Alexandria Engineering Journal (2022) 61, 12943–12963

H O S T E D BY
Alexandria University

Alexandria Engineering Journal

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Numerical simulation on fluid flow and temperature

prediction of motorcycles based on CFD
Libin Tan a,b,*, Yuejin Yuan a,*, Lin Tang b, Can Huang b

a
College of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Shaanxi University of Science and Technology, 6 Xuefuzhong
Road, Weiyangdaxueyuan district of Xi’an, 710021, China
b
Research and Development Center, Loncin Motor Co., Ltd., ChongQing 400039, China

Received 28 August 2021; revised 18 October 2021; accepted 2 July 2022

KEYWORDS Abstract The temperature distributions of solid parts in motorcycle is of significance to give an
Motorcycle; quantitative cooling performance evaluation for assuring the feasible running of motorcycles.
Fluid-solid coupling analysis; Therefore, the present work mainly tend to systematically investigate the flow velocity distributions
Thermal management test; and temperature distributions of motorcycle by constructing a fluid-solid coupling analysis model
Temperature distributions; via CFD using commercial software STAR-CCM+. Based on computational fluid dynamics
Thermal comfort; method (CFD), fluid-solid coupling analysis model of motorcycle is realized by integration of por-
Radiation ous media model, heat exchanger model and fluid-solid co-simulation module and numerical inves-
tigations on fluid flow and temperature distribution characteristics at maximum running speed
120 km/h is conducted. The thermal management experiment test considering three pressure mea-
suring points, fifty-eight temperature measuring points and two flowrate measuring points is inves-
tigated to know its cooling performance of motorcycle experimentally and provide experimental
data for validation of simulation model. Results show that CFD results are in good agreement with
experimental results and the maximum relative error is less than 10%. Thermal management test
results show that left and right cylinder temperature, oil temperature are 183 °C, 190 °C, 120 °C,
respectively. Air temperature of radiator at inlet side are from 29 °C to 35 °C, Air temperature
of radiator at outlet side are from 60 °C to 90 °C, water temperature of radiator inlet and radiator
outlet are 96 °C and 89 °C, respectively. The air temperature around left thigh and right thigh are
31 °C and 34 °C, respectively. CFD results show that there is no flow dead-zone and high temper-
ature area in engine main components and muffler front cover. The temperature around motorcycle
covering and both two thigh is not high due to the radiation of high-temperature components and
the outlet temperature of exhaust muffler is also not high, which will not cause enough heat feelings
to the riders for being uncomfortable. From the temperature field analysis results, there is no obvi-
ous poor temperature distributions for thermal comfort of this motorcycle. The results of this work
can provide simulation data support and theoretical reference for the design and development of
motorcycle and its crucial components. Through engineering applications of fluid-solid coupling
model in a two-cylinder engine and electric generator, it verifies the universality of fluid-solid

* Corresponding authors at: College of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Shaanxi University of Science and Technology, 6 Xuefuzhong
Road, Weiyangdaxueyuan district of Xi’an, 710021, China.
E-mail addresses: bs1905005@[Link] (L. Tan), yuanyj@[Link], yyjyuan1@[Link] (Y. Yuan).
Peer review under responsibility of Faculty of Engineering, Alexandria University.
[Link]
1110-0168 Ó 2022 THE AUTHORS. Published by Elsevier BV on behalf of Faculty of Engineering, Alexandria University.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license ([Link]
12944 L. Tan et al.

Nomenclature

A1,A2 Surface areas m2 u, v, w Velocity components, m/s

Cp Specific heat capacity of the fluid, J/(kg K) x, y, z Spatial coordinates, m
C1e Empirical constant, - q Density, kg/m3
C2e Empirical constant, - k Fluid heat transfer coefficient, W/m2 K
Cu Empirical constant, - k Turbulent kinetic energy
Eb1, Eb2 Radiation capacity, W/m2 e Turbulent dissipation rate
Gk Turbulent kinetic energy term generated by the lt Turbulent viscosity
velocity gradient rk Prandtl number corresponding to the turbulent ki-
p Pressure, Pa netic energy
ST Internal heat source of the fluid, J re Prandtl number corresponding to the turbulent
T Temperature, K dissipation rate
U Velocity vector, m/s sxy ,sxx ,sxz Components of viscous stress s, Pa
T Temperature, K ub12 Radiation energy, W
X12, X21 Angle coefficients

coupling model and it can be an effective way for the temperature predictions of industrial
products.
Ó 2022 THE AUTHORS. Published by Elsevier BV on behalf of Faculty of Engineering, Alexandria
University. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license ([Link]
licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

