP approach

Critical Knowledge production; To dig beneath the DMST practices that adhere Investigate to what extent
approaches action surface; to develop to a trauma-informed and current DMST advocacy
a comprehensive colorblind approach and practices address
understanding of one’s racial bias in distribution
biases of services and resources
(eg, Safe Harbor
implementation and
application)
Intersectionality Conceptualization and The interlocking nature DMST services designed Consider unique social
measurement; action of co-occurring social to address a single-issue location of individuals and
categories (eg, race and problem (eg, focusing on how multiple oppressions
gender) and the forms of one aspect of an individual’s regarding age, race, social
social stratification that lived experience) class, gender identity, and
maintain them sexual orientation are
experienced by Black girls
Disciplinary Action The systematic examination Assuming current DMST Reexamine framing within
self-critique by members of a discipline approaches are sufficient to the field of who is
of its conventions and address racialized disparities deserving/undeserving of
impacts on the broader in DMST services and sympathy
society (eg, White girls as victims
vs voluntary engagement
in sex work among Black
girls)
Voice Knowledge production; Prioritizing the perspectives Designing trafficking policies Seek the expertise of
action of marginalized and services without input those with relevant lived
people; privileging the from those most affected experience to advise on
experimental knowledge all aspects of research,
of outsiders within programs, and policies
(eg, include Black DMST
survivors in interpretation
of findings, formulation of
services)
a
Public Health Critical Race Praxis is an extension of Critical Race Theory, a race-conscious legal movement focused on “transforming the relationship
between race, racism, and power.”30 It was first articulated by Ford and Airhihenbuwa in 2010.33
b
Reproduced with permission from Ford and Airhihenbuwa.33
c
Developed by the authors according to model provided by Ford and Airhihenbuwa33; examples illustrate PHCRP concepts.

social context more generally, is particularly pertinent. Another principle, critical approaches, challenges
Another aspect of adultification is the widely held assumption researchers and practitioners to move beyond the status quo
that Black girls are ready for and engaged in sexual activity in of anti-trafficking efforts and to investigate how personal and
early adolescence, which can often lead to the perception that institutional biases affect knowledge and knowledge produc-
Black girls simply choose to engage in sex work instead of tion. An example of how critical approaches are applied in
recognizing their marginalization and vulnerability to exploi- DMST can be seen in an article by Gerassi, in which the
tation. This racially biased production of knowledge presents authors—a researcher, an organizer, and a practitioner—pro-
a challenge for Black DMST survivors in 2 ways: oversight vide critical reflections on their discourses, assumptions, and
that Black girls are victims and victim blaming. On the one actions, especially naming the unacknowledged bias that was
hand, Black girls are not recognized as potential victims of occurring in an anti-trafficking task force in both leadership
DMST, and their victimization often goes unnoticed by those and service delivery.29
with the power to intervene. On the other hand, if they are
recognized as victims, then they are blamed for their victim-
ization (ie, the adultification of Black girls). This flawed
Conceptualization and Measurement
knowledge, if left unchallenged, influences how services are The third focus, conceptualization and measurement, high-
provided and justice-related decisions are made. lights the need to clearly operationalize the race and/or
14S Public Health Reports 137(Supplement 1)

