EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

STUDENT ACTIVITY SHEET BS PSYCHOLOGY / THIRD YEAR

Session # 9

Materials:
LESSON TITLE: FORMULATING HYPOTHESIS PART 2
Textbook, pen and notebook, index card/class list
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
References:
Upon successful completion of this lesson, the psychology
student can: Myers & Hansen (2011). Experimental
Psychology (7th Ed. Wadsworth Cengage
1. Differentiate between non-experimental and Learning) )
experimental hypotheses
2. Identify the components of a good experimental Kantowitz, Roediger III & Elmes (2009).
hypothesis Experimental Psychology (9th Ed. Wadsworth
3. Explain where hypotheses come from Cengage Learning)
4. Explain how to conduct a literature search

LESSON REVIEW (5 minutes)

As a review of the previous discussion, the instructor will ask the students the following:

1. Briefly explain a research hypothesis.

2. What are experimental and non-experimental hypothesis?
3. Give at least 3 characteristics of an experimental hypothesis.

MAIN LESSON (50 minutes)

The Inductive Model.

The process of reasoning for specific cases to more general principles to form a hypothesis.

The inductive model of formulating hypothesis, the process of reasoning from specific cases to more general principles, is
often use in science and mathematics. By examining individual instances, we may be able to construct an overall
explanatory scheme to describe them. Has something like this ever happened to you at a party? A stranger comes over
to you and says, “You must be Libra. I can tell by your beautiful clothes, your meticulous grooming, and the birthstone
ring you’re wearing”. The stranger has tried a somewhat overworked conversation starter, but illustrates the basics of
inductive thinking.

 Inductive reasoning moves from specific observations to broad generalizations, and deductive reasoning the other
way around.
 When there is little to no existing literature on a topic, it is common to perform inductive research because there is
no theory to test. The inductive approach consists of three stages:

1. Observation
 A low-cost airline flight is delayed
 Dogs A and B have fleas
 Elephants depend on water to exist

2. Observe a pattern
 Another 20 flights from low-cost airlines are delayed
 All observed dogs have fleas
 All observed animals depend on water to exist

3. Develop a theory

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  Low cost airlines always have delays
 All dogs have fleas
 All biological life depends on water to exist

The Deductive Model.

The deductive model formulating a hypothesis is reverse of the inductive model. It is the process of reasoning from
general principles to make prediction about specific instances. The deductive model is most useful when we have a well-
developed theory with clearly stated basic premises. Then it is possible to deduce predictions about what should happen
in new situations in which the theory would apply. Testing such predictions provides a test of the value of the theory.

Wlasterm Walster, and Bersheid provided a comprehensive and useful theory of equity in interpersonal situations. They
proposed that the behavior of individuals could be predicted by three simple propositions:

1. Individuals will try to optimize their outcomes (outcomes = rewards minus costs).

2. When individuals believe they are in an inequitable relationship, they will feel distress in direct proportion to the
perceived degree of inequity.

3. The more distress they feel, the harder they will work to restore equity.

The process of reasoning from general principles to specific instances; mose useful for testing the principles of a theory.
 When conducting deductive research, you always start with a theory (the result of inductive research). Reasoning
deductively means testing these theories. If there is no theory yet, you cannot conduct deductive research.

 The deductive research approach consists of four stages:

1. Start with an existing theory
 Low cost airlines always have delays
 All dogs have fleas
 All biological life depends on water to exist

2. Formulate a hypothesis based on existing theory

 If passengers fly with a low cost airline, then they will always experience delays
 All pet dogs in my apartment building have fleas
 All land mammals depend on water to exist

3. Collect data to test the hypothesis

 Collect flight data of low-cost airlines
 Test all dogs in the building for fleas
 Study all land mammal species to see if they depend on water

4. Analyze the results: does the data reject or support the hypothesis?
 5 out of 100 flights of low-cost airlines are not delayed = reject hypothesis
 10 out of 20 dogs didn’t have fleas = reject hypothesis
 All land mammal species depend on water = support hypothesis

Combining Induction and Deduction

Both induction and deduction are important in research, and both are useful in formulating hypotheses for study. Through
induction, we devise general principles and theories that can be used to organize, explain, and predict behavior until more
satisfactory principles are found. Through deduction we rigorously test the implications of those theories.

Building on Prior Research

Serendipity and the Windfall Hypothesis

 Serendipity.
The knack of finding things that are not being sought.

Intuition.
The development of ideas from hunches; knowing directly without reasoning from objective data.

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  Intuition may be defined as knowing without reasoning. As such, it is probably closest to phenomenology. We
acquire phenomenological knowledge simply by attending to our own experience. We have a hunch about what
might happen in a particular situation, so we set up an experiment to test it. It guides what we choose to study.
Of course, our experiments are still conducted in the context of prior research.

Searching the Research Literature

 Once you have come up with a research idea, the next step is usually to conduct a literature search. The purpose
of a literature search is to fi nd out what other researchers have previously discovered about a particular topic.
This is done by tracking down published articles in which researchers have reported their scientific findings. The
easiest way to conduct a literature search is by computer. Many libraries allow you to access electronic databases
that contain abstracts of articles from journals that publish psychological research.