1. Introduction such as energy storage devices[3-5], fuel cells[6,7], power plants

[8,9], combustor[10,11], porous media [12,13], and sometime
In many countries, motorcycles are regarded as the basic agricultural field [14]. In motorcycle industry, traditional way
means of transportation, which can be used not only as a con- for developing a new series of motorcycles is that conceptual
venient tool for carrying people and goods in daily life, but design model of motorcycle is developed based on empirical
also for leisure, sports and other recreational activities [1]. design and then improve cooling characteristics of conceptual
With development of science and technology, Motorcycles design based on the data got from experiment [15]. This
are developing towards high performance, high power and method of combining experiment with empirical design needs
good thermal comfort. Thermal comfort of motorcycle is to go through many times to get a better design for new pro-
affected by environment, performance of cooling system, pro- duct development. While, For better cooling of industrial
duct quality and systematic matching design. In the early- equipment, the heat transfer process analysis is one of the most
design stage of motorcycle, the cooling characteristic is a key efficient way to meet the cooling requirements [16]. In order to
concern while considering the compactness and lightweight shorten development time and improve cooling characteristics
of the body and the high rated power and high performance of motorcycles, heat transfer analysis based on computational
of motorcycle. However, it can not quickly design a perfect fluid dynamics (CFD) method is widely used in current stage.
structure with a good cooling characteristics through empirical Simulating and analyzing cooling characteristics and tempera-
design or experimental trial. Therefore, it is necessary to find ture distribution of motorcycles by CFD can reduce prototype
an alternative way for achieving the better cooling system model manufacture in the whole development process, lower
design quickly that can meet the cooling requirements for the development cost, shorten the development time, and form
motorcycles. In order to provide reliable and well-cooled a better design based on CFD results before producing proto-
motorcycle design, the systematic cooling performance evalua- types[17-20]. Therefore, many researchers take full advantage
tion with temperature consideration of crucial components are of CFD methodology to conduct the external fluid flow of
need to be accurately predicted for obtaining some essential motorcycles and internal flow field characteristics of key parts
theoretical data and providing optimization suggestion that [21-24]. For example, Jang et al. [25] used CFD software to
beneficial to the cooling design of motorcycles, so that it can investigate the heat transfer process of motorcycle water-
bring the competitive advantage in performance in similar cooled engine during operation. Wahono et al. [26] used Con-
products. Therefore, in early conceptual design, theoretical verge software to conduct the steady-state in-cylinder flow of
analysis and performance evaluation are of great significance small motorcycle engine and give the optimization suggestion
to obtain a reasonable design of motorcycles. for obtain better in-cylinder flow distribution. Luigi et al.
Heat transfer plays significant role in many fields of indus- [27] used a three-dimensional method to predict and calibrate
try; moreover, better cooling performance is of great signifi- the internal flow field of high-performance motorcycle engine.
cance to the safe working of machinery [2]. Heat transfer Takahashi et al. [28] used CFD method to analyze the airflow
analysis is important in a lot of engineering and science issues around a rider for obtaining detail velocity, pressure
Numerical simulation on fluid flow and temperature prediction 12945