racism-related constructs and relationships assessed in mediated, and internalized).43 The anti-trafficking field can
DMST research and practice. This focus is done in tandem use similar techniques such as ethical storytelling44 that value
with attending to the new knowledge gained from the first experiential knowledge to center voices typically relegated
and second focus areas and is necessary to clarify how to the margins.
researchers understand the mechanisms at work, how to
interpret research findings, and how to critically reassess
Conclusion
assumptions embedded in practice and policy.
For example, the principle of intersectionality states that We have outlined the central focus areas and selected prin-
various social categories (eg, race, gender, class) intersect ciples of PHCRP, in relation to DMST. This framework can
and overlap, which can compound experiences of disadvan- aid DMST research, program, and policy in explicating and
tage and discrimination.33,34,40 Anti-trafficking researchers then acting on the ways in which racialization and racism
have incorporated an intersectional approach to DMST, pri- affect the anti–sex trafficking field. PHCRP is inclusive of all
marily focusing on gender and class. Through race con- aspects of the public health approach and is applicable to
sciousness, PHCRP contributes to the anti-trafficking field’s multiple disciplines. From understanding researcher and
understanding of how interlocking social categories such as practitioner biases, to challenging accepted norms for knowl-
race and gender (eg, Black and female) can put individuals edge production, to questioning the constructs used in
and groups at differential risk for DMST.25,41 Building on this DMST, to encouraging novel ways to take action, PHCRP
theoretical foundation, the PHCRP framework encourages can be used to confront racial inequity in DMST research
practitioners to critically evaluate the types of data and meth- and practice. DMST practitioners need to design and evalu-
ods needed to assess these complex relationships. In other ate DMST prevention activities with an explicit goal to
words, if we are to take seriously the measurement and con- address racial inequities. We acknowledge that young people
ceptualization of intersectionality as it relates to Black girls’ of various racial and ethnic backgrounds experience DMST
vulnerability for DMST, then we must start by collecting differently. We encourage researchers and practitioners to
data on race and ethnicity, in addition to data on gender and incorporate these principles in ways that are equitable and
other relevant constructs. Hospital-based anti-trafficking culturally relevant to the populations they serve. Using
programs that implement a multidisciplinary approach to DMST, we lay the foundation from which the anti-trafficking
health services are uniquely positioned to collect intersec- field, including labor and sex trafficking, can conceptualize
tional data encompassing both medical and social informa- and apply PHCRP in other contexts.
tion (see the THRIVE Clinic for an example).42
Acknowledgments
Action The authors appreciate Hector Myers, PhD, Vanderbilt University;
Stacia Freeman, MA, EPIC Girl; and 2 anonymous reviewers for
The final focus, action, is the application of new knowledge providing insightful reviews and suggestions.
gained from the previous focus areas to address causes of
inequity. The principle of disciplinary self-critique encour- Declaration of Conflicting Interests
ages DMST researchers and practitioners to question the The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect
norms and accepted practices in the anti–sex trafficking field to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
that perpetuate inequity. One way to practice disciplinary
self-critique is for researchers to be reflexive about existing Funding
racial power dynamics and to question who holds the power
The authors disclosed receipt of the following financial support for
in determining the research agenda, program questions, and the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: The
the interpretation of the results (eg, Gerassi29). The principle research described was supported by Clinical and Translational
of voice, applied to DMST, is needed to address the lack of Science Award no. 5KL2TR002245 from the National Center for
young Black female voices in DMST initiatives. Researchers Advancing Translational Sciences. The contents of this article are
need to ensure young Black females are given opportunities solely the responsibility of the authors and do not necessarily repre-
to participate in designing and evaluating policies and ser- sent the official views of the National Center for Advancing
vices. GEMS ([Link] and My Life, Translational Sciences or the National Institutes of Health.
My Choice ([Link] are 2 exam-
ples of organizations that are founded on survivor-led ORCID iD
involvement in programmatic decisions. PHCRP also Mekeila C. Cook, PhD [Link]
encourages the use of methods and approaches not typical
of public health research, such as storytelling. An example References
of storytelling is Camara Jones’s seminal article, which 1. US Department of Justice. Child sex trafficking. Updated May
uses an allegory of a gardener to explain, in an emotionally 28, 2020. Accessed October 10, 2020. [Link]
neutral way, 3 levels of racism (institutionalized, personally criminal-ceos/child-sex-trafficking
Cook et al 15S