 One of the most important electronic databases is PsycINFO, which currently contains more than 2 million
records. With an electronic database, you provide a topic and the computer scans for abstracts related to that
topic. Some databases also allow you to scan for government documents and technical reports that often do not
have abstracts.

 Another popular way to conduct a computerized literature search is to use the Internet search engine Google
Scholar ([Link] which scans scholarly literature in many disciplines, including psychology.

 Psychological Journals.
A periodical that publishes individual research reports and integrative research reviews, which are up-to-date
summaries of what is known about specific topic.

 Meta-analysis.
A statistical reviewing procedure that uses data from many similar studies to summarize and quantify research
findings about individual topics.

Parts of an Article
The basic psychology article consists of seven parts: title and author(s), abstract, introduction, method, results,
discussion, and references. Each part has an important function and is a necessary component of the article.

1. Title and Author(s)

The title gives you an idea of the contents of an article. Because titles must be short (10 to 12 words), the most
common type of title states only the dependent and independent variables—for example, “Rate of bar pressing as
a function of quality and quantity of food reward.” Although this title is not particularly appealing, it conveys
important information. The title and author(s) of each article typically occupy a prominent place in a given journal
issue, such as the inside front cover, back cover, or first page.

2. Abstract
The abstract is a short paragraph (not to exceed 180 words) that summarizes the key points of an article.
According to the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (APA, 2001), it should be “. . . a
brief, comprehensive summary of the contents of the article; it allows readers to survey the contents of an article
quickly” (p. 12). The abstract is the best way to discover quickly what an article is about. A well-written journal
abstract will convey the problem under investigation, the procedure used to explore the problem, the results, the
conclusions, and the implications or applications of the research findings.

3. Introduction
The introduction specifies the problem to be studied and tells why it is important. The author also reviews the
relevant research literature on the topic. A good introduction also specifies the hypotheses to be tested and gives
the rationale behind the predictions.

4. Method
The method section describes in detail the operations performed by the experimenter. It is usually printed in
smaller type to conserve space, but this does not mean it is an unimportant part of the article to be skimmed
quickly. The method section should contain enough information that another experimenter could replicate the
study.

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 5. Results
The results section tells what happened in the experiment. It is unusual to fi nd raw data or individual scores
reported in a journal article; instead, descriptive statistics are presented that summarize the data. Inferential
statistics present the probability of whether the observed differences between the various experimental conditions
have been produced by random, or chance, factors. This information helps both the r esearcher and the reader
determine how confi dent to be that the independent variable(s) produced a change in the dependent variable.
(See Appendix B for further e xplanation and review.) Both kinds of statistics are important and help psychologists
understand the outcome of an experiment.

6. Discussion
The discussion is the most creative part of an article. Here, an author is permitted to restate what the data show (if
he or she so desires) and to draw theoretical conclusions.

7. References
References are found at the end of the article. In contrast to journals in other disciplines, psychology journals list
full titles of referenced articles. This practice helps to tell the reader what the article is about. Furthermore, the
references are valuable as a guide for related information. They can also be used as an index of the merit of the
article. Articles should refer to the most recently published works in the area, as well as to the most important
previous publications. Furthermore, only articles cited in text should be included in the reference section. This is
different from a bibliography, which includes as many relevant citations as is feasible.

Writing a Report
The first step in designing research and writing a research report is to conduct a thorough literature search. Abstract
(summaries) are the primary source for locating the articles you will need from psychological journals. Computer
searchers of the abstracts are available through PsychINFO. Meta-analysis conducted on your topics are particularly
useful type of research article. The articles you select provide the basis for the introduction section of the report and can
also be used in the Discussion section to integrate your experiment into existing body of literature on your topic.

 Introduction. Beginning of a research report that guides the reader toward your research hypothesis; includes a
selective review of relevant, recent research.

 The introduction specifies the problem to be studied and tells why it is important. The author also reviews the
relevant research literature on the topic. A good introduction also specifi es the hypotheses to be tested and gives
the rationale behind the predictions.

1. What is the author’s goal?

The introduction explains the reasons behind the research and reviews the previous literature on the
phenomena of interest. If one or more theories are related to the research, the introduction gives the
predictions the theories make. As with scientists in other areas, psychologists do not necessarily agree as to
the underlying mechanisms and theoretical interpretations of behavior. The author may present a particular
theory that he or she thinks provides a useful explanation of behavior. Although the author may present more
than one theory in the introduction, he or she will proceed later on to demonstrate that they do not all help
equally to predict and explain the obtained results. Try to figure out which of the several theories the author
believes and which are slated for subsequent rejection.

2. What hypotheses will be tested in the experiment?

The answer to this should be obvious and stated directly within the introduction section.

