DIGITISED VERSION – May 2012

SOUTHERN AFRICAN TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATIONS COMMISSION

SUBCOMMITTEE
ON THE RECONCILIATION OF ROAD TRAFFIC SIGNS
IN THE SADC REGION

Chairman: Mr E H Lowe Department of Transport, Namibia

Mr M Matela Ministry of Transport and Communications, Lesotho

Mr J M Ramashamole Ministry of Transport and Communications, Lesotho

Mr S J Mkandawire Ministry of Transport and Communications, Malawi

Mr R B Dryden  Department of Transport, South Africa

Mr J S Falkner  Department of Transport, South Africa

Ms L B Johnson  Department of Transport, South Africa

Mr R J V Slater Department of Transport, South Africa

Mr L Mudaly  Department of Transport, South Africa

Secretary: Mr D Bain Consulting Engineer

Ms A Swanepoel Consulting Engineer

 Alternate representatives (not present at all meetings)

 SOUTH AFRICAN COMMITTEE OF LAND TRANSPORT OFFICIALS
ROADS CO-ORDINATING COMMITTEE

ROAD TRAFFIC SIGNS TECHNICAL COMMITTEE

Chairman: Mr P du Verster Free State Department of Public Transport and Roads
Mr D Bain De Leuw Cather (North) (Pty) Ltd-Consultant
Mr GWT Behrens FEDHASA
Mr GW Botha Free State Department of Public Transport and Roads
Ms D Briesch National Department of Transport
Mr JJN Coetzee Cape Provincial Administration – Roads Branch
Mr RB Dryden  National Department of Transport
Mr DJ Eadie Cape Town Metropolitan Transport Planning
Mr JS Falkner  National Department of Transport
Mr FJ Fick Eastern Cape Provincial Administration
Mr WEW Hahn  Gauteng Department of Public Transport, Roads and Public Works
Mr PF Jordaan National Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism
Mr IJG Kriel Northern Province Department of Public Works and Roads
Mr FJJ Labuschagne  CSIR-Roads and Transport Technology
Capt. R Askew South African Police Services
Insp. S Mcintosh  South African Police Services
Mr AA Meiring Northern Cape Department of Public Works and Roads
Mr A Muhajer North West Department of Public Works and Roads
Mr EH Lowe  Department of Transport Namibia
Mr M Meijer Gauteng Department of Public Transport, Roads and Public Works
Mr R Offord Eastern Cape Department of Transport
Mr JJA Prinsloo Stanway Edwards Ngomane Ass - Consultant
Mr MJ Raborifi National Department of Transport
Prof. JD Sampson South Africa Institute of Engineers
Mr WHJ Sator  CSIR- Roads and Transport Technology
Mr AL Sharples KwaZulu-Natal Department of Transport
Mr RJV Slater  National Department of Transport
Ms A Swanepoel Stanway Edwards Ngomane Ass - Consultant
Mr H Switala Mpumalanga Department of Public Works, Roads and Transport
Mr V Trumper  Department of Transport Namibia
Insp. LA van Heerden Institute of Traffic Officers
Mr B yan Oort  Automobile Association of South Africa
Mr R Scholtz  Automobile Association of South Africa
Mr SJC Venter Human Sciences Research Council
Mr H Visser United Municipal Executive

 Alternate Representatives
 Observers
 PREFACE

Southern African Development Community significance, of the device. These

(SADC) member states decided, at their statements are essentially the same as
meeting in Lusaka in June 1995, to enter those given in the harmonized model road
into a Protocol Agreement to expand and traffic sign regulations, prepared at the same
deepen their co-operation in the areas of time as Volume 1. The content of Volume 1
infrastructure and services. An important provides an in depth description of the road
component of this Protocol Agreement is traffic sign system and working detail on the
the intention to harmonize road traffic signs use of each individual component of the
and their supporting regulations throughout system.
member states.
Volume 2, if required, will deal with the
South Africa offered to undertake the work collective application of signs, markings, and
required for this harmonization process. The signals for specific subject areas such as
first phase of the work involved an traffic accommodation at roadworks, tourism
assessment of any differences existing signing, public transport signing and signing
between the current systems, as documented for the control of heavy vehicles.
in the Southern Africa Transport and
Communications Commission (SATCC) Volume 3, if required, will provide in depth
Road Traffic Signs Manual, published in detail on the selection, installation,
November 1990, and the South African Road operation and control methods for traffic
Traffic Signs Manual, published in January signals.
1993. This assessment showed that the two
systems are very similar, both being based Volume 4 gives complete dimensional
on the European road traffic sign system. details, together with accurate scalable
The South African system, having recently drawings, of all signs, markings and signals,
been developed to conform to European including details of all letter types used on
signing principles, but also to satisfy African direction signs.
requirements, contained a significantly
greater number of road traffic sign types. Absolute harmonization of all aspects of the
These findings were considered by SATCC in previous road traffic signs systems is not
September 1995. The Commission possible for a number of reasons. In order to
appointed a sub-committee comprising accommodate specific needs of member
members from Lesotho, Malawi, Namibia states several chapters in Volume 1 have a
and South Africa to monitor the work of the final section dealing with what have been
South African team in the preparation of the termed "national variants". Typical
new harmonized Manual and model road examples of "national variants" are:
traffic sign regulations.
(i) "mirror'' image signs for use in
This Third Edition of the SADC Road Traffic states where vehicles are required to
Signs Manual is structured to ultimately travel on the right hand side of the
appear in four volumes. However at present, road;
at the request of the sub-committee, only
Volumes 1 and 4 have been prepared. A (ii) examples of standard text signs in
decision will be taken in the future on the Portuguese -this type of sign has been
need to adapt Volumes 2 and 3 of the South kept to an absolute minimum by a
African Manual to SADC requirements. strong reliance on the use of
pictographs or symbols, inherited
Volume 1 of the Manual contains detailed from the South African system;
signing policy and design principles. The text
covering each sign, marking and signal starts (iii) provision for specific member state
with a statement regarding the meaning, or symbols for such facilities as police
services, national monuments etc.
In addition, several significant differences Due to the size of the Manual, the cost of
have been noted between the two traffic printing all pages in full colour would have
signal systems as documented in the been considerable. To minimise this cost all
manuals existing prior to harmonization. colour pages have been concentrated at the
The cost implications of total harmonization beginning of each relevant chapter in
of the traffic signal systems have been Volume 1. In this way the whole sign
considered unaffordable. Volume 1, system and each individual sign, marking
Chapter 6: Traffic Signals, therefore and signal is illustrated in colour. A reference
covers the differences between the two is also given in these sections to where
systems in parallel. One system, each individual sign, marking and signal is
considered to be used by a majority of dealt with in detail in Volume 1, and to
member states, is recommended, and the where they are dimensioned in Volume 4.
other system is recorded as an alternative Throughout the rest of Volumes 1 arid 4 a
system. coded form of black and white shading is
used to represent the sign colours.
Typical of these differences are:
Finally, acknowledgements are due to the
(i) in the recommended system the members of the various committees whose
primary traffic signals are work has led to the publication of this
positioned on the far side of Manual, to South Africa for funding the work,
junctions, whilst in the alternative and to the Chief Directorate: Roads in the
system the primary traffic signals South African Department of Transport for
are positioned on the near side of making this possible
the junction;

(ii) in the recommended system the

basic traffic signal sequence is
red, green, yellow, red, whereas in
the alternative system the basic
traffic signal sequence is red, red
plus yellow, green, yellow, red.
 IN WITNESS WHEREOF, WE, the Ministers of Transport and Road Traffic affairs have signed
this Manual.

DONE AT .............................., on this ...................... Day of .............................., 1999.

For and on behalf of the Republic of Angola

For and on behalf of the Republic of Botswana

For and on behalf of the Democratic Republic of Congo

For and on behalf of the Kingdom of Lesotho

For and on behalf of the Republic of Malawi

For and on behalf of the Republic of Mauritius

For and on behalf of the Republic of Mozambique

For and on behalf of the Republic of Namibia

For and on behalf of the Republic of Seychelles

For and on behalf of the Republic of South Africa

For and on behalf of the Kingdom of Swaziland

For and on behalf of the United Republic of Tanzania

For and on behalf of the Republic of Zambia

For and on behalf of the Republic of Zimbabwe

TITLE
SOUTHERN AFRICAN DEVELOPMENT COMMUNITY ROAD TRAFFIC SIGNS MANUAL Volume 1

ISBN STATUS DOT FILE DATE

Digitised Version 000/0/0/0 Digitised
May 2012

CARRIED OUT BY

Transport and Traffic Technology Africa (Pty) Ltd

P O Box 1109
SUNNINGHILL
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COMMISSIONED BY

Department of Transport
Private Bag X193
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ORIGINAL AUTHOR PUBLISHER ENQUIRIES

D Bain Director-General: Transport

Private Bag X193
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It is impossible for a publication of this nature to free of errors. It would be appreciated if errors be brought to the notice
of -

Director-General: Transport
Department of Transport
Infrastructure Network Management
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COPYRIGHT

This publication is protected by copyright under the Bern Convention. In terms of the Copyright Act No. 98 of 1978, no
part of this publication may be produced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including
photocopying, recording or by any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the
publisher.

© National Department of Transport, South Africa, 1998, 2012

KEYWORDS COST

ROAD SIGN, TRAFFIC SIGNAL, ROAD MARKING SET : Discussion document

Volume 1 :

Volume 2 :

Volume 3 :

Volume 4 :
 SOUTHERN

AFRICAN

DEVELOPMENT

COMMUNITY

SOUTHERN AFRICAN
DEVELOPMENT LIST OF UPDATES
COMMUNITY ROAD
TRAFFIC SIGNS MANUAL

UPDATE UPDATES VOLUME NO. DESCRIPTION

NO. OF THE
UPDATES
NUMBER DATE
OF PAGES

V1.01 to 16.04.12 1 Refer to Digitising Project

V1.03 SMC 01/2011/INM
Volume 1 Error/Correction Record
V1.1 to 16.04.12 1 16 April 2012
V1.207
 LIST OF CONTENTS 0.1.1

CONTENTS:
Page Numbers
List of Contents 0.1.1 – 0.1.2

CHAPTER 1: GENERAL PRINCIPLES

Introduction 1.1.1 – 1.1.9

Road Classification 1.2.1 – 1.2.2
Road Traffic Sign Classification 1.3.1 – 1.3.5
Shape, Size and Colour 1.4.1 – 1.4.8
Specification and Manufacture 1.5.1 – 1.5.7
Sign Placement 1.6.1 – 1.6.12
Human Factors 1.7.1 – 1.7.5
Positive Guidance 1.8.1 – 1.8.5
Outdoor Advertising 1.9.1 – 1.9.2
Road Traffic Sign Maintenance 1.10.1 – 1.10.3
Road Traffic Sign Management Systems 1.11.1 – 1.11.2

CHAPTER 2: REGULATORY SIGNS

Contents (with all regulatory signs in colour) 2.0.1 – 2.0.21

Introduction 2.1.1 – 2.1.7
Control Signs 2.2.1 – 2.2.14
Command Signs 2.3.1 – 2.3.18
Prohibition Signs 2.4.1 – 2.4.22
Reservation Signs 2.5.1 – 2.5.23
Comprehensive Signs 2.6.1 – 2.6.3
Selective Restriction Signs 2.7.1 – 2.7.14
Regulatory Sign Combinations 2.8.1 – 2.8.6
De-Restriction Signs 2.9.1
National Variants 2.10.1 – 2.10.4

CHAPTER 3: WARNING SIGNS

Contents (with all warning signs in colour) 3.0.1 – 3.0.8

Introduction 3.1.1 – 3.1.4
Road Layout Signs 3.2.1 – 3.2.4
Direction of Movement Signs 3.3.1 – 3.3.6
Symbolic Signs 3.4.1 – 3.4.27
Hazard Marker Signs 3.5.1 – 3.5.9
Warning Sign Combinations 3.6.1 – 3.6.6
National Variants 3.7.1 – 3.7.3

CHAPTER 4: GUIDANCE SIGNS

Contents (with all guidance signs and symbols in colour) 4.0.1 – 4.0.43
Introduction 4.1.1 – 4.1.8
Arrows 4.2.1 – 4.2.12
Legend 4.3.1 – 4.3.15
Determination of Letter Size 4.4.1 – 4.4.17
Urban Guidance Signing 4.5.1 – 4.5.21
Location Signs 4.6.1 – 4.6.9
Route Marker Signs 4.7.1 – 4.7.17
Direction Signs 4.8.1 – 4.8.20
Freeway Direction Signs 4.9.1 – 4.9.43
Tourism Signs 4.10.1 – 4.10.37
Local Direction Signs 4.11.1 – 4.11.17
Diagrammatic Signs 4.12.1 – 4.12.35
Pedestrian Signs 4.13.1 – 4.13.9
Toll Route Signs 4.14.1 – 4.14.16
National Variants 4.15.1 – 4.15.3

MAY 2012 SADC – RTSM – VOL 1 CONTENTS

 0.1.2 LIST OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 5: INFORMATION SIGNS Page Numbers

Contents (with all information signs in colour) 5.0.1 - 5.0.5

Introduction 5.1.1 – 5.1.2
Signs 5.2.1 – 5.2.10
National Variants 5.3.1 – 5.3.2

CHAPTER 6: TRAFFIC SIGNALS

Introduction 6.1.1 – 6.1.4

Vehicular Traffic Signals at Junctions and Crossings 6.2.1 – 6.2.14
Pedestrian and Pedal Cyclist Signals 6.3.1 – 6.3.3
Traffic Signals to Control Individual Vehicles 6.4.1
Lane Direction Control Signals 6.5.1 – 6.5.2
Flashing Red Disc Light Signal at Railway Crossings 6.6.1 – 6.6.2
Hand and Other Signals 6.7.1 – 6.7.3

CHAPTER 7: ROAD MARKINGS

Contents 7.0.1 – 7.0.9

Introduction 7.1.1 – 7.1.10
Regulatory Markings 7.2.1 – 7.2.31
Warning Markings 7.3.1 – 7.3.9
Guidance Markings 7.4.1 – 7.4.6
Roadstuds 7.5.1 – 7.5.5
Other Delineation Devices 7.6.1 – 7.6.3
National Variants 7.7.1 – 7.7.2

CHAPTER 8: NAVIGATIONAL AIDS

Introduction 8.1.1 – 8.1.4

Types of Navigational Aid 8.3.1 – 8.3.2
Route Optimisation 8.4.1 – 8.4.3
Route Numbering 8.5.1 – 8.5.4
Selection of Destinations 8.6.1 – 8.6.11
National Variants

CHAPTER 9: VARIABLE MESSAGE SIGNS

Introduction 9.1.1 – 9.1.19

Dimensions 9.2.1 – 9.2.2

CHAPTER 10: GLOSSARY

Introduction 10.1.1
General Terms 10.2.1 – 10.2.8
Road Sign Terms 10.3.1 – 10.3.6
Traffic Signal Terms 10.4.1 – 10.4.3
Road marking Terms 10.5.1 – 10.5.3
Tourism Signing Terms 10.6.1 – 10.6.4