2. Polaris. Responding to human trafficking. Accessed October 17. Chisolm-Straker M, Stoklosa H, eds. Human Trafficking Is
5, 2020. [Link] a Public Health Issue: A Paradigm Expansion in the United
trafficking States. Springer International Publishing; 2017.
3. US Department of Health and Human Services. Office on 18. Le PD, Ryan NE, Bae JY, Colburn KD. Toward a framework
Trafficking in Persons. Accessed October 5, 2020. https:// for global public health action against trafficking in women
[Link]/otip and girls. World Med Health Policy. 2017;9(3):341-357.
4. National Human Trafficking Hotline. Hotline statistics. doi:10.1002/wmh3.235
Accessed November 1, 2019. [Link] 19. Todres J. Moving upstream: the merits of a public health law
org/states approach to human trafficking. North Carolina Law Rev.
5. Polaris. 2019 Data Report: The U.S. National Human 2011;89(2):61.
Trafficking Hotline. 2019. Accessed December 14, 2020. 20. Office of the Administration for Children and Families, Office
[Link] on Trafficking in Persons. The power of framing human traffick-
Polaris-2019-US-National-Human-Trafficking-Hotline-Data- ing as a public health issue. 2016. Accessed August 30, 2021.
[Link] [Link]
6. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 21. Phelan JC, Link BG. Is racism a fundamental cause of inequali-
Estimating the Prevalence of Human Trafficking in the United ties in health? Ann Rev Sociol. 2015;41:311-330. doi:10.1146/
States: Considerations and Complexities: Proceedings of a annurev-soc-073014-112305
Workshop in Brief. National Academies Press; 2019. 22. Krieger N. Theories for social epidemiology in the 21st century:
7. Franchino-Olsen H, Chesworth BR, Boyle C, et al. The preva- an ecosocial perspective. Int J Epidemiol. 2001;30(4):668-677.
lence of sex trafficking of children and adolescents in the doi:10.1093/ije/30.4.668
United States: a scoping review (posted online June 25, 2020). 23. Bailey ZD, Krieger N, Agenor M, Graves J, Linos N, Bassett
Trauma Violence Abuse. doi:10.1177/1524838020933873 MT. Structural racism and health inequities in the USA: evi-
8. Banks D, Kychkelhahn T. Characteristics of Suspected Human dence and interventions. Lancet. 2017;389(10077):1453-1463.
Trafficking Incidents, 2008-2010. US Department of Justice; doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(17)30569-x
2011. 2 4. United Nations. The race dimensions of trafficking in
9. Reid JA, Baglivio MT, Piquero AR, Greenwald MA, Epps persons—especially women and children. Accessed November
N. Human trafficking of minors and childhood adversity in 9, 2020. [Link]
Florida. Am J Public Health. 2017;107(2):306-311. doi:10. 25. Butler CN. The racial roots of human trafficking. UCLA Law
2105/ajph.2016.303564 Rev. 2015;62(1464):51.
10. Swaner R, Labriola M, Rempel M, Franklin A, Spadafore 26. Chong NG. Human trafficking and sex industry: does ethnic-
J. Youth Involvement in the Sex Trade: A National Study. ity and race matter? J Intercultural Stud. 2014;35(2):196-213.
US Department of Justice, Office of Juvenile Justice and doi:10.1080/07256868.2014.885413
Delinquency Prevention; 2016. 27. Page C. The double whammy of being female and African
11. Cook MC, Barnert E, Ijadi-Maghsoodi R, Ports K, Bath E. American: how Black women are more vulnerable to traf-
Exploring mental health and substance use treatment needs of ficking and other forms of discrimination. Gonz J Int Law.
commercially sexually exploited youth participating in a spe- 2019;22(2):114-126.
cialty juvenile court. Behav Med. 2018;44(3):242-249. doi:10. 28. Sen S, Baba Y. The human trafficking debate: implications for
1080/08964289.2018.1432552 social work practice. Social Work Soc. 2017;15(1):e502-e517.
12. Smith LA, Vardaman SH, Snow MA. The National Report 29. Gerassi LB, Colegrove A, McPherson DK. Addressing race,
on Domestic Minor Sex Trafficking: America’s Prostituted racism, and commercial sexual exploitation in practice through
Children. Shared Hope International; 2009. an action-based research partnership. Action Research. 2019;
13. Murphy LT, Taylor R, Bolden CL. Trafficking and Exploitative 17(2):220-236. doi:10.1177/1476750318807545
Labor Among Homeless Youth in New Orleans. Covenant 30. Delgado R, Stefancic J. Critical Race Theory: An Introduction.
House New Orleans; 2015. Accessed June 28, 2019. https:// Vol 20. New York University Press; 2017.
[Link]/static/5887a2a61b631bfbbc1ad83a/t 31. Werkmeister Rozas L, Ostrander J, Feely M. Inequalities in US
/59498effe4fcb553cd3bd5cc/1497992978429/Homeless child protection: the case of sex trafficked youth. Social Sci.
[Link] 2018;7(8):135. doi:10.3390/socsci7080135
14. Goff AP, Kahn BK. Racial bias in policing: why we know less 32. Butler CN. A critical race feminist perspective on prostitution
than we should. Soc Issues Policy Rev. 2012;6(1):177-210. & sex trafficking in America. Yale J Law Feminism. 2015;
doi:10.1111/j.1751-2409.2011.01039.x 27(1):95-139.
15. Williamson KG, Marcus A. Black pimps matter: racially
33. Ford CL, Airhihenbuwa CO. The public health critical race
selective identification and prosecution of sex trafficking in methodology: praxis for antiracism research. Soc Sci Med.
the United States. In: Horning A, Marcus A, eds. Third Party 2010;71(8):1390-1398. doi:10.1016/[Link].2010.07.030
Sex Work and Pimps in the Age of Anti-trafficking. Springer, 34. Ford CL, Airhihenbuwa CO. Critical Race Theory, race