distributions to give guidance on the improvement of rider 2. CFD modelling of fluid flow and temperature prediction for
comfort. Performance evaluation of engine parts, water jacket motorcycle
of cooling system, performance evaluation of whole motorcy-
cle including drag force estimation, visualization of the airflow 2.1. Geometrical model and mesh model
around motorcycle can be achieved by CFD analysis [29-34].
For a better understanding of fluid flow characteristics and
Fig. 1 shows 3D model of motorcycle drawn by CATIA. The
temperature distributions, conjugate heat transfer model is a
motorcycle is manily consisted of engine powertrain system,
key to improve the prediction accuracy of the overall system
intake and exhaust system(air filter, muffler, catalyst, intake
cooling performance[35,36]. Fontanesi et al. [37,38] and Berni
and exhaust port, etc), cooling system(radiator, fan, water
et al. [39] proposed an integrated coupling method of in-
pump, oil pump, oil injector, etc.), frame and suspension,
cylinder fluid flow and conjugate heat transfer model to ana-
wheels, electrical components (headlights, instrument panel,
lyze the temperature field distribution of engine and verified
electrical appliances, etc.), decoration coverings. The engine
the accuracy of conjugate heat transfer model by comparison
powertrain system includes cylinder head cover, cylinder head,
with experimental test. Dang et al. [40] used the integration
crankcase, crankcase cover, starter, ignition system and other
method of fluid flow model and conjugate heat transfer model
auxiliary components. In order to give an overall evaluation
to investigate the turbulent flow and heat transfer characteris-
on fluid flow characteristics and temperature distributions of
tics of the rotor-stator system of a hydro-generator and con-
motorcycle, fluid-solid coupling method available in CFD soft-
firm the effectiveness of CFD technology for providing detail
ware is adopted to construct the thermal management simula-
flow visualization information and thermal characteristics.
tion model of motorcycle and predict the temperature
Danca et al. [41] investigated the effect of human body sited
distributions of crucial heat source components.
in the driver’s place, over the air velocity distribution and over
Fig. 2 shows the fluid-solid coupling analysis flowchart of
the thermal comfort in a passenger compartment. Chua et al.
motorcycle. All prats of motorcycle are considered during
[42] carried out the studies of thermal accumulation in an
fluid-solid coupling analysis. The fluid domains are mainly
enclosed vehicle by experimental and computational fluid
classified into internal flow domain (fan, muffler, radiator)
dynamics simulation approaches. ElDegwy and Khalil [43]
and external flow (motorcycle bench test computational
investigated the impact of orientation of air vents on the pri-
domain). The solid domains are mainly classified into heat
vate car cabin temperature when cooling is started. Fujita
source parts and no heat parts. The heat source parts are used
and Tatsumi [44] used DES simulation to calculate and predict
as the linking zone for exchanging heat transfer coefficients
the air temperature distribution around the rider of a station-
and temperature field to the fluid domain.
ary motorcycle with the engine at idle. Tomokazu et al. [45]
Fig. 3 shows external flow field computational domain for
developed a temperature estimation method of whole engine
motorcycle. In order to make accurate comparison between
considering heat balance under motorcycle running conditions
CFD results and experimental measurement, computational
and analyzed the temperature distribution of engines. Through
domain of external environment is drawn in accordance with
a general review about CFD application in heat transfer anal-
the experimental test room. Due to its high integration, special
ysis in motorcycles or vehicles, it shows that CFD technology
grid technology, and widespread use in vehicle or engine field,
has obvious advantages in predicting related evaluation per-
the CFD software STAR-CCM+ is chosen for conducting
formance parameters. By CFD technology, the design engineer
fluid-solid coupling analysis of motorcycle [46-48]. Fig. 4
is better equipped to make informed design decisions in a
shows mesh model for each fluid domain used in fluid-solid
shorter duration of time.
coupling analysis of motorcycle. Trimmer mesh, polyhedral
In recent years, numerous investigations have been under-
mesh and prism layer mesh technology available in STAR-
taken on internal fluid flow, airflow around vehicle, and cooling
CCM+ are used for generating mesh model of motorcycle.
structure design for the development of motorcycles. However,
For realizing smooth transition between external environment
the previous works do not consider all the solid components of
and motorcycle, a volume grid encryption method is used for
motorcycles for temperature analysis and the full systematical
analysis of fluid-solid coupling for motorcycles has not yet been
reported to date. Therefore, in current research, in view of the
effectiveness in providing a precise prediction of flow field and
heat transfer, CFD technology is adopted and the flow field dis-
tribution and temperature distribution of motorcycle are inves-
tigated. The main purpose of this work is to establish a reliable
fluid-solid coupling analysis model for obtaining the flow field
distribution and detail temperature information of a certain
motorcycle for evaluating its cooling performance. Meanwhile,
for verifying the validity and rationality of the simulation
model, the temperature data obtained by simulation is com-
pared with the temperature values obtained by experiments.
Main achievement of this work is to realize the accurate tem-
perature distribution prediction of heat sources components
of motorcycles, provide theoretical reference for temperature
field and thermal comfort evaluation of solid components
and give valuable data to motorcycle designers for quick eval-
uation of design and quick solutions of improved design. Fig. 1 The 3D model of motorcycle.
12946 L. Tan et al.

Fig. 2 Flowchart of fluid-solid coupling analysis for motorcycle thermal management simulation.