CHAPTER 11: INDEX

General Index 11.1.1 – 11.1.23

List of Figures 11.2.1 – 11.2.5
List of Tables 11.3.1 – 11.3.2

CONTENTS SADC – RTSM – VOL 1 MAY 2012

 SOUTHERN

AFRICAN

DEVELOPMENT

COMMUNITY

GENERAL PRINCIPLES
SECTIONS

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Road Classification

1.3 Road Traffic Sign Classification

1.4 Shape, Size and Colour

1.5 Specification and Manufacture

1.6 Sign Placement

1.7 Human Factors

1.8 Positive Guidance

1.9 Outdoor Advertising

1.10 Road Traffic Sign Maintenance

1.11 Road Traffic Sign Management Systems

MAY 2012

SADC RTSM - VOL1

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION 1.1.1

CHAPTER 1: GENERAL PRINCIPLES

1.1 INTRODUCTION

1.1.1 General
1 The Third Edition of the Southern African Development components {the examples indicate Chapter 7):
Community Road Traffic Signs Manual comprises four
(a) Chapters - 7;
volumes:
(b) Sections- 7.1;
Volume 1: Uniform Traffic Control Devices: Detailing (c) Subsections -7.1.1;
signing policies and design principles together with (d) Paragraphs- [Link];
specific information on the meaning and individual (e) Figures - 7.1;
application of all traffic control devices.
(f) Details (within Figures) - 7.1.1;
Volume 2: Traffic Control Device Applications: Covers (g) Tables- 7.1.
the use of sets of signs, markings and signals for
specific applications. These numbers should be used for reference purposes.
They are used as such throughout the text.
Volume 3: Traffic Signal Design: Detailing, in depth,
requirements for the selection and installation of traffic 3 The page layout includes a "header" at the top in
signals and their methods of control. which the section name and page number are
indicated. Page numbers are restarted in each section
Volume 4: Traffic Signs Design: Dimensional detail e.g.7.1.1, 7.2.1, 7.3.1 etc. A "footer" is located at the
for all road traffic signs and their signface components. bottom of the page and this indicates the date of
2 This Third Edition has been developed from a publication (or re-publication in the case of future
harmonization of the earlier SATCC Road Traffic Signs amendments), the name of the manual and the volume
Manual, and the Third Edition of the South African number, and the chapter name. Figures 1.1 and1.2
Road Traffic Signs Manual which contained a wider illustrate the above elements.
range of signs. Initially only Volumes 1 and 4 will be 4 At the front of each Part a basic list of contents for the
published. Volumes 2 and 3 may be published at a complete volume is included. At the front of those
later stage. In a relatively small number of instances it chapters which deal with numbered road traffic signs a
has been necessary to deal with one or more signs chapter contents in colour is included for convenience.
specifically for one member country. Primarily this Each such contents lists the included road traffic signs
need arises from the fact that in Angola drivers travel on pictorially, in colour and in numerical order, together
the right-hand side of the road, and from the occasional with references to subsections and page numbers. The
need to display Portuguese text for Angolan or main index to the volume is given in Part 3.
Mozambican conditions. Any such signs are identified in
the chapter contents section and are then described
at the end of the chapter in a section called "National 1.1.3 Text Conventions
Variants". 1 The text in the Manual is primarily provided in Arial 8.5 point
3 This volume therefore covers the meaning and typeface.
application of individual traffic control devices available 2 A range of text conventions have been used to place
to authorities having the necessary jurisdiction to place or emphasis where this has been deemed necessary.
erect such devices in a public road. The conventions used and their functions are as
4 Traffic control devices include all road traffic signs follows:
and other devices, including delineation devices, used (a) bold italic- to indicate the significance of a specific
to regulate, warn, guide or inform road users. Traffic road traffic sign;
control devices are thus used to achieve an (b) bold - to place particular emphasis on a word or
acceptable level of road safety by providing for the section of text, including titles and section
orderly and predictable movement of all traffic, headings;
vehicular and pedestrian, throughout all levels of the
(c) italic - to indicate the name of a chapter or other
road network.
document referred to in the text AND to indicate
5 Road traffic signs, by legal definition, include all foreign terms used in the text;
prescribed road signs, road markings and traffic (d) UPPERCASE (or CAPITAL) letters - as a lower
signals, and are to be used solely for the purpose of level of emphasis, but particularly to indicate the
traffic control and are not an advertising medium. specific names given to road traffic signs.
6 The meanings given to traffic control devices in this The use of CAPITAL letters may be superimposed in the
volume are in accord with the meanings given in the BOLD I TALIC or BOLD conventions (see Figures1.1
relevant Road Traffic Legislation. The meanings given and 1.2).
in the Legislation have legal precedence.
1.1.4 Terminology
1.1.2 Structure and Layout
1 A considerable effort has been made to obtain
1 For convenience of binding on a loose leaf basis Vol­ close correlation between the language of the manual
umes are subdivided into a number of Parts. with that used in Legislation.
2 The text is subdivided into the following numbered 2 The meaning attached to many terms represents, in
many instances, a de facto definition of the term. The

MAY 2012 SADC - RTSM - VOL 1 GENERAL PRINCIPLES

1.1.2 INTRODUCTION

MAY 2012

Fig 1.1 Typical Page Layout and Text Conventions

GENERAL PRINCIPLES SADC - RTSM - VOL 1 MAY 2012

INTRODUCTION 1.1.3

MAY 2012

Fig 1.2 Typical Figure Page Layout

MAY 2012 SADC - RTSM - VOL 1 GENERAL PRINCIPLES

 1.1.4 INTRODUCTION

Manual does not, however, set out to define terms and no (a) standard signs and variable message signs (VMS);
attempt has been made to obtain agreement on the (b) permanent signs and temporary signs;
meaning accorded many of the terms used. The (c) retroreflective surface and reflective surface.
meaning attached to these terms. for the purpose of
understanding the interpretation and application of the
terms, in the context of the Manual, is given in Chapter 1.1.5 Requirements for Traffic Control
10 : Glossary of Terms. It should be noted that there Devices
are many documents, including legislation, in which
terms are defined. Users of the Manual should adhere 1 The functions of traffic control devices include:
to such definitions in relation to the l egal application of (a) the regulation of traffic by assigning right-of-way
such other documents. and indicating regulations in force;
3 There are three words used throughout the Manual (b) the warning of road users of hazards and of hazards
dealing with the function, design and application of ahead, or of regulatory controls ahead; they may
traffic control devices, the interpretation of which is often be temporary devices warning of the hazards to
fundamental to the use of the Manual. These words are road users or to workers and plant working on the
the very common words "SHALL", "SHOULD" and road;
"MAY". The meanings attached to these words for the (c) the guidance of traffic by the indication of direction,
purpose of interpreting the Manual shall be: distance, location and other navigational information;
and locally in the selection of the correct portion of
(a) "SHALL"- a mandatory condition- when this word is the roadway;
used it means that the condition or conditions
(d) the provision of additional information to road
referred to must be complied with;
users.
(b) "SHOULD"- an advisory condition- when this word is
used it is advisable or recommended to comply with 2 In order that they may best fulfil their required function
the condition or conditions referred to (see also traffic control devices shall:
"RECOMMENDED" in paragraph [Link]); (a) fulfil a need;
(c) "MAY"- a permissive condition - the conditions (b) command attention;
referred to are optional. (c) convey a clear, simple meaning at a glance;
The legal significance of these terms must be (d) command the respect of road users;
understood by users of the Manual. It is very l ikely that (e) allow adequate time for the correct response from
authorities will be subject to greater levels of legal road users.
action in the future. Failure to adhere to the intention of
the Manual as indicated above could affect the 3 Failure to fulfil the required functions may be the result of:
outcome of such action to the detriment of the (a) inadequate engineering study prior to installation;
authority.
(b) disregard for specific site conditions such as gradient,
4 The word "SHALL" is used in two ways. "SHALL" is
sight distance, or road surface and the local effects
used to refer to the actions required of road users and in
this context the provisions of the regulations take legal of human factors. vehicle limitations or
precedence. "SHALL" is also used to refer to actions weather conditions;
required of authorities in the use of traffic control (c) lack of maintenance or misuse which encourages
devices. In many instances such a mandate is also disrespect;
provided for in the regulations. (d) inadequate geometric design - traffic control de­
5 When the word "SHOULD" is used the condition vices cannot be expected to correct or alleviate
referred to is open to a measure of interpretation. This is deficiencies in geometric layout.
recognised in the Manual where, occasionally, the 4 The following criteria should be employed to ensure
word "RECOMMENDED" is used in place of that the required functions are met:
"SHOULD"."RECOMMENDED" should be understood to
have a stronger implication than "SHOULD". If an (a) design (see Section 1.4 and Chapters 2 to 7);
authority chooses not to conform to the recommended (b) placement (see Section 1.6);
action, it would be well advised to record why it has (c) application (see all Chapters and Volume 2);
chosen not to do so.
(d) maintenance (see Sections 1.10 and 1.11);
6 The use of the word "MAY" is much wider and less (e) uniformity.
specific than the other two words. It is used directly
in relation to the actions road users and/or authorities 5 To achieve these objectives, road traffic signs should
can take, at their discretion, with regard to the comply with the following requirements:
function and use of road traffic signs. "May" is also (a) conformity involving disciplined compliance with
widely used in a general sense throughout the text of nationwide policy so that road users may be
the Manual. assured of the same signing principles and standards
7 The word "yellow" is used throughout the Manual in wherever they may be in the system;
place of "amber" with respect to traffic signal (b) accuracy of signface display to eliminate confusion
indications. "Yellow" is the more common international which may be experienced by road users if sign
term. messages do not relate to what can be seen on the
road ahead;
8 The attention of users of the Manual is drawn particularly (c) uniformity of signface layout, colour code and sign
to the dif ferences in the meanings of the following terms display sequence to enhance road users' abilities to
(see Chapter 10) : get the best from the system by reducing reading
times;
(d) consistency of signing practice so that like situ-

GENERAL PRINCIPLES SADC - RTSM - VOL 1 MAY 2012

INTRODUCTION 1.1.5

ations are signed in a like manner; engineering judgement.

(e) continuity of message display until the information
2 The decision whether or not to use a particular
is no longer relevant.
device, and, if one is to be used, the decision on
6 Consistent with the requirement that they shall fulfil a how it shall be used, should be made at the very
need, care shall be exercised not to install too many least on the basis of an inspection of the site.
signs thereby risking bringing the sign system into Specific site factors and the presence of other
disrespect. It is recommended that the use of devices will influence the use of a proposed new
regulatory and warning signs be undertaken device. It is strongly recommended that engineering
conservatively so that those that are really needed are studies be undertaken by qualified traffic engineers
effective. However, to achieve reassurance and or traffic officers. If an authority does not have suitably
continuity of navigational information route markers and qualified personnel they should seek assistance from
direction signs should be displayed at regular larger authorities or a traffic engineering consultant.
intervals.
1.1.9 Principles of Signing
1.1.6 Uniformity of Traffic Control 1 The principles of design and application of road traffic
Devices signs are detailed in the chapters of this volume. These
principles are summarised in this subsection.
1 Uniformity of practice means treating similar situations in
the same way. The use of a uniform specified or 2 All road traffic signs shall conform to the requirements of
manufactured traffic control device does not in itself paragraph [Link]. The guidelines given in the Manual
constitute uniformity. Standard devices used in a conform, in general terms, to the following basic
standard manner, in appropriate circumstances, reduce principles or assumptions:
the time road users need to recognise and understand the
message and to choose a course of action. The meaning (a) give a positive message in preference to a negative
of the device should ideally be apparent at a glance. message whenever such a choice is avail­ able;
(b) use symbols or diagrams in preference to words;
2 Uniformity of device and application is essential to law (c) signs should preferably have the same appearance
enforcement and for traffic safety. A standard device by day and by night (use of retroreflective
used in an incorrect manner can be as bad or worse
material);
than a non-standard device, and can cause significant
disrespect and disregard for the law. (d) limit the amount of information given at any one
time to what can reasonably be observed and
3 The need for uniformity is becoming more important for the processed by road users; however,
following reasons: (e) when two required messages are linked or
(a) present-day driving is becoming increasingly com­ complement each other, such as a regulatory
plex; message and a warning message, it will
commonly improve the effectiveness of message
(b) the liability of government, at all levels, for public
transfer to mount the relevant signs together;
safety is increasing;
(f) the overall approach to signing should embody the
(c) uniformity of design and manufacture result in
principles of positive guidance (see Section 1.8);
economic unit rates;
(g) all candidate destination names cannot be dis­
(d) a wide range of driver capabilities have to be
played at any given point;
catered for;
(h) pre-trip planning is essential;
(e) the amount of travel in unfamiliar road and street
systems is increasing. (i) regional, area or district names are not a precise
enough source of information.
1.1.7Placement of Traffic Control 3 The design and use of guidance signs further requires a
Devices disciplined approach to the understanding and application
of principles as follows :
1 Traffic control devices and their supports shall be
(a) navigation (see Chapters 4 and 8):
placed for the purpose of regulating, warning, guiding
and informing road users only on the authority of a (i) primary aids :
public body or official having jurisdiction. No traffic
control device or its support shall bear any advertising • route maps
message or any other message not essential to the
• route numbers
control of traffic, with the exception of STREET NAME
signs GL1 and SUBURB NAME signs GL2 (see • interchange (EXIT) and junction numbers
Section 1.9).
•selective destination display to provide
2 Details of the orientation and longitudinal, lateral and orientation
vertical placement of signs is given in Section 1.6.
3 Ministers, Administrators, or duly authorised officials, • distances to high speed exits;
have the power in terms of Road Traffic Legislation, to (ii) sign information functions :
remove, or order the removal of, any non-prescribed or
unauthorised sign. • location (you are here)

1.1.8 Engineering Study • direction

1 This Manual includes warrants and specific guidelines in
relation to the use of many of the traffic control devices it • orientation
covers. The Manual is, however ,not a substitute for good • confirmation;

MAY 2012 SADC - RTSM - VOL 1 GENERAL PRINCIPLES

1.1.6 INTRODUCTION

(b) system efficiency: 1.1.11 Selection of Destinations

(i) functional requirements (see paragraph 1 Full details on destination selection for direction signs are
[Link]); covered in Chapters 4 and 8.
(ii) criteria to meet required functions (see 2 The following criteria are important in deciding which
paragraph [Link]); destination will be most effective:
(c) signface design function (see Chapter 4) :
(a) availability at the destination of motorist services;
(i) clear and simple message transfer to en­ (b) ability to provide navigational orientation (familiar-
able road users to : ity);
• see sign (conspicuity) (c) the next destination;
(d) the proximity of other destinations;
• recognise sign function (class identification) (e) importance in terms of:
• read the sign (legibility) (i) population;

• interpret the message (comprehension) (ii) regional centre (economic activity);

(iii) traffic generation;
• make a decision
(iv) transient tourist population;
• act on the decision timeously;
(f) junction or termination of routes.
(ii) important message transfer factors:

• amount of information 1.1.12 Additional Signs and Symbols

• length of words 1 This Edition of the Manual introduces a wide range of
new symbols for use on regulatory, warning, guidance and
• similarity of words information signs, markings and signals. The pro­ vision
of these symbols is often based on anticipated future
• letter/background contrast requirements.
• upper/lower case letters 2 A number of rules apply to the design of symbols to
make them effective at high traffic approach speeds.
• letter size and style These rules differ for different sign types.
• legibility distance/reading time 3 In terms of Road Traffic Legislation Ministers or duly
authorised officials may authorise the use of an
• angle of display; experimental sign for a limited period of time so that the
(d) information display (see Chapter 4) : suitability and effectiveness may be determined. No new
sign or symbol shall be used without prior approval. A
(i) use standard symbols rather than words; draft sign or symbol design may be submitted but
(ii) display a standard quantity of information in should not be used until it has been refined and
a standard way; approved in terms of the standard design rules.
(iii) limit total amount of information. 4 It is desirable, in the interests of uniformity, that the
need for a new symbol or sign be submitted, with
motivation, to:
1.1.10 Use of Numbers on Direction
Signs The Secretary of the relevant countries' Road Traffic
Signs Technical Committee.
1 Numbers have been allocated to the main routes i n
the road network to give a concise collective description
to what is commonly a lengthy piece of road (in a
1.1.13 Lettering
similar way that postal codes serve to identify fairly 1 This Edition has adopted the German DIN (Standard)
large areas). In addition distances are displayed on 1451 Part 2, Styles "A" and "8", lettering for use on all
many types of direction sign. These types of numbers signs. All letter dimensions and spacings are fully
are differentiated by colour code (see Section proportional for all sizes. This simplifies sign design
1.4). and results in a general reduction in the size of direction
2 Certain direction signs may also display the inter­ signs.
change exit or junction number which is also 2 DIN 1451 Part 2 lettering is reproduced by permission
exclusively colour coded. of DIN Deutsches lnstitut fur Normung e.V. The
definitive version for the implementation of the
3 Use of these numbers may assist message transfer
standard is the edition of this standard bearing the
because:
most recent date of issue, obtainable from Beuth Verlag
(a) they are short and can be read at a glance; GmbH, Burggrafenstrasse 6, D-1000 Berlin
(b) primary navigational decisions can be made on the 30.
basis of their message;
3 All words used on road signs should be displayed in the
(c) they permit accurate and quick correlation with manner normal for printed matter, using upper and
maps; lower case letters, with the exception that the names
(d) they are not language dependant. on all LOCATION signs or LOCATION information