Cham; 2017:177-196. equity, and public health: toward antiracism praxis. Am J
16. Dettlaff AJ, Boyd R. Racial disproportionality and dispari- Public Health. 2010;100(suppl 1):S30-S35. doi:10.2105/ajph
ties in the child welfare system: why do they exist, and what .2009.171058
can be done to address them? Ann Am Acad Polit Social Sci. 35. Gilbert KL, Ray R. Why police kill Black males with impu-
2020;692(1):253-274. doi:10.1177/0002716220980329 nity: applying Public Health Critical Race Praxis (PHCRP) to
16S Public Health Reports 137(Supplement 1)

address the determinants of policing behaviors and “justifiable” 40. Crenshaw K. Mapping the margins: intersectionality, identity
homicides in the USA. J Urban Health. 2016;93(suppl 1): politics, and violence against women of color. Stanford Law
122-140. doi:10.1007/s11524-015-0005-x Rev. 1991;43(6):1241-1299.
36. Ford CL, Airhihenbuwa CO. Commentary: just what is Critical 41. Finigan-Carr N, Johnson MH, Pullman MD, Stewart CJ,

Race Theory and what’s it doing in a progressive field like Fromknecht AE. A traumagenic social ecological framework
public health? Ethn Dis. 2018;28(suppl 1):223-230. doi:10. for understanding and intervening with sex trafficked chil-
18865/ed.28.S1.223 dren and youth. Child Adolesc Social Work J. 2019;36:49-63.
37. Epstein R, Blake JJ, Gonzalez T. Girlhood Interrupted: The doi:10.1007/s10560-018-0588-7
Erasure of Black Girls’ Childhood. Georgetown Law Center 42. University of Miami Miller School of Medicine. Survivors of
on Poverty and Inequality; 2018.
human trafficking—THRIVE clinic. Accessed April 25, 2021.
38. Tamburin A, Wadhwani A. Gov. Bill Haslam grants full

[Link]
clemency to Cyntoia Brown, sets Aug. 7 release from prison.
ductive-sciences/survivors-of-human-trafficking
Tennessean. January 7, 2019. Accessed August 30, 2021.
[Link] 43. Jones CP. Levels of racism: a theoretic framework and a
brown-clemency-case-facts-story-bill-haslam/2267025002 gardener’s tale. Am J Public Health. 2000;90(8):1212-1215.
39. Goggin B. Cyntoia Brown, a trafficking victim jailed for kill- doi:10.2105/ajph.90.8.1212.
ing a man using her for sex, was granted clemency following a 44. Costello A, Boswell F. The ethics of nonprofit storytelling: sur-
social-media campaign. Here’s everything you need to know. vivor porn and parading trauma. Nonprofit Quarterly. April 5,
Insider. January 8, 2019. Accessed August 30, 2021. https:// 2019. Accessed December 11, 2020. [Link]
[Link]/cyntoia-brown-timeline-clemency-story- org/the-ethics-of-nonprofit-storytelling-survivor-porn-and-
kim-kardashian-2019-1 parading-trauma