3. If I had to design an experiment to test this hypothesis, what would I do?

This is the key question for the introduction. You must try to answer this before continuing on to the method
section of the article. Many experiments are done within the context of a systematic investigation of behavior
to test and support a particular theoretical framework developed by the author. If the author has any skill as a
wordsmith, once you have finished the next section, you are likely to agree with the method that the author
has advocated in the article. A clever author will plant the seeds to this answer in the introduction itself; this
practice makes it harder for you to state a method independently. Write down the major ideas for your method
of testing the hypothesis.

 Discussion.

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 Concluding section of the research report, used to integrate the experimental findings into the existing body of
knowledge, showing how the current research advances knowledge, increases generalizability of known facts, or
contradicts past findings.

The discussion is the most creative part of an article. Here, an author is permitted to restate what the data show (if
he or she so desires) and to draw theoretical conclusions. Most editors have firm standards for both method and
results sections, but the author is given greater latitude in the discussion. In the words of the Publication Manual of the
American Psychological Association (APA, 2001): “You are free to examine, interpret, and qualify the results, as well
as to draw inferences from them” (p. 26). Keep in mind that research results are not incontestable truths and that
experimental findings are relative to the context in which they are found. Freedom for the author requires caution from
the readers.

CHECK FOR UNDERSTANDING (20 minutes)

You will answer and rationalize this by yourself. This will be recorded as your quiz. One (1) point will be given to correct
answer and another one (1) point for the correct rationalization. Superimpositions or erasures in you
answer/rationalization is not allowed. You are given 20 minutes for this activity.

1. It is the most creative part of an article. Here, an author is permitted to restate what the data show (if he or she so
desires) and to draw theoretical conclusions.
a. References
b. Discussion
c. Introduction
d. Abstract
ANSWER: ________
RATIO:___________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. Beginning of a research report that guides the reader toward your research hypothesis; includes a selective
review of relevant, recent research.
a. References
b. Discussion
c. Introduction
d. Abstract
ANSWER: ________
RATIO:___________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________

3. A statistical reviewing procedure that uses data from many similar studies to summarize and quantify research
findings about individual topics.
a. Meta-analysis
b. Intuition
c. Psychological journals
d. Serendipity
ANSWER: ________
RATIO:___________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
4. A periodical that publishes individual research reports and integrative research reviews, which are up-to-date
summaries of what is known about specific topic.
a. Meta-analysis
b. Intuition
c. Psychological journals
d. Serendipity
ANSWER: ________
RATIO:___________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________

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 5. The development of ideas from hunches; knowing directly without reasoning from objective data.
a. Meta-analysis
b. Intuition
c. Psychological journals
d. Serendipity

ANSWER: ________
RATIO:___________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
6. The knack of finding things that are not being sought.
a. Meta-analysis
b. Intuition
c. Psychological journals
d. Serendipity

ANSWER: ________
RATIO:___________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________

7. The process of reasoning from specific cases to more general principles, is often use in science and mathematics.
a. Deductive model
b. Inductive model
c. Abstract
d. Method
ANSWER: ________
RATIO:___________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________

8. It is the process of reasoning from general principles to make prediction about specific instances.
a. Deductive model
b. Inductive model
c. Abstract
d. Method
ANSWER: ________
RATIO:___________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________

9. A short paragraph (not to exceed 180 words) that summarizes the key points of an article. According to the
Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (APA, 2001).
a. Deductive model
b. Inductive model
c. Abstract
d. Method
ANSWER: ________
RATIO:___________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________

10. It describes in detail the operations performed by the experimenter. It is usually printed in smaller type to conserve
space, but this does not mean it is an unimportant part of the article to be skimmed quickly.
a. Deductive model
b. Inductive model
c. Abstract
d. Method
ANSWER: ________

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RATIO:___________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________

RATIONALIZATION ACTIVITY (THIS WILL BE DONE DURING THE FACE TO FACE INTERACTION)
The instructor will now rationalize the answers to the students. You can now ask questions and debate among yourselves.
Write the correct answer and correct/additional ratio in the space provided.
1. ANSWER: ________
RATIO:___________________________________________________________________________________________
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2. ANSWER: ________
RATIO:___________________________________________________________________________________________
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3. ANSWER: ________
RATIO:___________________________________________________________________________________________
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4. ANSWER: ________
RATIO:___________________________________________________________________________________________
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5. ANSWER: ________
RATIO:___________________________________________________________________________________________
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6. ANSWER: ________
RATIO:___________________________________________________________________________________________
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7. ANSWER: ________
RATIO:___________________________________________________________________________________________
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8. ANSWER: ________
RATIO:___________________________________________________________________________________________
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9. ANSWER: ________
RATIO:___________________________________________________________________________________________
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10. ANSWER: ________
RATIO:___________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
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LESSON WRAP-UP (10 minutes)

You will now mark (encircle) the session you have finished today in the tracker below. This is simply a visual to help you
track how much work you have accomplished and how much work there is left to do.

You are done with the session! Let’s track your progress.

AL Strategy: CAT: 3-2-1

To better gauge your understanding in this discussion, kindly answer the following questions with honesty:

A. Describe the 3 terminologies that you have learned..

__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________

B. Explain briefly at least 2 parts of an article.

__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
C. Give one topic you find confusing
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