GENERAL PRINCIPLES SADC - RTSM - VOL 1 MAY 2012

INTRODUCTION 1.1.7

panels displayed as part of a larger sign, shall be where they are, rather than where they may want to
displayed in uppercase letters only. The use of be (DIRECTION signs).In addition two new classes of
uppercase letters is part of the coding system used to supplementary direction signs are included in the
identify locational ("you are here") information. A system. These are the TOURISM DIRECTION sign
modified letter style is specified for this application. class which uses a unique brown background
This style, designated "B MOD", has an increased colour and utilises symbols extensively and the
l etter stroke width to reduce the risk of "overglow", LOCAL DlRECTION sign class, which is similar but
which could result under high levels of illumination uses black symbols and letters on a white
due to the high contrast between the specified white background with a blue border (see Chapter 4,
retroreflective background and the semi-matt black Sections 4.10 and 4.11).
letters. Only uppercase letters and numerals are
4 A major new sign group for both permanent and
available in this letter style.
temporary use is the DIAGRAMMATIC guidance sign
group. This class of sign uses the principle of a
1.1.14 Maps diagrammatic display of the (change in) road condition
ahead rather than attempting to put such a message
1 Nothing symbolizes better than maps our human
into words (see Chapter 4, Section 4.12).
dependence on knowing our location, or where we are.
Without knowing where we are we can hardly expect to 5 The classification of road markings has been improved.
know how to proceed to where we want to be! New markings have been added, and the significance
of the following markings has been changed (see
2 The use of maps is fundamental to the navigation
Chapter 7):
process. It is not reasonable for travellers to get into
their motor cars and drive off, heading for unknown (a) PROHIBITORY LINE markings- have been reclassified
territory, and expect the road traffic sign system to as two markings, the NO OVERTAKING LINE marking
guide them there. Their acquired knowledge will vary RM1 and the NO CROSSING LINE marking RM2;
from almost nothing, to an intimate knowledge of their (b) WARNING LINE marking - is replaced by CONTI­
own surroundings, but little or no knowledge of their NUITY LINE marking WM2;
ultimate destination. It is therefore very important that (c) EDGE LINE marking RM4.1's significance has
impending travellers undertake adequate pre-trip planning. been altered under certain circumstances (see
Maps are essential for this purpose. Chapter 7);
3 For maps to fulfil their function, road users must have (d) PEDESTRIAN CROSSING LINE marking Type B - is
confidence in them. They must be regularly updated and replaced by transverse marking PEDESTRIAN
they must reflect as closely as possible the information CROSSING LINES RTM3.
travellers will find along the road. There is therefore a
responsibility on road authorities to ensure that changes in 1.1.16 Signing for Heavy Vehicles
the road network are communicated to map-makers.
1 Much of the motivation for expansion of the road traffic
sign system has been derived from the need to improve
1.1.15 The Road Traffic Sign System upon the way in which the use of public roads by
1 The shape and colour code of the SADC road traffic sign heavy vehicles may be controlled. As a result many of
system conforms very closely to the principles of the the new regulatory, warning and diagrammatic signs,
European interpretation of the international shape and often using new symbols, have been provided to meet
colour code. There are, however, several variations in this need.
practice within Europe - e.g. the use of blue and green 2 The term "heavy vehicle" is generally used to describe
for freeway and non-freeway direction signs is not ALL vehicles with a GVM over 3500 kg, and includes
universal - some countries reverse the colour buses. If buses over such a mass are to be excluded
application. There are other practices which have not yet from a signing exercise, the signing should be
received universal acceptance - e.g. the use of a yellow designed based on the class of vehicle known as "goods
background colour for temporary road signs and the vehicle" (see Chapters 2 and 3 and Volume 2).
brown background colour for tourism signs (see Section
1.4).
1.1.17 Signing for Public Transport
2 Significant differences from the European sign system, with
particular reference to the regulatory class of signs, are:
Vehicles
(a) ONE WAY ROADWAY signs R4 have a red back­ 1 It has also been noted that there may be a future need for
ground colour in the SADC system and a blue one in improved signing for this class of traffic. Provision has
the European system; been made for the signing of a much wider range of types
of public transport vehicles.
(b) PROHIBITION signs in the SADC system dealing
with actions and objects (rather than limits) use a 2 The majority of new signs are regulatory signs and
diagonal red slash to indicate the prohibition - the several new symbols have been provided. Generally
same signs in the European system do not use the these symbols utilize side views of the vehicles.
diagonal slash.
3 The provision also now exists to use symbols in place of
3 Apart from the changes to letter styles and the use of words on direction signs when a p u b l i c transport
symbols, guidance sign design has undergone terminal warrants inclusion on such signs. Generally
numerous detail changes. A new class of LOCATION these signs use front view symbols. Care should be
signs, which includes STREET NAME signs, has been exercised not to use these symbols on the wrong
incorporated. This class of sign indicates to drivers class of sign.

MAY 2012 SADC - RTSM - VOL 1 GENERAL PRINCIPLES

1.1.8 INTRODUCTION

1.1.18 Roadworks Signing

1 Motivation for an exclusive signing system for use at this, the necessary road traffic sign is designed to intrude
roadworks has also been a major factor in the technical into the field of view of road users. On the other hand
revision process. A system of temporary signs has this field of view may have some particular environmental
therefore been created for use at roadworks and other or aesthetic value.
temporary situations.
2 This conflict of interests is, in practice, rarely avoidable
2 The range of temporary signs is comprehensive. The in the interests of road safety. However, its effect should
following important aspects should be noted: be recognised and considered, particularly in visually
sensitive environments and the impact minimised if
(a) there is no temporary version of STOP sign R1, possible. In almost any environment the
YIELD sign R2, NO ENTRY sign R3 or ONE WAY overs upply of road traffic signs, or indeed
ROADWAY sign R4 - the standard permanent any other form of sign, can be considered to
forms of these signs shall be used in all have an unacceptable environmental impact.
circumstances;
(b) certain signs are ONLY available in a temporary
form; 1.1.21 Awareness and Education
(c) certain signs are ONLY available in a permanent 1 The extent of change in the sign system incorporated in
form (in addition to those mentioned in (a) above). this Edition makes it obligatory on all authorities to co-
3 The significance and application of all individual ordinate awareness and educational campaigns directed
temporary signs is covered in this volume. The collective at:
use of temporary signs at roadworks is covered in (a) road users;
Volume 2, Chapter 13. (b) road authority officials;
(c) traffic officers;
1.1.19 Implementation (d) those involved in vehicle driver training;
1 It is a requirement of the Legislation that all aspects of (e) traffic control device manufacturers;
the signing system conform to the provisions of the (f) international visitors.
regulations, and thereby of the Manual, by 31
2 Awareness and educational effort should be directed at
December 2000 in South Africa. With the adoption of
the operational principles of the signing system.
this manual, and its relevant legislation, this dead­ line
may vary from one member country to another. Whilst
authorities may come under pressure to accelerate 1.1.22 Legal Aspects
change it is recommended that, in the interests of
1 References are made regularly to the legal implications of
economy, the updating of signs be generally achieved
the material contained in this Manual and in the
through planned maintenance or as a result of new
relevant regulations. Authorities should be aware that in
capital works.
many instances the principles of common law also apply
2 It is, however, recommended that early attention be to their actions in addition to those of Road Traffic
given to the use of, or conversion to, the following road Legislation.
traffic signs:
(a) 3- and 4- WAY STOP signs R1.3 and R1.4; 1.1.23 Sign Colour Indication
(b) YIELD AT MINI CIRCLE sign R2.2; 1 It was originally intended to publish the Manual fully in
(c) ONE WAY ROADWAY signs R4; colour. As an economy measure colour printing has
(d) BUSES ONLY signs R121 and BUS and BUS LANE been limited to a number of introductory pages, and the
RESERVATION signs R301, R302 and R303; contents pages for numbered road traffic signs covered by
(e) BUS STOP sign R325; Chapters 2 to 7. These pages do not cover all possible
(f) FREEWAY BEGINS signs R401 and R402; colour examples or combinations. A black and white
(g) NO STOPPING LINE marking RM12. shading system as indicated in Figure 1.3 has been
used to portray the colours throughout the rest of Volume 1
and in Volume 4.
1.1.20 Environmental Impact
1 The provision of a road traffic sign represents a conflict of
interests. On the one hand it is considered necessary to
communicate a message to road users and in order to do

GENERAL PRINCIPLES SADC - RTSM - VOL 1 MAY 2012

INTRODUCTION 1.1.9

Fig 1.3 Key to Colour Coding

MAY 2012 SADC • RTSM - VOL 1 GENERAL PRINCIPLES

ROAD CLASSIFICATION 1.2.1

1.2 ROAD CLASSIFICATION

1.2.1 General
1 If GUIDANCE signing is to be effective in metropolitan classes of road. It is the duly of road authorities to
areas, in towns, and in a rural setting, at all levels of satisfy such expectations.
the road network, for local drivers and for drivers
3 The class of road may be indicated directly, through
unfamiliar with the area in which they are travelling, it
differences in the guidance sign colour code e.g. by the
is desirable that there shall be a good measure of
use of blue, green or other background colours. It may
uniformity of signing practices throughout the member
also be made obvious by the use of signs with visibly
countries.
different appearances e.g. FINGERBOARD signs.
2 The road networks in each country have been Alternatively a more subtle difference may be indicated
classified for different functional purposes. In or- der by the provision of a greater or lesser number of
to aim for the objective of signing uniformity the guidance signs. The overall objective, however, should
various existing classifications have been assessed remain that of obtaining an adequate state of
and in general terms were found to offer too wide a awareness in drivers, to changes in the levels of the
range of categories for the purpose of GUIDANCE road hierarchy.
signing. A road classification for signing purposes has
4 Different classes of road can also be indicated by
therefore been developed.
means of the route number allocated to the road al-
though this is not applicable throughout the whole road
1.2.2 Road Classification for Signing network (see Sections 4.1 and 4.6). It should be noted,
Purposes however, that different designatory letters are used in
member countries to identify classes of route which
1 This road classification is basic because there are have essentially the same characteristics as similar
definite limits to the number of ways in which classes of route in other member countries.
GUIDANCE signs, and specifically DIRECTION signs,
can be made to indicate with sufficient immediate 5 Roads are therefore broadly classified as RURAL or
recognition potential, the different classes into URBAN and specific differences in signface display
which the road network is divided for signing rules are related to these basic categories. Within these
purposes. classes the road types have been further subdivided
into four groups, namely CLASSES A, B, C and D, as
2 It is considered necessary to treat the signing of indicated in Figure 1.4. If a need exists, each of these
different classes of road in recognisably different ways classes may be further subdivided, provided recognisably
so that road users may be readily aware of the class of different methods of signing can be provided for each
road on which they are travelling, or which they are class. CLASS A roads and URBAN CLASS B streets
about to enter. Such a state of awareness is necessary are sub-classified as indicated in Figure 1.4. The
to achieve the attention levels appropriate to the signing of roads in peri-urban areas requires particularly
complexity of the driving task likely to be experienced careful attention since the operational boundary between
on a given class of road, and thereby to the navigational RURAL and URBAN classes is rarely as clear-cut as a
requirements appropriate to the road class. In such a line on a map.
way drivers are likely to develop an appropriate level of
expectation with respect to the provision of
GUIDANCE signs on different

MAY 2012 SADC - RTSM - VOL 1 GENERAL PRINCIPLES

1.2.2 ROAD CLASSIFICATION

Fig 1.4 Road Classification for Signing Purposes

GENERAL PRINCIPLES SADC - RTSM - VOL 1 MAY 2012

ROAD TRAFFIC SIGN CLASSIFICATION 1.3.1

1.3 ROAD TRAFFIC SIGN CLASSIFICATION

1.3.1 General
to indicate normal conditions - the status quo. A
1 The term ROAD TRAFFIC SIGN is the collective term used
SELECTIVE RESTRICTION regulatory sign which limits
in legislation to include all ROAD SIGNS, ROAD
the applicability of a regulation, for instance to only a part of
MARKINGS and TRAFFIC SIGNALS. The classification
the day but every day, remains classified as a
detailed in this section therefore covers all three
PERMANENT sign because its application, although only
sub-categories of road traffic signs. Whilst road traffic signs
for part of the day, is constant.
are directed at road users in general the majority of signs
5 A TEMPORARY sign on the other hand, is any sign which
are for drivers of vehicles (including bicycles). Signs are
is placed in view of road users to indicate a change to
broadly classified by function as REGULATORY,
normal circumstances, whether this be for a few minutes or
WARNING, GUIDANCE and INFORMATION road traffic
for several months. The message which should be inferred
signs (see Figure 1.5).
by an observer of TEMPORARY signs is that normal
2 In addition to selected specific road traffic signs
standards may not apply, and as a result, a higher level of
incorporated into the overall signing system which relate to attention to surrounding circumstances, which are not
pedestrians, for the first time this edition of the Manual normal, is required. The interpretation of what is permanent
includes details of a GUIDANCE sign sub-class for and what is temporary has presented difficulties for some
pedestrians. sign practitioners. A roadworks site that has been in
operation for several months could, for instance, be
1.3.2 Road Signs considered to be a normal circumstance. It clearly is not,
1 ROAD SIGNS represent by far the biggest numerical group <%2>because although it is of long duration, there may be
in the overall road traffic sign classification. The further daily or even hourly variations of traffic accommodation
classification of road signs is necessary to assist in the detail. Drivers must be sufficiently attentive to these
development of specific primary properties i.e. a sign shape variations to deal with them safely - hence the use of
and colour code. Since the various classes of road sign TEMPORARY signs to attempt to create the required
have significant functional differences it is important that attention levels. Typical TEMPORARY signing
road users, observing a road sign, instantly recognise its circumstances include:
function, based on the primary properties, prior to (a) roadworks, maintenance, construction and other
comprehending the specific signface message that is being building sites;
conveyed. In doing so they should, virtually automatically,
(b) accident sites;
be in a state of readiness to act in accordance with the
(c) temporary traffic accommodation or control, including
message once this is observed and understood, and have
school sites and scholar patrols;
determined that such message has immediate application
(d) the temporary display and removal of a NO PARKING
to them.
or NO STOPPING prohibition during events for
2 The basic ROAD SIGN classification is as follows:
example (not to be confused with the use of a
(a) REGULATORY signs - R numbering series and SELECTIVE RESTRICTION NO PARKING or NO
generally a circular shape STOPPING sign which is permanently displayed).
(b) WARNING signs - W numbering series and generally a 6 Road signs may also be displayed in a STANDARD or a
triangular shape; VARIABLE MESSAGE form. The majority of road signs
(c) GUIDANCE signs - G numbering series and generally
covered by this Manual are standard signs. Variable
a rectangular shape;
(d) INFORMATION signs - IN numbering series and message signs are covered in Chapter 9 and in Volume 2.
generally a rectangular shape. 7 REGULATORY signs have legal significance. Their
function is to control or restrict the actions of road users.
3 The shape, size and colour characteristics of each of these
Disregard of such signs constitutes an offence. This group
classes are described fully in Section 1.4. The
of signs is subdivided into a wider classification as follows:
harmonisation process identified a lack of clarity in the
subdivision of the main classes of road traffic signs, to the (a) CONTROL signs;
extent that occasionally new signs were being proposed (b) COMMAND signs;
out of their correct class. This factor, together with the (c) PROHIBITION signs;
relatively large increase in the number of signs, motivated (d) RESERVATION signs;
for the creation of clearly identified sub-classifications (e) COMPREHENSIVE signs;
within the main classes. This in turn made it advantageous (f) SECONDARY MESSAGE signs;
to re-number all but a very few road traffic signs. To do (g) DE-RESTRICTION signs.
otherwise would have resulted in significant confusion (see 8 The function of WARNING signs is to indicate
Figure 1.6). circumstances that are hazardous or potentially hazardous
4 Virtually all road signs may be used in either a to road users and they are classified as:
PERMANENT or TEMPORARY form. Those that should (a) ADVANCE WARNING signs - located before a hazard;
only be used in the one or the other form are clearly (b) HAZARD MARKER signs - located at the hazard.
identified on the individual sign description pages.
PERMANENT signs include all road signs used

MAY 2012 SADC - RTSM - VOL 1 GENERAL PRINCIPLES

 1.3.2 ROAD TRAFFIC SIGN CLASSIFICATION

9 GUIDANCE signs are essentially those signs previously (b) WARNING markings - WM numbering series;
(c) GUIDANCE markings - GM numbering series.
classified as INFORMATION signs, which had a
2 Regulatory road markings have a legal significance and
directional or guidance (navigational) function rather than
they are widely used to control the actions of road users.
simply an information function. GUIDANCE signs are
Disregard of such markings constitutes an offence. It
further classified as:
should be noted that the road marking colour code is not as
(a) LOCATION signs;
specifically developed around regulatory markings as is the
(b) ROUTE MARKER and TRAILBLAZER signs; colour code for regulatory road signs (see paragraph
(c) DIRECTION signs; [Link]). Regulatory road markings are subdivided into:
(d) FREEWAY DIRECTION signs;
(a) TRANSVERSE markings - RTM numbering series;
(e) TOURISM signs; (b) LONGITUDINAL markings - RM numbering series.
(f) LOCAL DIRECTION signs; For details of road markings refer to Chapter 7, and for
(g) DIAGRAMMATIC signs application examples to Volume 2, Chapter 2.
(h) PEDESTRIAN signs.
10 Signs which do not include a directional or navigational 1.3.4 Traffic Signals
message component are classified as INFORMATION
signs. All INFORMATION sign numbers have been 1 The vast majority of TRAFFIC SIGNAL applications have a
changed - see Chapter 5. regulatory function. Failure to obey a TRAFFIC SIGNAL
constitutes an offence. One or more yellow flashing lights
1.3.3 Road Markings may be used to supplement a road sign message to
increase its conspicuity and thereby warn of its presence
1 ROAD MARKINGS are broadly classified as:
(see Chapter 6).
(a) REGULATORY markings - RTM and RM numbering
series;

GENERAL PRINCIPLES SADC – RTSM – VOL 1 MAY 2012

ROAD TRAFFIC SIGN CLASSIFICATION 1.3.3

Fig1.5 Road Traffic Sign Classification

MAY 2012 SADC - RTSM - VOL 1 GENERAL PRINCIPLES

1.3.4 ROAD TRAFFIC SIGN CLASSIFICATION

Fig 1.6 Detailed Classification with Numbering Series

GENERAL PRINCIPLES SADC – RTSM – VOL 1 MAY 2012

ROAD TRAFFIC SIGN CLASSIFICATION 1.3.5

Fig 1.6 Detailed Classification with Numbering Series

MAY 2012 SADC - RTSM - VOL 1 GENERAL PRINCIPLES

\
SHAPE, SIZE AND COLOUR 1.4.1

1.4 SHAPE, SIZE AND COLOUR

1.4.1 General
1 A road traffic sign is more easily seen, identified and a variable message is of the light reflecting type it shall
read if different classes of sign conform to different retain the shape, size and colours of standard signs
shape and colour codes. (permanent or temporary).If a variable message sign is
of the light emitting variety it shall accurately represent
2 The shape, size and colour of a road traffic sign con- the shape and the border colour of regulatory and warning
tribute to its conspicuity and to the transfer of its primary signs, whereas the colours of the text or symbol, and the
function or class, and its specific signface message. background for such signs, should be reversed so that
The conspicuity achieved by a sign may result from any or the text and background colours are white and black
all of these physical attributes of signs. Within respectively (see Chapter 9).
reasonable limits it is desirable to achieve effective
conspicuity in a particular road scene with the smallest 8 Light emitting variable message signs, displaying
possible sign. In this way an acceptable compromise worded messages only, should do so within a rectangular
between the conflicting objectives, for a road traffic shape in white letters or numerals on a black
sign, of being seen by road users but of not causing an background. The provision of a border on such signs is
unacceptable environmental intrusion, may be optional but recommended. The border may be
achieved. provided in white retroreflective material.
3 Effective message transfer will not be achieved if 9 Shape, size and colour are also relevant for road
there is not an adequate colour contrast between the markings and traffic signals, however, the colour code of
colour of the text or symbol used on a road traffic road markings is not specifically related to function such
sign and the colour of the sign background. It should be as "regulation" or "warning", and traffic signals have
noted that some colour combinations (message and limited variations in shape, size and colour.
background) which are effective during daytime may
not work as well at night, and vice versa. In this regard 1.4.2 Shape
the use of retroreflective materials to achieve adequate
conspicuity of a sign at night may reduce the night-time 1 The shape and size of a road sign play an important
legibility of the message compared to that achieved in part in ensuring that drivers actually see the sign. This
daytime. For this reason it is recommended that function is termed the "attention conspicuity" of the sign
organisations purchasing road signs have an adequate and refers to the ability of a sign to attract attention
checking process to ensure that the signface materials when an observer's (driver's) attention is not specifically
used conform to specifications (see Sections 1.1 and directed to the probable occurrence of the sign.
1.5). 2 Signs which are traditionally small, because their message
4 The colour of the reverse side of road signs shall be i s short in terms of text or because it is represented by
grey, UNLESS: a symbol, have been assigned to shapes that stand out
effectively from the background clutter. These shapes
(a) the signboard material is aluminium; give a better quality of edge definition, and therefore
(b) the sign is a STOP sign R1,or one of its derivatives, in shape recognition, to road signs seen against a
which case the colour of the reverse side shall be complex background. For these reasons more important
white: regulatory signs, those that are MANDATORY and
(c) the sign is a portable sign in which case the reverse PROHIBITORY, are CIRCULAR, although there are
side should be marked with yellow retroreflective some exceptions, namely:
stripes on a black semi-matt background so that a
(a) STOP sign R1 - OCTAGONAL;
pattern of alternating 150 mm wide yellow and black
stripes is created; (b) YIELD sign R2- TRIANGULAR;
(d) the sign is double-sided. (c) PEDESTRIAN PRIORITY sign R5- DIAMOND.
5 The colour of any post specifically erected for the All other regulatory signs are RECTANGULAR e.g.
display of a road sign shall be as follows: ONE WAY ROADWAY sign R4, and all RESERVATION
and COMPREHENSIVE signs.
(a) if the post is steel - grey, or the natural colour if
plated {galvanised); 3 Signs which WARN of a hazard ahead are
(b) if the post is wood - the colour of the wood as TRIANGULAR.
treated;
4 Guidance and information signs are RECTANGULAR
(c) if the post is concrete - the natural colour of with a few exceptions as follows:
concrete.
(a) ROUTE MARKER sign GE15 (RSA National) -
If the road sign is mounted on the same post as a traffic PENTAGON;
signal, the above requirements shall not apply and the
(b) ROUTE MARKER sign GE14 (RSA Provincial) -
colour of such a post shall be the golden yellow specified
DIAMOND;
as standard for traffic signal supports.
(c) RIGHT OF WAY sign IN7 - DIAMOND.
6 Road signs may be provided as PERMANENT or TEM-
PORARY signs and the colours used for a specific sign 5 When the message is brief rectangular signs are also
change according to such use (see Subsection 1.4.4 and small, however, those used for guidance purposes of
Chapter 10). some complexity are relatively large. Shape and colour
codes assigned to various classes of road sign are
7 The use of VARIABLE MESSAGE signs is growing. If illustrated in Figure 1.7.

MAY 2012 SADC - RTSM- VOL 1 GENERAL PRINCIPLES

 1.4.2 SHAPE, SIZE AND COLOUR

6 As a general rule sign classes are differentiated from background the introduction of even one colour (say as a
each other by shape, whereas subdivisions within a border colour) serves to create a colour contrast between
class are differentiated from each other by colour. the sign and the background (a "chromatic" sign).
Therefore, the first message to be interpreted by drivers 2 The contrast between the colours used on a sign also
on seeing a sign, is the type or class of message that the affects the l e g i b i l i t y of the sign message. As a
sign is to transfer. general rule a luminance ratio and a coefficient of
7 Notwithstanding the development of a road sign shape retroreflection ratio between the text or symbol colour,
code, account should be taken of the nature of the and the signface background colour, should be at least
background envir onment in which a sign is to be 7 to 1 and preferably 10 to 1. These contrast ratios can
located, and the competition existing for the attention of be reduced to around 4 to 1 for large areas of different
drivers. This applies particularly when de- signing and colours. Chromaticity charts covering the different
erecting signs in complex environments such as colours used on road traffic signs are given in Section
shopping areas or cit y centres. In such cases the 1.5 and full specifications of colours are covered by
positioning of signs should also be considered carefully SASS 1519: Road Signs, SASS 1459: Traffic Lights,
to maximise their target value. It may be necessary to SASS 731:Road Markings and SASS 1442: Roadstuds.
consider the use of elevated or overhead signs or the 3 The different colours, used on different shapes of sign
use of a HIGH VISIBILITY background to a regulatory or contribute to the early comprehension of the sign class or
warning sign, to improve the attention c ons pic ui t y of the level of the sign within the overall sign hierarchy. The
the sign. This practice is well established for traffic use of a yellow background for all classes of
signals in the form of a black backing board with a TEMPORARY sign is a specific example of this principle
white border. (see Figure 1.10). Figure 1.7 illustrates the hierarchy of
8 Whilst a high visibility background is rectangular and the sign shape and colour code.
may itself offer a lower level of edge definition against the 4 In Section 2.0, Figure 2.2 shows the colour code within the
background, its function is to significantly improve the REGULATORY sign class where border colour,
target value of the whole sign, and to give better edge background colour and symbol colour are used to
definition, and hence shape recognition, to the differentiate between the sub-categories of regulatory
superimposed sign. When building a n e w r o a d , sign so that:
l a n d s c a p i n g can be used to provide a suitable
background for signs. (a) CONTROL signs, which vary in shape, are always
white on red;
1.4.3 Size (b) COMMAND and PROHIBITION signs, which are circular in
shape, are differentiated by their colour code:
1 Road Traffic Legislation lays down, through its
regulations, the m i n i m u m size of regulatory and (i) COMMAND -white on blue with a white border;
warning signs. These sizes are noted in Tables 2.4 and (ii) PROHIBITION - black on white with a red order;
3.1.
2 Minimum sized signs should only be used when the (c) RESERVATION and COMPREHENSIVE signs which
environment in which the sign is located is conducive to are rectangular in shape are differentiated by their
good attention conspicuity. The sign function should colour code:
become evident when the sign lies just within a driver's (i) RESERVATION- white on blue with a
cone of vision forming an angle of the order of 6° with the white border;
normal to the direction of travel. If this parameter cannot (ii) COMPREHENSIVE - white on blue with a
be met, the sign size should be increased so that its red border.
shape is recognisable from a distance that places it 5 Figure 1.8 expands the basic regulatory sign colour
within the desired cone of vision. code given in Section 2.0 Figure 2.2, by using as an
3 The effective size of a sign can be increased by using a example, regulatory signs for heavy vehicle control.
larger standard sign size or by providing a HIGH
6 In Section 2.0, pages 2.0.18 to 2.0.20, a variety of
VISIBILITY background. The effects of choosing a
examples of SELECTIVE RESTRICTION regulatory
larger standard size of sign are likely to be of the order of
signs, and of regulatory signs used within HIGH VISI-
a doubling of conspicuity when using a 900 mm
BILITY backgrounds are shown. The secondary message
diameter sign instead of a 600 mm diameter sign, or an
portion of selective restriction signs shall use the same
increase in conspicuity of five times if a 1200 mm
background, symbol and border colour code as the main
diameter sign is used in place of a 600 mm diameter
sign above it. High visibility signs with their increased
one (see Subsection 1.4.2 and Sections 2.8, 3.6 and
area of white or yellow background may be used to
4.4).
increase the target value of the superimposed sign(s).
1.4.4 Colour 7 Section 3.0, page 3.0.1, shows the colour code used for
1 Colour on its own is not considered a significant factor the warning sign class, for both PERMANENT and
affecting the conspicuity of a road traffic sign when TEMPORARY categories. If additional information is
compared, message for message, with a white sign required this shall be provided on a SUPPLEMEN-
with black text (an "achromatic" sign). This is because TARY PLATE IN11, below the warning sign as shown on
the introduction of colour is likely to reduce the sign page 3.0.8. This colour code also applies if a
luminance. The conspicuity of a sign can be attributed in supplementary plate is required below a regulatory
part to the luminance contrast between the sign and the sign or a HIGH VISIBILITY sign.
surrounding background. When there is little luminance 8 Figure 4.1 in C h a p t e r 4 , Section 4.0 shows the
contrast between an achromatic sign and the

GENERAL PRINCIPLES SADC - RTSM- VOL 1 MAY 2012

SHAPE, SIZE AND COLOUR 1.4.3

Guidance Sign Classification for permanent Guidance their colours. It should be noted that there is no distinct
signs in colour. colour code establishing a clear functional distinction
between the regulatory, warning and guidance classes of
9 Figure 4.2 in Section 4.0 shows the background colour
road marking. Regulatory markings for instance are
code for freeway signs, and illustrates the supplementary
variously white, yellow and red. Yellow is, however,
code used for the various numbers which may appear
only used for regulatory marking applications.
on such signs:
11 Section 6.0, pages 6.0.3 and 6.0.4, illustrate the range of
(a) INTERCHANGE (EXID or JUNCTION NUMBER -
traffic signal shapes and the relative positions of the
black on white (location);
various standard colour indications.
(b) ROUTE NUMBER -yellow;
(c) DISTANCE -white. 12 Examples of TEMPORARY signs in the regulatory,
warning and guidance sign classes, including examples
This figure also illustrates the function of the different of temporary selective restriction regulatory signs and high
elements of information used on ground-mounted and visibility signs, may be found in their respective chapters
overhead freeway direction signs. and in Figure 1.10.
10 Figure 1.9 shows typical details of road markings and

MAY 2012 SADC - RTSM- VOL 1 GENERAL PRINCIPLES

1.4.4 SHAPE, SIZE AND COLOUR

Fig 1.7 Basic Sign Shape and Colour Code

GENERAL PRINCIPLES SADC - RTSM - VOL 1 MAY 2012

SHAPE, SIZE AND COLOUR 1.4.5

Fig 1.8 Typical Examples of the Application of the

Regulatory Sign Colour Code to a Vehicle Class

MAY 2012 SADC - RTSM - VOL 1 GENERAL PRINCIPLES

1.4.6 SHAPE, SIZE AND COLOUR

Fig 1.9 Typical Road Marking Shapes and Colours

GENERAL PRINCIPLES SADC • RTSM -VOL 1 MAY 2012

SHAPE, SIZE AND COLOUR 1.4.7

MAY 2012 SADC - RTSM - VOL 1 GENERAL PRINCIPLES

1.4.8 SHAPE, SIZE AND COLOUR

Fig 1.10 Temporary Sign Colour Code Examples

GENERAL PRINCIPLES SADC - RTSM • VOL 1 MAY 2012

SPECIFICATION AND MANUFACTURE 1.5.1

1.5 SPECIFICATION AND MANUFACTURE

1.5.1 General
(b) any border;
1 In South Africa the Bureau of Standards has a number of
"Specifications" (CKS) and "Standard Specifications" (c) any internal space;
(SANS) which are relevant to the manufacture and (d) the height, length or diameter of any arrow, symbol,
appearance of road traffic signs. The most relevant of numeral or letter;
these are: (e) any internal part of any arrow, symbol, numeral or
(a) SANS 1519-1 – 2006/1519-2 - 2004: Road Signs letter.
(b) SANS 731-1 – 2006/731-2 - 2006: Road Marking Paint 2 In terms of the provisions of paragraph [Link] the internal
(c) CKS 192 - 1971: Drop-on Type Reflectorised part of any arrow, symbol or letter shall, in addition, not
Road-Marking Paint; deviate BOTH over AND under the stated dimensions so
(d) CKS 501 - 1981: Road Marking Paint, High Build, that the total deviation exceeds 5% (for example - one part
Non-Skid; shall not be more than 2,5% under dimension if another
(e) SANS 1442 - 2008: Roadstuds; part is 2,5% over dimension).
(f) SANS 1459 - 2004: Traffic Lights 3 In all other respects all lettering used on road signs shall
2 Where these specifications do not include a colour conform to the details of German DIN 1451 - Part 2 Styles
specification, such as for paints, this is covered by: A and B (see Volume 4 - Chapter 11).
(a) SANS 1091 - 2004: National Colour Standards for 4 Legislation requires that a road marking has a minimum
Paint; or width of 100 mm with a tolerance of up to 10% under such
(b) CKS - 279 - 1971: Colours for Paints. dimension. Any wider road marking line dimensions shall
3 The above specifications do not cover the manner in not deviate from the required width by more than 10 mm.
which signs, markings or signals shall be erected or 5 The length of broken lines and the gaps between them
marked on the road surface. Such standards are either shall, when either or both exceeds 1,5 m in length not
under development or are provided as part of contract deviate from the lengths specified in Chapter 7 by more
documentation or departmental specifications. than 150 mm. The longitudinal tolerance for road marking
4 This Manual supplements the standard specifications by line and gap dimensions under 1,5 m in length shall be 50
supplying sufficient detail for the accurate dimensional mm.
design and manufacture of signs and signals so that they 6 SANS 1459 specifies a maximum centre to centre
appear to road users as intended. It also covers the widths dimension for traffic signal aspects and permits a tolerance
and line-to-gap ratios for all road markings. of 10 mm on 210 mm diameter aspects and 20 mm on 300
5 Road Traffic Legislation, specifies a range of minimum mm diameter aspects.
sizes for various, but not all, road traffic signs
6 In addition, the manner in which road traffic signs should 1.5.3 The Use of Retroreflective Materials
be installed in relation to each other (sometimes in a 1 In general, any road sign or part of a road sign (typically
sequential order) is covered by the Manual. More specific the message), the significance of which is to be
details in this regard are covered in Volume 2. identifiable during the hours of darkness or l ow
7 Public authorities, will, from time to time, also make ambient light levels, shall be retroreflective. This
requirement is covered on a sign-by-sign basis in the
available standard details in the form of manuals, standard
Regulations and Volumes 1 and 4 of this Manual. Table
plans or additional specifications to cover interpretations of 1.1 summarises this information.
the various factors covered by this Manual to suit their
2 An authority may specify a retroreflective background for
geometric design and other standards.
signs which are not required by regulations to have a
8 The manufacture and positioning of road traffic signs shall retroreflective background. Such action is recommended
be accurately specified, AND they should be checked when it is necessary that the colour code used on the sign
for compliance with specification. be recognisable at night as well as by day. Whilst it can
be argued that this requirement applies at all times, the
1.5.2 Dimensional Tolerances cost implications of using retroreflective backgrounds on
larger guidance signs are significant. Table 1.1 indicates
1 SANS 1519 refers to this Manual stating that "the layout of sign retroreflective backgrounds.
the message on the signface shall conform to the layout,
3 Retroreflective material is available in many grades of
given in the applicable drawings of the Manual, so that no quality. Three of these grades are specified in SANS
deviation exceeds 5% of the layout of the applicable 1519, namely Class I, Class II and Class Ill. Whilst
drawings". Legislation also permits a tolerance of 5% the standard specification requires compliance with
below the minimum dimensions for certain signs. The durability tests, the suppliers of materials are
effect of these requirements, from a manufacturing and commonly prepared to provide a warranty for the
checking point of view, is that the following elements of a above classes of material, provided various
regulatory, warning, guidance or information sign shall not conditions are complied with during manufacture. A
warrantied Class I material is considered to have an
be more than 5% under the stated dimensions nor more
acceptable level of degradation due to weathering
than 5% over the stated dimensions: over a 7 year life, whereas warrantied Class II and
(a) the overall height, length or diameter of a sign Class III materials are considered acceptable over a

MAY 2012 SADC - RTSM - VOL 1 GENERAL PRINCIPLES

1.5.2 SPECIFICATION AND MANUFACTURE

TABLE 1.1 RETROREFLECTIVE MATERIALS FOR ROAD SIGNS TABLE 1.1

Permanent Road Signs - Recommended Class of Retroreflective Material

Type Series Background Border Text Symbols/ Notes

Arrows
REGULATORY
Control R1 - R6 1 1 1 1
Command R101 – R140 1 1 • •
Prohibition R201 – R242 1 1 1 1
Reservation R301 – R354 */1 1 1 1
Comprehensive R401 – R403 1 1 1 1
WARNING
Advance W101 – W363 1 1 • •
Hazard W401 – W415 1 1 - 1
GUIDANCE
Location GL 1 • • • River 1
Route Marker/Trailblazer GE 1 1 1 1
Direction GD */1 1 1 1
Freeway Direction GA GB GC 1 1 1/3 1/3
Tourism GF */1 1 1 1
Local Direction GDL 1 1 • •
Diagrammatic GS 1 1 • • “Block” 1
Pedestrian GP */1 • • •
INFORMATION IN 1 1 1 1

NOTES: KEY:

(1) All temporary road signs shall have a retroreflective 1 Class I

background, and semi-matt border, symbol or letter. 3 Class III
(2) An authority may specify Class Ill in place of Class II if • Semi-matt
satisfied that this i s cost effective (see Subsection - Not Applicable
1.5.3). Semi-matt instead
*
(3) Check luminance factor before specifying higher than of Class I when only for
Class I. daytime applications
(4) Due to their small size STREET NAME signs GL1 are
recommended to be retroreflective.
(5) Certain signs are specified as retroreflective (see
Regulations).

10 year life. The manufacturers provide these requires the superimposition of one colour of
grades of material with a watermark or other retroreflective material on another, care must be taken
permanent identifying mark indicating the class and to ensure that adequate luminance and retroreflective
manufacturer of the material. Whilst there are obvious contrast rates are achieved by the combination of
cost implications to the use of Class I, II or Ill materials materials from the sign for the message to be legible.
in preference to shorter life materials it is strongly The minimum coefficient of retroreflection for the three
recommended that purchasers of road signs specify at standard classes of material for each colour is given in
least Class I materials, even for temporary signs. This SANS [Link] actual coefficient of retroreflection for a
will enable effective checking of the quality of the given sample and colour may vary widely from the
material supplied and will almost certainly result in a minimum, and for new materials is commonly higher
sign life which is cost effective over time. than the value given in SANS 1519. Colour contrast,
and therefore legibility, is normally sought by placing a
4 When specifying the manufacture of a road sign, which
dark

GENERAL PRINCIPLES SADC - RTSM - VOL 1 MAY 2012

SPECIFICATION AND MANUFACTURE 1.5.3

letter on a light background, or vice versa. When mended by the International Commission of Illumination
retroreflective materials are used it is possible that, for (CIE). The colour of light reflected from a surface may be
instance, a poorer quality white placed on an above defined in terms of its chromaticity co-ordinates "x", "y" and
minimum specification green background may result "z", the sum of which is unity. Co-ordinate "x" is an
in a low retroreflective colour contrast (under indication of the proportion of RED present in the colour
illumination at night) which may be inadequate for sample, "y" the proportion of GREEN, and "z" the
good legibility at night, although the luminance proportion of BLUE.
contrast (under ambient daylight) is unlikely to ever be 3 For practical purposes all ordinary surfaces can be
inadequate. This effect can also occur with certain considered as REFLECTIVE. In effect an object
combinations of class of retroreflective material e.g. a absorbs some light and reflects some l ight so that an
Class I (white) on a Class III (green) might result in a observer sees the object and experiences a colour
similar effect at night. As a general rule a contrast sensation. The relative brightness of the object, or its
ratio of the coefficients of retroreflection of colours parts, if it has several colours, is expressed as its
placed on each other, irrespective of class, is luminance factor(s).Thus a light colour will have a high
recommended as follows: luminance factor and a dark colour will have a low
(a) for small, finely detailed areas (letters and symbols)- a luminance factor. An ordinary surface in the context of
minimum ratio for light-to-dark of 7 to 1, with a road signs can be considered as a painted surface.
preference for 10 to 1 or more; 4 If a surface is covered with a RETROREFLECTIVE
(b) for large areas (arrows or blocks) - a minimum ratio of material light is reflected in quite a different way. Due to
3,5 to 1, with a preference for 5 to 1; or the internal structure of the retroreflective material
recommended retroreflective material class incident light is reflected more or less back along the
combinations are given in Table 1.1. incident path over a wide range of angles of incidence. As
a result of this, under diffuse daylight illumination, a
1.5.4 Road Sign Materials retroreflective surface may have lower luminance factors
than an ordinary surface. Only when illuminated by a focused
1 Sign board materials are specified at the discretion of the light source will the surface appear significantly brighter
purchaser. If a road sign is to be fully faced with than a similarly illuminated ordinary surface, because
retroreflective materials the sign board or backing material the ordinary surface scatters the light directed on it.
must have a life expectancy at least equal to that of the
specified retroreflective material. 5 As a result of these factors, the apparent colours of
reflective and retroreflective surfaces of the same colour,
will appear different to an observer under different
1.5.5 Road Marking Materials types of illumination (natural daylight and external light
sources at night).
1 Limited comments on specifications of road marking
materials are given in Chapter 7. 6 For manufacturing control purposes the required co­
2 SANS 1442 covers three categories of roadstud, lours have been specified in terms of an area on the
"Chromaticity Chart". The limits of the area are thus
namely:
defined by four "x" and "y" co-ordinates for each colour.
(a) Category A - corner cube retroreflectors; Chromaticity Charts for a range of road traffic sign
(b) Category 8 - biconvex retroreflectors; materials are given for illustration purposes in Figures
(c) Category C -omnidirectional retroreflectors. 1.11 to 1.14 as follows:
The specification does not cover temporary roadstuds nor (a) painted sign surfaces;
the manner in which roadstuds should be secured to the (b) retroreflective sign surfaces;
road surface (see Chapter 7,Section 7.5). (c) roadstuds;
(d) traffic signals.
1.5.6 Traffic Signals For more complete information on these specification
1 The specificati on of all aspects of traffic signals not requirements the relevant SABS document should be
consulted (see paragraph [Link]).
covered by SANS 1459 is covered in Chapter 6 of
Volume 1 , Volume 3 and Chapter 10 of Volume 4. 7 The degradation or fading of the road traffic sign colours
is a factor relevant in the formulation of maintenance
1.5.7 Colour Specification programmes. Cut-off values to indicate a need for
replacement are not established in all cases but SANS
1 The study of colour is a complex science and beyond the 1519 does include an indication of colour change as a
scope of this Manual. However, since the use of colour result of weathering. Equipment capable of measuring
is considered fundamental to the functioning of the road the appropriated values is becoming more freely
traffic sign system it is worth considering some aspects of available and any authority setting up a road traffic sign
the use of colour. This may assist in the understanding management system should initiate a programme of sign
of why the use of some colours is more effective than measurement to establish sign life prediction patterns.
others.
2 There is general acceptance of the method of specifying
colour in terms of the trichromatic system recommended

MAY 2012 SADC - RTSM - VOL 1 GENERAL PRINCIPLES

1.5.4 SPECIFICATION AND MANUFACTURE

Refer to SANS 1519 for specification and colour co-ordinates

Fig 1.11 Chromaticity Chart: Road Sign Paint

GENERAL PRINCIPLES SADC - RTSM - VOL 1 MAY 2012

SPECIFICATION AND MANUFACTURE 1.5.5

Refer to SANS 1519 for specification and colour co-ordinates

Fig 1.12 Chromaticity Chart: Retroreflective Materials

MAY 2012 SADC - RTSM - VOL 1 GENERAL PRINCIPLES

1.5.6 SPECIFICATION AND MANUFACTURE

Refer to SANS 1442 for specification and colour co-ordinates

Fig 1.13 Chromaticity Chart: Roadstuds

GENERAL PRINCIPLES SADC - RTSM - VOL 1 MAY 2012

SPECIFICATION AND MANUFACTURE 1.5.7

Refer to SANS 1459 for specification and colour co-ordinates

Fig 1.14 Chromaticity Chart: Traffic Lights

MAY 2012 SADC - RTSM - VOL 1 GENERAL PRINCIPLES

SIGN

1.6 SIGN PLACEMENT

1.6.1 General
1 This section deals mainly with the positioning of distance between signs does not exceed 150 m when a
permanent road signs. The positioning of road markings prohibition is required for a greater distance. The
is covered partially in Chapter 7, and is dealt with more majority of regulations brought into effect by a regulatory
comprehensively in Volume 2,Chapter [Link] positioning of sign therefore apply from the point where the sign is
traffic signals i s covered in Chapter 6 and in Volume 3. located. Such regulations remain in effect until
changed by another sign of the same type but a different
2 The position of a sign can be specified in three ways, value e.g. a speed limit sign, or until de-restricted by a
namely: DE-RESTRICTION sign (R)600. Notwithstanding t h i s
(a) longitudinally in relation to the roadway alignment; provision, it is recommended that signs be repeated
(b) laterally in relation to the roadway cross-section; where necessary (after major junctions for
instance) to reinforce the regulatory message.
(c) vertically.
The following regulatory signs have a limited application.
Relatively wide tolerances may be assumed for any For details of the actual limit see the individual sign subsections
guidelines given in relation longitudinal sign placing, in Chapter 2:
whereas tolerances in relation to lateral and vertical
(a) NO EXCESSIVE NOISE sign R206;
positioning are much less and are given in Table 1.3 for
permanent road signs. The guidelines given in this (b) NO HITCHHIKING sign R207;
section do not apply to t h e positioning of (c) NO OVERTAKING signs R214 and R215;
temporary road signs. For details of temporary (d) NO PARKING sign R216;
road sign applications see Volume 2, Chapter 3, (e) NO STOPPING sign R217;
Section 3.5 and Chapter 13. (f) PARKING R ESERVATION sign R305 - P;
3 Unless noted specifically in the text covering an (g) LIMITED PARKING RESER VATION sign R306 -P;
individual sign, all permanent road signs should be (h) ALL other PARKING RESERVATION signs R307 - P
located on the left side of the road, or, if they are to R323 - P;
mounted overhead, as close as possible over the centre (i) ANY selective restriction version of the above
of the lane(s) to which they apply. Duplicate signs may signs.
also be used on the right side of the road for extra emphasis
particularly on one-way roadways. 3 Regulatory signs may also appear on the face of a
guidance sign. They may be located in advance of their
4 As a general rule a road sign should be visible from a intended point of application to advise road users of the
distance in metres numerically equal to the operating approaching control. When used in advance, or on
speed of the road in kilometres per hour. another sign the regulatory sign should always be
5 Signs and their supports should be positioned so as not to associated with a distance, if necessary on a
SUPPLEMENTARY PLATE IN11 (see Section 2.8).
obstruct sidewalks.
4 The l ongitudinal position of a WARNING sign used in
6 It should be recognised that sign supports may represent
advance of the hazard to whic h it refers is covered by
significant hazards to road users. They must therefore be
Figure 3.1. The distances derived from Figure 3.1 should
sited to minimise this risk and be provided with protective
be considered to be guidelines. If some obstruction exists
devices if necessary. Various road authorities have
at the recommended distance the sign should normally
standards in this regard which should be complied with.
be located at a greater (and NOT a smaller) distance
from the hazard than that given in Figure 3.1 (see
1.6.2 Longitudinal Placement Figure 1.15). If iit is necessary to position the sign
significantly further from the hazard than indicated in
1 Road signs generally fall into one of two groups with
Figure 3.1 consideration should be given to adding a
regard to their longitudinal position. They are either
distance SUPPLEMENTARY PLATE IN11.3 (see
located at the point of reference, or at a determined
Section 3.6).
distance in advance of the point of reference. The point of
reference may be one of: 5 Hazard marker warning signs are located at, or very close to
the hazard. (See Figure 1.17 for details of the location of
(a) the commencement of a regulatory control;
hazard markers in relation to bridges, guard-rails etc.)
(b) a hazard to road users;
Certain hazard marker signs are used at regular
(c) a road junction. spacings. Details of recommended spacings are given in
2 REGULATORY signs are placed at, or as close as Section 3.5. Figure 1.17 illustrates additional guidelines for the
possible to the point on the roadway from which t h e i r placing of SHARP CURVE CHEVRON signs W405 or
message is to apply. Certain regulatory signs, such as W406.
the NO OVERTAKING signs R214 and R215, NO 6 GUIDANCE signs are commonly located in advance of a
PARKING sign R216 and NO STOPPING sign R217 junction, or at a junction or other roadside feature such
have specific l ongitudinal conditions relating to their as a rest/service area or a layby. Recommended
use. Signs R214/R215 are applicable for a distance of 500 advance distances are given in Figure 4.43. However, for
m beyond the sign, and should be repeated if the FREEWAY DIRECTION signs, which are placed in
prohibition is required for a greater distance. Signs sequential order, the recommended positions are given in
R216 and R217 are required to be repeated so that the the text for each individual sign type. (Figures 4.41, 4.42,
4.46 to 4.53, 4.57 to 4.60, 4.68 and 4.69 all refer to guidance
sign sequence details.) The distances

MAY 2012 SADC - RTSM - VOL

 SIGN

derived from Figure 4.43 should be considered to be permanent road signs are given in Figures 1.17 and
guidelines. If some obstruction exists which impairs sight 1.18.
distance to a sign, or the location of the sign itself, the
tendency should always be to move the sign further from the 2 Research has shown that there is a risk, when a
junction rather than closer to it (see Figure single support, carrying a regulatory, warning or other
1.15).Particular care must be taken when erecting small sign at a height of 1600 mm to 2000 mm, is
advance direction signs to avoid confusion with minor impacted by a motor car, that the sign may be flung
junctions or driveways. forward by the collapse of the support through the
vehicle windscreen. This risk is greatest for signs
7 Guidance signs located at a junction should, where mounted on steel supports.
possible, be positioned so that turning traffic passes in
front of the sign rather than behind it, particularly if the 3 Signs which are mounted very low are liable to
approach is subject to control by a STOP or YIELD sign or become easily obscured and will collect dirt. They
by traffic signals. The sign will then be in view for a are also more susceptible to damage in the event of
maximum period of time, although it can be obscured grass fires and during roadside maintenance work.
occasionally by large turning vehicles. Temporary DELINEATOR PLATE signs TW401 and
TW402 are particularly susceptible to collect dirt and
8 Care must be exercised to avoid signs being too closely cleaning programmes must be put into operation. In
spaced along the roadway. An absolute minimum a roadworks environment there is little advantage to
spacing on rural roads with an operating speed up to raising the level of right side delineators because this
100 km/h should be 80 m. If the first of two signs is a will quickly put them out of cut-off range of dipped
large sign, a specific study should be made to determine headlamps.
whether it will obscure the second sign at a distance at
which the second sign should be read by drivers. A 4 Signs which are mounted very high, including over­
longitudinal separation of 150 m to 300 m is head signs, are difficult to see at night, particularly if
headlamps are dipped due to oncoming traffic.
recommended for rural roads and a minimum
spacing of 200m s houl d be observed on freeways. In
urban areas spatial constraints are significantly greater. 1.6.5 Display Angle
However, the principles relating to sign visibility are
1 Fully retroreflective ground mounted signs, particularly
the same. Those erecting signs in an urban
the larger guidance signs, should be mounted with
environment must take note of ALL other street
attention to detail. The signface should be angled at
furniture, trees etc. when siting road signs. There is no
approximately 93° to the direction of travel. If the sign is
point in putting up signs if they cannot be seen.
located on the outside of a curve it should be placed at
9 If longitudinal separation of smaller signs such as regulatory 93° to the tangent to the curve from the expected point
and warning signs is difficult to achieve adequately, two from which the sign will be read. This will maximise the
such signs may be mounted on the same support, retroreflection and eliminate specular or mirror-like
particularly if their messages are complementary. This glare resulting from the otherwise glossy
technique is particularly appropriate in roadworks retroreflective sign surface (see Figure 1.19).
situations (see Figure 1.16 and Subsection 1.6.4). 2 If the road gradient, when approaching an overhead
10 The mixing of different messages in a sign sequence fully retroreflective sign is at +2,0% or greater the
should be avoided as far as possible. During the vertical axis of the sign should be parallel to a plumb
geometric design of roads, streets and junctions, this line. If the road gradient is less than +2,0% the sign
aspect shall be carefully considered. For example the should be aligned so that the vertical axis is inclined to
provision of lane drops immediately in advance of, face upward at a rate of 10 mm per metre of vertical
within, or immediately after an intersection or junction signface for each 1% the road gradient differs from +2,0%
which would require the display of warning signs within (see Figure 1.18).
the sequence of direction signs, should be avoided. 3 Large signs should be inspected after installation for
the effectiveness of the above measures and adjusted
1.6.3 Lateral Placement further in one or both axes, if necessary, to reduce
specular glare from vehicle headlamps, street lighting or
1 Details of recommended lateral offsets of permanent other sources. The vertical setback may aggravate the
road signs from the edge of roadway or edge of the collection of bird droppings on the signface (from birds
shoulder are given in Figures 1.17 and 1.18.
perched on top of the signs), particularly in coastal
2 It is not recommended that signs be placed significantly areas. In such circumstances the sign may be mounted
further from the roadway or shoulder edge than with its signface vertical or a capping plate may be
indicated in Figures 1.17 or 1.18 because this will used on top of the sign which projects a sufficient
reduce sign conspicuity and therefore drivers' chances of distance away from the signface to reduce the risk of
seeing the signs. contact of bird droppings with the retroreflective material.
3 If the combination of longitudinal, lateral and vertical
positioning result in a guidance sign being partially 1.6.6 Other Delineation Devices
obscured at the appropriate reading distance by a cut 1 A range of delineation devices is detailed in Chapter 7,
side slope, consideration must be given to modifying Section 7.6. These will be most effective if not placed
this side slope to permit effective reading of the sign too far to the left of the edge of the shoulder, and if kept
(see Figure 1.16). relatively low, subject to the likelihood of being
obscured by grass. All such devices should be placed at
1.6.4 Vertical Placement the recommended spacings. At worst at least three
1 Details of recommended vertical mounting heights for

GENERAL SADC - RTSM - VOL MAY 2012

SIGN

Distance – Fig 4.58 Distance – Fig 4.58

Fig 1.15 Typical Problems with Longitudinal Positioning of Road Signs

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 SIGN

devices must be in the view of drivers at any time to the message. This may result in drivers being unaware of
provide adequate delineation. a hazard thereby increasing accident risks, or it may result
in a missed turn or exit with a subsequent in­ crease in
1.6.7 Obscuration of Road Signs travel time and distance. In either event drivers may
undertake hazardous manoeuvres at risk to themselves
1 A driver's view ahead to a road sign or traffic signal, or in and to other road users.
some instances to important road markings, may be
3 Features of the driving environment which may have an
obscured by other vehicles. The masking effect of other
influence on sign obscuration, and which should be
traffic may be total, partial or intermittent. Drivers may
considered before finally positioning signs, are:
therefore need to adjust their speed and/or position on the
road to improve their opportunity of targeting the (a) sign and signal design and reading characteristics
necessary information. Such adjustments are only likely (see Chapters 4 and 6);
to be attempted when the driver's level of expectation of (b) driver and vehicle dimensions (the size of obscuring
being presented with information is high. A driver is not vehicles and driver's eye position and field of view);
likely to take corrective action in relation to obscured signs (c) characteristics of the traffic (percentage of large
which are not expected. These circumstances should be vehicles, traffic volumes, lane usage, speeds and
understood by road designers, and particularly those headways may all affect the degree of obscuration
dealing with the design and placement of road traffic experienced);
signs, and should be anticipated in the detail design of (d) geometric road features (horizontal and vertical
the information sources provided for drivers. alignment, number of lanes, merging and weaving
2 As a result of the obscuration of a road traffic sign a sections etc.).
driver may pass such sign without being able to read

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 SIGN

Sight Distance from Table 1.2

Sight Distance from Table 1.2

TABLE 1.2 CLEAR SIGHT DISTANCE REQUIREMENTS TABLE 1.2

Letter Size (mm) Minimum Sight Distance (m)

490 380
420 340
350 300
280 260
210 220
140 180
112 160

NOTES:
(1) As an alternative to repositioning signs the shaded legibility distance for the l etter size PLUS 1OOm to
area may be cleared or obstructions. allow for observation of the sign prior to reading.
(2) The "Clear Sight Distance" values include the

Detail 1.16.2 Clear Line of Sight to Larger Guidance Signs

Fig 1.16 Further Aspects of Longitudinal Positioning of Road Signs

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 SIGN

Fig 1.17 Positioning of Hazard Markers

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SIGN

Fig 1.17 Positioning of Hazard Markers

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 SIGN

TABLE 1.3 LATERAL AND VERTICAL PERMANENT SIGN PLACEMENT DIMENSIONS TABLE 1.3

Dimension Minimum Preferred Maximum Remarks

(mm) (mm) (mm)

A 1200 1500 2000 See note (8)

8 500 750 See "R" and note (9)

c
600(300) 2100 2500 See note (10)

D 2100 2500 3000 See note (11)

E 0 0 200 See Chapter 3

F 600 1200 2000

G 800 1200 1600

H 6000 See note (12)

J 2000 4000 See note (13)

K 1600 2000 2400 See note (12) and (14)

L 750

M 5200 5700 6200

N 1000 1500 See "R" and note (9)

p 50 1000

R 600 1500 See "8" , "N" and note (8)

T 1800 4200 See note (15)

NOTES:
(Supplementary to Figures 1.17 and 1.18.)
(1) The minimum size of DANGER PLATE signs W401 on the approximate line of sight of drivers
and W402 is 600 mm x 150 mm and the maximum approaching on the tangent to the curve.
size1200 mm x 300 mm. The maximum size should Subsequent signs should then be spaced at a
be used on roads with an operating speed of 100 km/h distance "S", backwards and forwards around the
or more at all bridge abutments, piers or parapets curve from this point (Table 3.5).For the purpose of
not protected by a guardrail. (Figure 1.17) such an exercise the value of the offset of the drivers'
(2) A DANGER PLATE sign should not be used if is likely line of sight to the left of the road centre line can be
to represent a greater hazard than the hazard it is assumed to be between 1200 mm and 1600 mm.
intended to mark e.g. cross-drain/culvert ends. (Figure 1.17)
(Figure 1.17) (7) Temporary SHARP CURVE CHEVRON signs may be
(3) Any dimension given in relation to guardrails used as an alternative to DELINEATOR signs for
presumes these are installed to correct safety greater impact, in a similar manner, at roadworks
standards. (Figures 1.17 and 1.18) sites and detours.

(4) SHARP CURVE CHEVRON signs W405 and W406 (8) Dimension "A" is measured from the shoulder break
should only be displayed in minimum sets of three, point (refer to Figure 1.18).
either as a connected set pointed in one direction, or (9) In an urban environment, where signs are commonly
as a spaced set (see Table 3.5), also pointing in one located behind a kerb, dimension "8" is suitable for
direction. (Figure 1.17) small signs. Dimension "R" is more appropriate for
(5) When SHARP CURVE CHEVRON signs are used on larger signs such as DIRECTION signs. On higher
a long curve at least three signs must always be speed urban or peri-urban roads dimension "N" may
visible through vertical and horizontal curves. This be used in preference to "R" or "8". (Figure 1.18)
requirement overrides any recommended spacing (10) The range of mounting heights between 1500 mm and
given in Table 3.5. (Figure 1.17) 2000 mm should be avoided for single pole mounted
(6) In order to position SHARP CURVE CHEVRONS to signs (Dimension "C") because there is a significant
best advantage on a long curve it is recommended risk that, on impact by a motor car, the failure of a
that the first sign to be positioned should be placed steel pole may result in such a sign penetrating the
car windscreen. For a limited number of applications

GENERAL RTSM MAY 2012

SIGN

NOTES: (continued from page 1.6.8)

certain regulatory and warning signs may be lower values of dimension "R" may be considered.
mounted with a minimum vertical clearance of as (Figure 1.18)
little as 300 mm. Such signs are commonly located
(14) The maximum value for dimension "K" is preferred for
in the nose of dual carriageway median islands or to
FREEWAY DIRECTION signs.
demarcate a bell-mouth at a junction.
(15) The minimum height appropriate for an overhead sign
(11) Dimension "D" should be used in any situation where
in the upward pointing arrow system is 30"d". A letter
pedestrians are likely to walk in close proximity to a
size of 420 mm/300 mm ("d" = 60 mm) will therefore
road sign OR the sign should be mounted at the
result in a minimum sign height of 1800 mm. A sign
minimum value of dimension "C". (Figure 1.18)
height less than this Dimension "T" is likely to look
ill-proportioned. (Figure 1.18)
(12) The maximum value given for dimension "H" should
be considered a guideline. It is not desirable to (16) Countdown signs can, under certain conditions of
exceed this value due to the limitations on light from alignment (particularly on a left hand curve) obscure
vehicle headlamps reaching the top of such a sign. the Exit Direction sign. II is recommended that the
This value allows for a sign 4800 mm in height to be COUNTDOWN signs be positioned so that they are
mounted at the minimum value of dimension "K". in a straight l ine with sign IN1 which is located further
from the edge of the shoulder than sign IN3. (Figure
(13) Dimension "J" is preferred for rural and high speed 1.19)
urban roads. In a low speed urban environment the

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 SIGN

Fig 1.18 Lateral and Vertical Positioning of Road Signs

Q)

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SIGN

Fig 1.18 Lateral and Vertical Positioning of Road Signs

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 SIGN

Fig 1.19 Offsets to Reduce Specular Glare from Retroreflective Surfaces

GENERAL SADC - RTSM - VOL MAY 2012

HUMAN FACTORS 1.7.1

1.7 HUMAN FACTORS

1.7.1 General
1 The term "human factors" is used to describe the to receive and process mainly visual inputs - be
interaction of man with man-made objects and various stimulated by some, make predictions and decisions
processes within the natural and man-made about actions, execute the necessary actions, and
environment. This interaction of man in the roadway observe the outputs of the actions through the receipt
environment is largely realised in the form of "driver and processing of new information inputs. This is an
behaviour''. The efficient operation of the road traffic intermittent rather than a continuous process, varying
system ultimately depends on the performance of the ac­ cording to the changing complexity of the
system users, who are mainly drivers but can include environment. The driver is therefore acting as part of
pedestrians, AND on the understanding by road a "driver-vehicle-road" closed-loop system.
designers of the human factors involved in driver
3 These concepts are illustrated in a "Task Demand
behaviour in the road environment.
Model” in Figure [Link] model does not however
2 It is for this latter reason that this section is included in the indicate the following:
Manual. The coverage has, however, been limited.
(a) inadequate input for a given task e.g. negotiating a
Those readers involved in the design of roads and in
complex junction;
traffic engineering aspects of road use, are encouraged
(b) out-of-range inputs e.g. uncommon events;
to read further on the subject. Research is on-going on
a world wide basis (see Section 1.8). (c) incorrect input sampling or slow processing by a driver
(see Section 4.4);
3 It is generally agreed that the prime cause of almost 95%
(d) an information overload resulting in the shedding of
of all accidents involves human factors. The load, and on judgement decisions on the relative
understanding of human factors and the incorporation importance of information;
of this understanding into road design is therefore
(e) comparisons and decisions are affected by stress,
important to the safety performance of the road traffic
arousal, motivation and type of input;
system.
(f) drivers may make serious errors.
4 The human factors interaction process has four main
components: 1.7.3 Driver Characteristics
(a) man - the road user;
1 The major aspects of driver behaviour are:
(b) machine - broadly any object or process which man
uses to complete a driver related task - man and (a) psychological traits - intelligence, learning ability,
machine interact so that man receives sensory motivation, skills, attitudes and desires;
information from the machine and manipulates the (b) sensory abilities- vision and hearing;
ma­ chine by the use of controls; (c) physical abilities - response or reaction time;
(c) workspace - the space in which man and machine (d) medical condition - alcohol, drugs, disease or
function; physical impairment.
(d) environment -the man - machine - workspace
T h i s section o n l y deals with the sensory and
combination exist in an environment which affects
physical abilities as they relate to the provision of road
individual performance - a working environment
traffic signs. Figure 1.20 illustrates a "Cognitive -
including such aspects as illumination, sound,
Motivational Model" dealing with driver behaviour.
vibration, climate and the psychological environment.
2 It must be assumed that driving is the same as any other
This information is illustrated simplistically in Figure 1.20.
human skill in that drivers carry out tasks using values,
5 It is important, when considering human factors, to norms, attitudes, motives and expectations which reflect
realise that there is no "a-typical" person. All the relevant the views of their peer or social groups. Since these factors
human factors are subject to wide variations in value. form part of driver's social value structure they are difficult
Designers have to attempt to design to accommodate to influence or change. It should also be accepted
the widest possible range of values, yet, in doing so, that there are drivers who have below normal levels of
will set limits outside which some percentage of the experience or even literacy.
population will fall e.g. the visual acuity of drivers.
3 Information input is received by drivers' sensory systems
as follows (in order of importance):
1.7.2 The Driving System
(a) visual (sight);
1 The driving process can be broken down into four main
(b) kinesthetic (movement);
tasks:
(c) vestibular (equilibrium);
(a) pre-trip planning (macro-performance);
(d) auditory (hearing).
(b) control(micro-performance);
(c) guidance (vehicle manoeuvring - situational 4 In the driving task some 90% of a driver's information is
performance); provided by vision. Visual sensory processes are the
(d) navigation (macro-performance). only ones pertinent to maintaining course, detecting
obstacles, and for reading road signs, road markings,
The information needs of these tasks is covered in Sub­ traffic signals and other forms of delineation. Drivers do
section 1.7.4 (see Figure 1.21). not observe the road ahead continuously. They blink,
2 The driving system tasks require an "input - output" observe objects well off the line of the road, use the rear
operation which can be described as an "information- view mirror, read the vehicle instruments together with
decision-action-observation" sequence. A driver's task is many other functions.

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1.7.2 HUMAN FACTORS

Fig 1.20 Human Factors Models

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HUMAN FACTORS 1.7.3

Fig 1.20 Human Factors Models

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1.7.4 HUMAN FACTORS

The process is a sampling one. Sampling levels are low control or guidance level may lead to a catastrophic
when a driver has good local knowledge and need to be result whereas a failure at the navigation level is non­
higher when in an unfamiliar environment, when ambient catastrophic, unless of course some control or guidance
light levels are low or when traffic volumes are high. When failure follows (see Figure 1.21).
several such factors occur simultaneously, an
5 If the driver should be presented with several complex
information overload will likely occur.
situations at the same time or over a very short time span
5 There are several factors which affect visual ability. The a point may be reached when the driver cannot process
most important of these are; the information without error.
(a) visual acuity - the ability of the eye to see fine detail- 6 A priori knowledge relates to all three tasks. This know­
acute vision is limited to very small angles of view and ledge, in an experienced driver, makes the control task
decreases further as drivers age (see Section 4.4); almost an automatic one and in a similar way reduces the
(b) visual sensibility - permits the detection of burden of the guidance task. The more information pre­
luminance and contrast (see Sections 1.4 and 4.4); pared during the pre-trip planning stage, the less will
(c) colour vision; need to be acquired during a trip to complete the
navigation task successfully.
(d) perceptual and cognitive factors - including the times
for eye movement to occur and to complete a search 7 It is important that road designer’s and those providing
operation. These factors place a real limit on the road signs recognise the potential for a build-up of
amount of new information drivers can obtain be­ information, and take action wherever possible to spread
cause of time limitations. the information by keeping the less important information
for less busy areas, e.g. placing confirmation signs close
6 The "Perception-Reaction time" I s the interval
to an interchange but well beyond any other signs.
between receipt of a secondary input and the initial
response output to what has been received. Often termed 8 At locations where driver's expectations are not realised,
the "Perception­ Intellection-Emotion and Volition", or drivers may require longer response time and will have a
the PIEV time. This time is made up of: tendency to make inappropriate or hazardous responses.
Although expectancies occur at all task levels, their
(a) perception time taken to form a mental image of
importance is probably greatest at the guidance l evel
sensation received via the body;
(see Section 1.8).
(b) intellection involves reasoning towards a decision;
(c) emotion is the affective and subjective part of one's 9 In considering what information to put before drivers,
consciousness; designers must therefore use good communication
(d) volition is the act of making a choice or decision. techniques and provide information in a credible manner.
Coding is a technique commonly used on road signs to
reduce the time required to take in information. Coding
1.7.4 Information Needs can use colour e.g. freeway sign background, or
1 Drivers must receive reliable, credible and numbers instead of words (route numbers), or symbols in
understandable information to minimise uncertainty in place of words. The use of numbers and symbols also
order to make sound decisions in relation to driving results in a reduced need for the display of word
tasks. messages in different languages. These codes are,
however, likely to be counter-productive if drivers are
2 Of the four tasks identified in paragraph [Link] pre-trip not adequately made aware of their specific functions. If
planning provides information which will be remembered new codes are introduced education must be
during the navigation task. The control task requires undertaken to improve the credibility of the traffic control
information on vehicle position and orientation as well devices used.
as feedback from actions such as braking, accelerating
and steering. The guidance task refers to the selection of 10 The credibility of an individual traffic control device de­
speed and path within the roadway. Information is pends not only on its own specific physical context but
therefore required in order to make decisions relating to also on how it is used in relation to other traffic control
such activities as lane changing, overtaking, merging, devices. This implies a clear responsibility on the part of
weaving etc. Information used in the navigation task designers to consider not only the s p ec i f i c problem
comes from memory (from pre-trip planning and in hand, but also the effect of the proposed solution on
experience), landmarks and direction signs. the traffic system as a whole. Inconsistent signs and
traffic control devices tend to destroy general credibility
3 The three on-road tasks vary in their complexity and in the total traffic system.
primacy of action. The following five principles have been
developed in relation to the systematic presentation of
information to drivers: 1.7.5 Human Factors Checklist
(a) first things first - primacy; 1 The following critical items should be addressed in any
(b) do not overload- processing limitations; phase of road design:
(c) acquire information before getting on the road-a priori (a) What is the driver's task?
knowledge; (b) What is the information need?
(d) keep the information at a consistent level- spreading; (c) What is the information source and when is it
(e) do not surprise- expectancy. provided?
4 The concept of primacy is based on the acceptance that (d) Does the information contradict any other informa­
at any given instant some driver information is more tion?
important than other information. A task hierarchy of (e) Does the information contradict driver expectation?
control before guidance or navigation, and guidance be­ (f) Does anything interfere with the information
fore navigation, is thus established. A task failure at the transfer?
(g) What are the likely consequences of an error?

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HUMAN FACTORS 1.7.5

Fig 1.21 Information System

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POSITIVE GUIDANCE 1.8.1

1.8 POSITIVE GUIDANCE

1.8.1 General
1 "Positive Guidance" is a road safety philosophy that
principles various design values have been stated (see
advocates the creation and maintenance of a public
Chapter 4). These values are economic values and
road environment which will provide road users with the
can, and should, be enhanced if there are indications of
optimum amount of visual information which is:
inadequacy. Such indications may come from the
(a) useful - the limitation is that non-useful or non- implementation of positive guidance procedures. It is of
pertinent information takes time to process - this fundamental importance that, when enhanced, the
reduces human performance for necessary enhanced values be adhered to consistently (see Sub­
information processing and reaction; section 1.8.3).
(b) prioritized for importance - the performance limitation
again applies to human reaction; 1.8.3 Driver Expectancy
(c) uniform (and without surprises - expectancy) - man
develops response habits as a defence mechanism - 1 The concept of "driver expectancy" is mentioned briefly
driver expectancy results i n automatic, and time in Section 1.7 as a human factor. The term relates to
saving, responses to standard stimuli- the ultimate the process by which an individual (road user)
objective of positive guidance techniques; and develops ideas and concepts which, when presented
(d) easily visible under the widest range of conditions - with a stimulus of some sort (visual, tactile, auditory
standards used must be as close to the ideal as etc.) conditions the response to the stimulus. The
possible. response may be directly related to the stimulus or it
may be totally unrelated to it, except that the response
2 This information is deemed necessary to ensure that has been triggered by the stimulus. The predisposition
competent drivers are given appropriate information of an individual in the form or ideas and concepts is very
about hazards and inefficiencies to avoid errors. Positive influential in determining the manner of response to a
guidance combines road/traffic engineering and human stimulus and is referred to as the "expected set" or the
factors disciplines to produce a visual information system "expectancy" of the individual.
matched to road facility characteristics and driver
attributes. 2 When these circumstances are applied to the driving
task, the expected situation is a constantly changing
3 There are few situations where all factors combine in a one, and environmental influences are very
standard manner. Positive guidance procedures apply pronounced. This in turn reduces the predictability of
standards and policies with sufficient flexibility, but with a responses to stimuli. Driver expectancy can therefore be
high quality, to effect safety at site-specific locations and described as an inclination to respond to a roadway or
on a system-wide road network basis. traffic situation in a set manner, based on previous
4 It is not appropriate to cover positive guidance in depth in experience. It must be understood that the response is to
this Manual. However, in providing an insight into the an "expected" situation and NOT the actual one.
subject (as with "Human Factors" in Section 1.7) the 3 When the actual situation conforms to the expected
objective is to make designers aware or the philosophy and situation there i s little l i k e l i h o o d of uncertainty. When
to encourage them to incorporate the principles or the the actual situation differs from the expected situation a
Manual to their work. complex decision making and response process occurs.
The process will take the following generalised sequence:
1.8.2 Positive Guidance and the Manual (a) the i nformation available must be sufficient to
1 Although this Manual does not set as a basic concept the convince a driver that the expected situation is in
practice of designing to 85 percentile values, the practice fact incorrect (this information is significantly more
is advocated occasionally and it is a common traffic than would have been required to confirm
engineering practice. Specific requirements, sometimes expectancy);
stated as warrants, are included in the Manual but not (b) the incorrect set of expectations must be replaced by
universally so. This situation is deliberate because most a new set;
road user information situations have such a wide (c) the normal perception - reaction process may then
range of potential variables, and combinations of continue.
variables, that to prescribe these practices too closely is
4 During the process of formulating expectations for typical
considered inadvisable.
situations it is considered that drivers expect the
2 The Manual is intended to be used as a basic policy and following from the visual information system on public
standards document and as such may at times appear roads:
vague in i ts application. However, it leaves scope for
(a) that the information be uniform in its display and
interpretation and extension of policy at, for instance,
detailing;
local levels. In this context the Manual mainly offers
(b) that the visual elements will be sufficiently
minimum requirements, although preferred or desirable
conspicuous at a distance which will permit a safe
values are regularly stated. There is there­ fore always
driver to perform the required manoeuvre(s) within a
scope to provide a greater level of visual information than
speed limit related perception - reaction time
is perhaps indicated. This i s what "positive guidance"
(when such conspicuity is difficult to achieve
is all about - not just doing the minimum.
additional measures, such as high visibility treatment
3 In order to demonstrate the application of design or

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1.8.2 POSITIVE GUIDANCE

sign repetition must be considered - examples of visual information system of the road network. In this
such techniques are referred to regularly through ­ regard the data requirements and the actions taken
out the Manual); should be integrated into established road network
(c) that the information for all road users is appropriate to planning and management systems, including
the circumstances and relevant constraints. geographic information systems (GIS). Whilst there is a
place for the assessment of accident concentrations
5 Application of positive guidance procedures on a site ­ from the positive guidance approach, this should be
specific basis can affect the resultant driver expectation for carried out with the objective of determining system
similar sites elsewhere. This effect may be safeguards. The use of the term "site" should therefore be
d e t r i m e n t a l i f expectancy levels become inflated understood in the broad context.
and common levels of positive guidance treatment do not
occur (see Subsection 1.8.5). 2 The US Department of Transportation, Federal Highway
Administration, has developed detailed procedures for
positive guidance site investigations. The principle
1.8.4 Visual Information System components are listed below and diagrammatically i n
1 The principal components of the roadway visual Figure 1.22. Each activity shapes or is shaped by the
information system are covered in depth in this preceding or following activity. The activities are:
Manual. Visual information can be categorised as (a) site definition;
formal or informal as indicated below:
(b) site problem description;
(a) formal information sources: (c) site hazard identification;
(i) road signs (Chapters 2, 3,4 and 5); (d) hazard visibility assessment;
(e) expectancy violation determination;
(ii) road markings including other delineation (f) information load analysis;
devices (Chapter 7); (g) information need specification;
(iii) traffic signals (Chapter 6 and Volume 3); (h) system evaluation.
(iv) vehicle tail lights; 3 A similar system of "Highway Safety Audits" has been
developed in the UK. Both systems should be studied
(v) road maps, brochures etc.;
and considered by road and local authorities since they
(b) informal information sources: offer the prospect of high returns at low cost, or a good
(i) road geometry; cost-benefit ratio.
(ii) roadside furniture and vegetation;
1.8.6 Example of Driving Task I Information
(iii) personal directions: System Assessment
(iv) pedestrians and vehicles, both stationary 1 Figure 1.23 shows a busy section of three lane freeway
and moving; carriageway and illustrates a number of typical traffic
(v) a priori knowledge. manoeuvres, which under the circumstances, would
probably require greater than minimum time and I or
2 If drivers cannot always be protected from all hazards in distance to accomplish.
their environment they must be given sufficient visual
information to protect themselves. 2 The direction signs shown have generally been de­
signed taking the road conditions into account. Over­
3 In order to set up a uniform system-wide visual head signs have been used in the main due to the high risk
information system and to assess specific problem of ground mounted signs being obscured by the
areas, adequate inventories and data must be available. anticipated heavy traffic flows and expected significant
4 There are many situations where "stopping sight numbers of heavy vehicles.
distance" does not allow time for an appropriate, unhurried 3 Sign GC2U has been sited further from the exit point
response to stimuli. This is most likely to be when: than normal due to the mix of heavy traffic to allow more
(a) there are complex and/or multiple decisions to be time for lane changing manoeuvres by drivers wishing to
made; exit at EXIT "A".
(b) there is visual clutter or "noise"; 4 Vehicle No. 1 is shown in various positions A, B, C. D.
(c) stopping is not the appropriate hazard avoiding E and F as it progresses along the section of roadway.
manoeuvre. Prior to position 1A the driver would have seen sign
Such situations are likely to be common on multi-lane GA8 which indicates an exit some 3 km ahead. The
metropolitan freeways carrying heavy volumes of traffic. sign gives the interchange number and the destinations
Under these circumstances designers are recommended for the next three exits. At position 1A the driver is
to use the "decision sight distance" which is the distance executing an overtaking manoeuvre, moving into the outer
at which a driver can detect a hazard in an environment of lane. In doing so his limited ability to see sign GA1, over
visual clutter, recognise it as a threat, select an the crest, is further diminished by his attention to the
appropriate speed and path, and perform the required manoeuvre. Having moved further to position 1B his sight
manoeuvre safely and efficiently (see Sub­ section of sign GA1 is partially obscured by heavy vehicles and
4.8.2.) he receives virtually no message (if he sees the sign at
all). Sign GA1 is also obscured, at the legibility distance,
for the driver of Vehicle No.2.
1.8.5 Positive Guidance in Practice
5 At position 1C the driver now receives the exit mes-
1 The primary positive guidance effort should be directed at
achieving better design and management of the total

GENERAL PRINCIPLES SADC- RTSM- VOL 1 MAY 2012

POSITIVE GUIDANCE 1.8.3

Fig 1.22 Positive Guidance in Practice

MAY 2012 SADC - RTSM - VOL 1 GENER AL PRINCIPLES

1.8.4 POSITIVE GUIDANCE

sage he requires from sign [Link] make the exit he will 10 Other traffic control devices, most of which represent a
need to make two or three lane change manoeuvres. hazard of some sort, are indicated by a black dol.
The sign tells him that there are two exit lanes. Under
the volumes of traffic shown such manoeuvres are likely 1.8.7 Bibliography for Human Factors
to take considerably more than the minimum time due to
the relatively few suitable gaps available. The two and Positive Guidance
manoeuvres are shown at 1D and 1E, taking a total of 1 The following documents represent only a limited reading list.
around 20 seconds to complete at 120 km/h. Material from these documents has been incorporated into
Confirmation of the exit position is received at position Sections 1.7 and 1.8, particularly into Figures 1.20 to 1.23,
1E and the decision is taken to move into the dedicated and is hereby acknowledged. Most include an extensive list
exit lane (position 1F).This decision was taken of further references:
because a slow moving heavy vehicle had changed
lane, out of the dedicated exit lane in front of him 1. International Commission on Illumination. Road
(position signs. Publication CIE No.74, 1988;
4). The driver receives confirmation that he is 300m 2. Southern African Road Federation. System Design of
from the exit some3 seconds after this last manoeuvre as Highways for Operational Efficiency and Safety
he passes the first countdown sign. - Human Factors Considerations, 1976;
3. Exter J 0. Driver Information - Traffic Control Devices,
6 Other typical overtaking manoeuvres, of differing 1977;
complexity, are shown at positions 3,5 and [Link] 4. Alexander G J and Lunenfeld H. Positive Guidance in
manoeuvre at position 5 is a complex control guidance Traffic Control, Federal Highways Administration,
manoeuvre because of the movement of the heavy 1975;
vehicle to the left.
5. Federal Highways Administration. A User's Guide to
7 Movements at positions 7 and 8 illustrate the complexity of Positive Guidance, 1977;
weaving to and from EXIT "8", with a very short length of 6. Federal Highways Administration. A User's Guide to
lane in which to accomplish this. Following distances are likely Positive Guidance. 3rd Edition, 1990;
to fall below safety levels under such circumstances. 7. Wright PH and Ashford N J. Transportation Engi­
8 The location of sign GC3U is limited by the two over­ Neering - Pl anning and Design, 3rd Edition, 1989;
bridges at 450 m and 800 m resulting in limited sight 8. Krause Ret a. Positive Guidance - New Visions for
distance. Safer Highways - Report of the National Advisory
Task Force on Positive Guidance,1990;
9 The regular obscuration of sign GA1 could be reduced by 9. Lay M G. Handbook of Road Technology, as
relocating it to around 2200 m, and probably eliminated published in the Journal of the Australian Road
by mounting it i n an overhead position. This would Research Board,1989.
reduce pressure on the lane change movements required
10. The Institution of Highways and Transportation.
to exit at EXIT "A" and "8".
Guidelines for the Safety Audit of Highways, 1990.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES SADC- RTSM- VOL 1 MAY 2012

POSITIVE GUIDANCE 1.8.5

Fig 1.23 Typical Example of Positive Guidance Principles

MAY 2012 SADC - RTSM - VOL 1 GENER AL PRINCIPLES

OUTDOOR ADVERTISING 1.9.1

1.9 OUTDOOR ADVERTISING

1.9.1 General
1 It is outside the scope of this Manual to offer in depth (d) the type of advertisement.
guidance on the management of outdoor advertising. 6 In the context of a road· environment three broad divisions
However, the function of outdoor advertising, in the of environment appear to have significance:
main, is to attract the attention of road users. In this
respect such advertising can be considered to be in (a) rural;
conflict with the function of road traffic signs if not (b) peri-urban;
properly managed. (c) urban.
2 If an outdoor advertisement can be considered to have 7 Land use categories which generate particular demands for
adverse effects for road users these effects can occur in advertising, or advertising management, are:
one of two ways, namely: (a) agricultural;
(a) environmentally - in the sense that the location of a (b) residential;
particular advertisement, or an accumulation of (c) industrial;
advertisements, detracts from the appearance of an (d) commercial;
attractive and cared for environment in cities, towns (e) public roadway;
and the countryside; and
(f) railway reserve;
(b) road safety - in that the display of an advertisement
may have an effect on the safe use and operation of (g) transport terminals - particularly airports and rail-
any form of traffic or transportation within or way stations.
entering a roadway, as a result of the behaviour of The last of these is included because it represents, in
drivers of vehicles, cyclists or pedestrians whose some situations, a major land use where advertising
attention is distracted by such an advertisement, has been traditionally targeted at road users.
and also through any possible confusion with any
road traffic sign. 8 The road type, in combination with the environment in
which it exists and in conjunction with the surrounding
3 The information imparted to a road user by an outdoor land use categories, will dictate the complexity of the
advertisement can be considered to fall into two broad driving task to which advertising information is added.
categories: Relevant road types are:
(a) in-trip information - aimed at offering specific services (a) freeway;
or directions required by road users to break, continue or (b) regional route/arterial;
complete their trip e.g. - fuel, food or accommodation (c) collector/distributor;
advertising; or
(d) access;
(b) non-trip information - general information having no
(e) residential.
bearing on the fact that the observer is travelling on a
road system e.g. cigarette advertising. 9 Types of advertisement can be broadly categorised
into large and small, and an appropriate division
4 It is not unreasonable to accept, at least in part, that if
appears to exist in this context over and under an area of
uncontrolled advertising attempts to provide in-trip
2 square metres. The intrusion of advertising into the
information, that there is likely to be a deficiency in the
driving task, either into spare attention capacity or in
information given by the official road signing provision.
This Manual makes provision in Chapter 4 for a addition to an overloaded attention capacity situation, is
hierarchal range of direction signs including the sub- likely to result from one or more of the following
classifications TOURISM and LOCAL DIRECTION attributes of an outdoor advertisement:
signs. These sign categories are intended to function in (a) size;
a supplementary role to the main direction signing (b) number (repetition);
system, and particularly at the local level. Even if pre-
(c) colour(s);
trip planning is undertaken by longer distance travellers,
there are likely to be gaps in their knowledge at a local (d) movement;
level. These gaps may be satisfied by adequate (e) concept.
standards and levels of local area road signing, as
covered by the Manual, and provided by the responsible 1.9.2 Conspicuity
road authority, or by informal unco-ordinated and
random advertisements. The adequacy of such local 1 The conspicuity of road traffic signs can be adversely
level road signs will only be achieved if they are made affected by the presence of outdoor advertising signs.
to conform to conspicuity and legibility guidelines, and When a target road traffic sign has to compete with a
if road users are made aware of the manner of the visual clutter of advertising and other signs for the
provision of road sign information at a local level. attention of drivers, its conspicuity may have to be
improved by one or more of a number of measures,
5 In considering the management of outdoor advertising the such as:
following factors are relevant:
(a) an increase in sign size;
(a) the environment;
(b) the mounting of the sign on a backing-board or high
(b) land use; visibility background;
(c) the road type (based on traffic characteristics); (c) illumination.

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1.9.2 OUTDOOR ADVERTISING

2 Notwithstanding measures to manage outdoor

(ii) no advertising should be permitted within 50
advertising there are certain environments that are m of the perimeter of an intersection on an
unlikely to change significantly with respect to the arterial road, or in peri-urban and rural areas;
competition offered to road traffic signs by (iii) no advertising should be permitted within 30
advertisements. Shopping streets and commercial m of the front of any road sign or traffic signal;
and industrial areas have well established advertising (iv) great care should be exercised in permitting
practices that are unlikely to change. A road authority advertising within the cone of vision of a driver
should therefore recognise this situation, and if it observing any road sign on a freeway or a
wishes to erect road traffic signs that must be seen, it traffic signal, including a suitable effective
must take action to ensure that the road traffic sign distance behind such signs or signals.
conspicuity is adequate. Research has shown that,
(c) be misunderstood to represent a road traffic sign
on average, the successful targeting of road traffic
due to any factor, including the following:
signs may occur as little as 11% of the time if drivers
(i) any form of arrow or other directional device;
are not specifically looking for signs (attention
(ii) any symbol, logo or other device as used on a
conspicuity), and only 50% of the time if they are
road traffic sign;
actively looking for signs (search conspicuity). (iii) use of combinations of colours specified for road
signs;
1.9.3 Distraction (vi) statements calling for a driver to turn off the route
on which he is travelling or to make a U-turn;
1 Limited research indicates that the distraction effect of (d) be aesthetically in conflict with the environment in
even large billboard advertisements is not necessarily which it is placed.
great. The attention conspicuity capability of an
advertisement may, however, be significantly
increased by the use of moving components (variable
1.9.4 Advertising in Association with Road
messages, wind rotation),illumination, or fluorescent Traffic Signs
colours, or all of these factors to the detriment of the 1 Advertising material comprising a sign, placard,
attention conspicuity of road traffic signs. A traffic notice, sticker, or banner shall not be displayed from
hazard could result from such a level of distraction. a road traffic sign, or any road traffic sign support,
2 It is therefore recommended that, until such time as whether such support has any other purpose or n o t .
a code of practice for outdoor advertising is available, 2 It should be noted that some sign manufacturing
all advertising signs to be placed within, over or specifications require sign manufacturers to include
directed at a public road be required to be submitted to their name, i n addition to other information, on the
the road authority for approval prior to installation. An reverse side of road signs to identify the manufacturer
authorised official should have the power to order the of the signs. This is not, therefore, classified as
removal of any advertisement which has been advertising.
installed without approval, and should refuse approval
for the installation of any advertising sign if, in his 3 In terms of legislation an association or club providing
opinion, the sign is likely to: a road authority with a road sign, as a form of service
or sponsorship, may display a badge or token on the
(a) distract the attention of a driver in a manner likely signface, under specified conditions.
to lead to unsafe driving conditions;
(b) conflict with any road traffic sign EXCEPT as
provided for in Subsection 1.9.4 - until such time
as a code of practice is available in this regard the
following controls are recommended:

(i) no advertising should be permitted within an

intersection;

GENERAL PRINCIPLES SADC - RTSM - VOL 1 MAY 2012

 ROAD TRAFFIC SIGN MAINTENANCE 1.10.1

1.10 ROAD TRAFFIC SIGN MAINTENANCE

1.10.1 General
promotes road users' observance and avoids excessive
1 The basic functions of road traffic signs are to regulate,
warn, guide and inform road users, during daytime and or unwarranted use of road traffic signs. Uniformity of
night-time and under all weather, climatic and traffic location will reduce the possibility of a driver not seeing a
conditions. particular sign.
2 To be effective they should meet the following basic
4 The condition of a sign may be determined objectively be
requirements:
measuring the contrast and retroreflectivity of the sign
(a) fulfil an important need; with standardization equipment, or subjectively by
(b) command attention; assessing the night-time visibility of the sign under bright
(c) convey a clear, simple meaning; and dim headlight illumination and its daytime contrast to
(d) command the respect of road users; background clutter.
(e) give adequate time for response.
1.10.4 Road Signs
3 It is essential that the perception by motorists is
influenced positively by the condition of road traffic signs 1 Road signs consist of the following elements that are
and that signs should comply with driver expectancy. combined to provide an effective sign:
(a) the signface;
4 Maintenance of road traffic signs should therefore be (b) the substrate to which the signface is applied;
undertaken to ensure that the above requirements are (c) the frame support structure or stiffening to the
met. signface and substrate assembly;
1.10.2 Objectives for Road Traffic Sign (d) posts for ground-mounted signs;
(e) gantries for overhead mounted signs;
Maintenance
(f) lighting components for illuminated signs.
1 The primary objective for road traffic sign maintenance is 2 Deterioration or failure of road signs can be ascribed to
to ensure that the signs displayed on the road satisfy various factors. These may include:
criteria like conspicuity, legibility, comprehensibility,
(a) normal deterioration as a result of age or weathering;
credibility and uniformity in a cost-effective way so that
(b) vandalism;
information can be clearly transferred to the motorist.
(c) signs damaged in vehicle accidents;
2 Because the physical appearance of signs is apparent to (d) accidental damage to signs during other maintenance
all road users, the quality of this appearance has a high operations like grading or mowing of grass;
profile in crediting or discrediting the authority or (e) veld fires.
authorities responsible for the provision and/or
3 Road sign maintenance comprises all actions necessary
maintenance of signs.
to ensure an effective road sign. This includes:
1.10.3 The Effectiveness of Road Traffic (a) periodic cleansing of the signface;
Signs (b) repair of vehicle accident damage;
(c) repair of acts of vandalism or other accidental
1 The effectiveness of road traffic signs depends largely on damage;
road user interpretation of signs. It is therefore necessary (d) cyclic painting of frames, support structures and
that a road user should see the signs. The message on a posts;
sign must be readable or the symbol clearly (e) inspection of slip base torque where steel break- away
understandable and the road user must perceive the posts have been installed;
message to be true or appropriate under that particular (f) control of vegetation or parking that might influence
condition. the visibility of signs;
2 Significant factors in determining the effectiveness of road (g) structural examination of sign gantries and
traffic signs are an assessment of the uniformity of the cantilevers;
display of signs and an assessment of the performance of (h) replacement of lighting components;
the signs based on their condition. (i) identification and removal of unnecessary signs;
(j) checking for interference from advertising signs.
3 Greater standardization of the display of signs should
reduce response time and limit the risk of confusion that 4 Vandalism creates a significant problem and measures to
drivers may experience when driving in an unfamiliar combat it should be implemented. These may include:
area. Uniformity of design should be pursued to improve (a) using sign material that will continue to perform even
recognition and comprehension and will help convey the though damaged;
message to drivers more clearly. Uniformity in application

MAY 2012 SADC – RTSM – VOL 1 GENERAL PRINCIPLES

 1.10.2 ROAD TRAFFIC SIGN MAINTENANCE

(b) substrate stiffening; new lines on new or resurfaced roadways, repainting lines
(c) using rods or vanes at the bottom of posts to prevent that have become less visible or the removal of unwanted
rotation or removal; lines.
(d) installing signs high enough not to be in easy reach
6 The removal of unwanted lines may be effected by:
(especially smaller signs);
(a) burning;
(e) using the maximum lateral offset from the roadway
(b) mechanical grinding;
edge where it is possible;
(c) high pressure water, sand or grit-blasting;
(f) restoring vandalised signs as soon as possible to
(d) chemical treatment;
curtail a perception that the vandalism of signs may
(e) black preformed tape.
be acceptable practice;
(g) implementing an anti-vandalism programme. The removal of unwanted road markings by over-painting
with black paint is not recommended as it is likely to lead
5 It is essential that the effect new (road) works will have on
to confusing patterns in wet conditions, particularly with
existing signs be assessed, and that changes to the
the sun at certain angles and under artificial lighting.
existing signs are made as part of the implementation of
the new works. 7 The scheduling of any remarking of lines should take
proper cognizance of any resurfacing schedules and of
1.10.5 Road Markings
possible changes to markings to accommodate changes
1 Lines or road markings provide an indispensable in traffic patterns. In co-ordinating remarking and
contribution to safety and to improved traffic flow on resurfacing operations, the effect of an inadequately
modern roads. The effectiveness of road markings marked road should be very carefully considered before
depends to a large extent on the cleanliness of the remarking is postponed for any length of time.
markings, on the contrast between the markings and the
8 From time to time specialised products come on to the
surface to which they are applied and on the night-time
market which can be significantly more effective than
visibility of the markings.
normal road markings. Whilst these may not be cost-
2 Several types of road marking materials are in use effective in quantity, consideration should be given to their
ranging from the solvent based non-reflectorised paint to localised use in high accident locations. Road or traffic
thermoplastic retroreflectorised material and preformed authority officials should maintain contact with the
reflectorised tapes. Retroreflectorisation is achieved traditional suppliers of such products for their possible
through the introduction of solid glass beads into the application in specialised circumstances.
material or on top of the newly applied marking
1.10.6 Roadstuds
3 Road markings are re-marked or replaced primarily as a
1 Roadstuds provide a method for the delineation of roads
result of one or more of the following reasons:
in a way superior to retroreflective road markings. The
(a) markings deteriorate due to the mechanical action of
height of a roadstud ensures that the stud protrudes
traffic on them;
above the film of water that forms on the road surface
(b) markings become obsolete due to changes in
during rain and which obliterates conventional road
operation on the road;
markings. The superior retroreflective properties of some
(c) markings lose their visibility due to maintenance
classes of roadstuds ensure better visibility of the studs
activities resulting in resurfacing of part or all of a
during adverse weather conditions like fog.
section of roadway.
2 Different types of roadstuds are available, each being
4 The service life of the road markings depends primarily
appropriate in a particular application. The different types
on:
include those with corner-cube retroreflectors, double
(a) traffic volume and type;
convex lenses and an all glass omnidirectional type.
(b) the position of the marking (dividing line, lane line
etc.); 3 Deterioration or failure of roadstuds can be ascribed
(c) the type of materials used; mainly to:
(d) the thickness of the surface to which the material is (a) loss of adhesion to the surface to which they have
applied; been applied;
(e) the texture of the surface to which the material is (b) loss of retroreflectivity because of the dulling of the
applied; retroreflective elements due to scratching;
(f) the extent to which bituminous binders in the surfacing (c) loss of retroreflectivity because of a build-up of dirt on
have already weathered. the stud; and
(d)insufficient cleaning action by vehicle wheels;
5 Road marking maintenance comprises all actions to
(e)loss of retroreflectivity because of roadway
ensure daytime and night-time visibility of the road
maintenance actions such as fog-spray or resurfacing;
marking. In practice this is simplified merely to painting

GENERAL PRINCIPLES SADC – RTSM – VOL 1 MAY 2012

 ROAD TRAFFIC SIGN MAINTENANCE 1.10.3
periodically evaluated to ensure that the timing plans in
(f) breakage of roadstuds under impact by vehicle operation are co-ordinated with possible changes in traffic
wheels. demand patterns.

4 Roadstud maintenance actions are aimed at the 4 Specific routine maintenance tasks on traffic signals
replacement of individual studs that have become include:
dislodged or inoperative or the replacement of complete (a) functional checking of signal controllers;
sections of roadstuds after resurfacing operations. (b) cleaning of reflectors and lenses;
(c) inspection of signal head supports or poles;
1.10.7 Traffic Signals
(d) replacing of signal lamps;
1 Traffic signals control the assignment of right-of-way at (e) inspection of vehicle detectors for proper functions;
locations where conflicts exist and where road signs or (f) functional checking of pedestrian push-buttons;
markings do not provide the flexibility of control to move (g) inspection of electrical supply cables to the controller
traffic safely and efficiently. and aspects;
(h) inspection of interconnecting signal cables between
2 Traffic signals consist of various elements that all have to
detectors, push-buttons and other controllers;
operate correctly in order for the traffic signal to operate
(i) inspection for proper earth connections;
effectively. These elements include:
(j) monitoring of data communication cabling in urban
(a) the traffic signal controller;
traffic control systems.
(b) signal aspects and signal heads;
(c) signal lamps; 5 Emergency maintenance tasks on traffic signals also
(d) vehicle detectors; include:
(e) signal supports; (a) repairing damage to signal installations because of
(f) interconnecting cables. vehicle accidents;
(b) repairing damage to vehicle detectors because of
3 To ensure the effective operation of traffic signals and
excavations or other roadway maintenance
maintaining the integrity of the system it is necessary that
operations.
all aspects relating to the operation of the various
elements be properly maintained. Immediate traffic 6 It may well be an advantage to display a service
problems will result when a signal is not operating or telephone number on signal control boxes at junctions.
when one malfunctions. For emergency maintenance it is This together with a junction identity number could well
therefore essential that an appropriate fault reporting contribute to reduced repair times.
system be established. It must also be recognized that
once traffic signals had been installed, they should be

MAY 2012 SADC – RTSM – VOL 1 GENERAL PRINCIPLES

ROAD TRAFFIC SIGN MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS 1.11.1
1.11 ROAD TRAFFIC SIGNS
MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

1.11.1 General
1 Management has been defined differently by different (d) planning of road sign, traffic signal and road
authors. Most definitions, however, recognize markings improvement programmes;
management to be a process of i nfluencing members (e) controlling and optimizing field maintenance;
of an organization and using organizational resources (f) analysing the effectiveness of various traffic control
systematically to achieve stated organisational devices;
objectives. The process consists of planning, (g) monitoring performance for specification
organizing, leading and controlling elements that are development.
applied in an integrated way. Management systems are
therefore set up to guide the organization through this 1.11.4 Inspection
process to improve the likelihood of achieving the
objectives. 1 Inspection of the different elements must be carried out
periodically to assess their condition. This can be done
2 Against this background it is necessary to clearly through visual i nspection w h i c h results in subjective
establish the objectives that would be pursued before assessment or through more objective methods
the management system is set up. For example incorporating the use of sophisticated measurement
management systems could be set up to provide equipment like retroreflectometers.
information on the condition of the roadway system or
roadside features or it could be set up to guide the 1.11.5 Needs Determination
maintenance of the roadway system or roadside
features. 1 The determination of maintenance needs is done by
comparing the results of the condition assessment with
3 Information management systems normally include predetermined standards.
functions such as the development of infrastructure
inventories and p r o c e d u r e s for the updating 2 As use of a management system develops it can be
thereof and for periodic or special report generation. one of the objectives of the system to assist the
Maintenance management systems utilise the planning of maintenance well into the future. This will
inventory information to identify deficiencies, prioritize involve the collection and incorporation of data suitable
maintenance needs, schedule maintenance efforts and for the development of prediction models covering the
to monitor conditions. deterioration of the different components in the system.

1.11.2 Road Traffic Sign Management Systems 1.11.6 Costing

1 Depending on the objectives of the authority establishing 1 After identifying the maintenance needs it is necessary
a road traffic sign management system, a system should to estimate the resource requirements necessary to
be set up in such a way that it can be developed into a execute the identified tasks.
sign maintenance management system.
2 Such a road traffic sign maintenance management 2 A more accurate and realistic determination of future
system could include the following components: funding requirements may be achieved using a well-
developed prediction model. This should enable an
(a) inventories of signs, signals and markings; authority to budget adequate funding to cater for the
(b) inspections scheduled at pre-determined intervals longer term deterioration of the system.
to assess and evaluate the condition of the
different elements; 1.11.7 Priorities
(c) maintenance needs determination relative to set
standards; 1 It is not unreasonable to expect that the cost of all
(d) costing of identified maintenance tasks; identified maintenance tasks will exceed the available
budget. Objective priorities depending on the
(e) determination of priorities;
importance of the task and of the road should be set.
(f) execution sub-systems including task scheduling
and cost allocation;
2 The use of a prediction model may help to minimise
(g) monitoring. any accumulative effect of annual budgetary shortfalls
by providing effective motivation for maintenance
1.11.3 Inventories funding well into the future, and not just from one
year to the next.
1 Inventories including road signs, traffic signals and road
markings should be developed with the objective of
providing information that will address some or all of the
1.11.8 Execution
following applications: 1 Execution sub-systems could include a wide range of
(a) assessing traffic control device adequacy and activities like scheduling, procurement, inventory control
visibility; and cost allocation, all at varying l evels of
(b) analysing the need to upgrade traffic control sophistication.
devices to meet uniformity and application
standards; 1.11.9 Monitoring
(c) providing the means to obtain information about
traffic controls for continuous monitoring and 1 The object of monitoring is to ensure that resources are
adjustment to optimize traffic safety and being used in the manner intended and that the desired
operations; results are achieved.

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1.11.2 ROAD TRAFFIC SIGN MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

1.11.10 Implementation of a Road Traffic 1.11.11 Bibliography

Sign Maintenance Management
1 The following publications represent a selected reading list
System for those interested in a road traffic sign management
1 Before implementing a road traffic sign maintenance system :
management system certain basic issues should be 1. Federal Highway Administration. Traffic Control
carefully considered: Devices Handbook, Washington DC,1983;
(a) the size of the network to be maintained; 2. Atkinson, K. Highway Maintenance Handbook,
(b) the level of detail to which analysis would be done Thomas Telford, London, 1990;
within the maintenance management system; 3. Robinson, R and Snaith ,MS. Some simple methods
(c) the existence of an unambiguous location refe­ of maintenance management appropriate for
rencing system; developing countries, Transportation Research
(d) access to a computer system that is well supported by Record 1019, Washington DC, 1985.
staff; 4. Opiela, K and Perkins, DO. Infrastructure Inventories -
(e) centralization or decentralization of decision making; The starting point for effective highway management,
ITE Journal February 1986;
(f) existence of appropriate objective standards;
5. Datta, TK and Herf, L Cost-effective analysis for
(g) type of information needed from the system;
various inventory procedures, ITE Journal,
(h) updating of information; September 1986;
(i) hierarchal needs of information; 6. Federal Highway Administration. Maintenance and
(j) procedures for handling changes to the network. Highway Safety Handbook, Washington DC,1977;
2 It is therefore necessary that an authority set aside 7. AASHTO - Select committee on highway safety.
sufficient resources at the conception stage for it to Highway design and operational practices related
investigate thoroughly a range of alternative strategies to highway safety - 2nd E d i t i o n , Washington DC,
and exercise skill and professional judgement before 1974;
embarking on a project that would have long term 8. US Department of Agriculture - Forest Service.
financial implications (see also Volume 2, Chapters 17 Signs maintenance guide, Nettleton, T (Project
and 18). leader), Missoula, Montana, October 1979;
9. Woltan, HL. Sign M a i n t e n a n c e Management,
Transportation Research Record 979.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES SADC - RTSM - VOL 1 MAY 2012