2.2. Mathematical model

The fluid medias are considered as in-compressible and the

fluid flow around motorcycle and internal flow of cooling com-
ponents are regarded as in-compressible viscous turbulent flow
[49]. In the numerical simulation process, the steady-state cal-
culation mode is adopted, and mathematical models are solved
via CFD using commercial software STAR-CCM+. The fluid
flow governing equations (continuity equation, momentum
equation, energy equation), k-epsilon turbulence transport
equations (k equation, epsilon equation) and radiation equa-
tion are listed as follows [50,51]:

1) Continuity equation

Fig. 3 The computational domain for external flow field analysis

of motorcycle. @u=@x þ @v=@y þ @w=@z ¼ 0 ð1Þ

2) Momentum equation (N-S equation)

mesh refinement. After mesh generation, the grid number for
fluid computational domain (external flow and internal flow) q@u=@t þ qdivðuUÞ ¼ @p=@x þ @sxx =@x þ @syx =@y þ @szx =@z
is about 16 million. q@v=@t þ qdivðvUÞ ¼ @p=@y þ @sxy =@x þ @syy =@y þ @szy =@z
Fig. 5 shows the mesh model for heat source components q@w=@t þ qdivðwUÞ ¼ @p=@z þ @sxz =@x þ @syz =@y þ @szz =@z
and no heat source components of solid domain. The thin- ð2Þ
mesh and polyhedral mesh method is used for generating the 3) Energy equation
mesh model of solid computational domain. After mesh gener-
ation, the grid number for heat source components (engine q@T k
powertrain, muffler, intake and exhaust system, etc.) is about þ qdivðUTÞ ¼ divð gradTÞ þ ST ð3Þ
@t Cp
0.9 million, and the grid number for non heat source compo-
nents (body panels) is about 5 million. As a whole, the total where Cp is the specific heat capacity of the fluid, J/(kg K); p is
gird number for fluid-solid coupling analysis is about 22 mil- the pressure, Pa; T is the temperature, K; ST is the internal
lion. The grid independence test shows that this computational heat source of the fluid and the mechanical energy of the fluid
grid can give a grid independent solution and can obtain a caused by the viscous action was transformed into heat energy,
good prediction accuracy. J; U is the velocity vector, m/s; u, v, w are the velocity compo-
Numerical simulation on fluid flow and temperature prediction 12947

Fig. 4 Meshes for flow region of motorcycle.

12948 L. Tan et al.

Fig. 5 Meshes for motorcycle solid parts.

nents, m/s; x, y, z are spatial coordinates, m; q is the density, bulent kinetic energy, and e is the turbulent dissipation rate,
kg/m3; sxy ,sxx ,sxz , et al. are the components of viscous stress lt ¼ qCu k2 =e is the turbulent viscosity, rk ; re are the prandtl
s, Pa. k is the fluid heat transfer coefficient, W/m2 K. number of turbulent kinetic energy and dissipation rate respec-
tively. For the values of empirical
4) Transport equations for k-epsilon turbulence model constants, the C1e ; C2e are 1.44 and 1.92, respectively; Cu is
h i 0.09, rk ; re are 1.0 and 1.3, respectively[52,53].
q @ðkÞ
@t
þ qui @ðkÞ
@xi
¼ @x@ j ðl þ rlkt Þ @x
@k
j
þ Gk  qe
h i ð4Þ 5) Radiation equation
q @ðeÞ þ qui @ðkÞ ¼ @x@ j ðl þ rlet Þ @x
@e
þ C1e ke Gk  C2e q ek
2
@t @xi j
The widely used surface to surface radiation model is cho-
where Gk is the turbulent kinetic energy term generated by the sen as the radiation heat transfer model and the radiation type
velocity gradient,C1e ; C2e are empirical constants. k is the tur- is selected as gray thermal radiation [54]. The calculation for-
Numerical simulation on fluid flow and temperature prediction 12949

Table 1 Boundary conditions for fluid regions.

Fluid domain Fluid media method Boundary conditions
Air-side of Radiator core Ideal gas (air) Porous region Inertia resistance Pi = 80 kg/m4, Viscous
resistance Pv=120 kg/(m3s)
External computation domain Fluid Flow Environmental temperature 30 °C, maximum
velocity inlet (120 km/h), Pressure outlet (0
Pa)
Fan rotation region MRF (Moving Reference Fan rotation speed 4188 r/min
Frame)
Internal flow domain of exhaust Fluid Flow Mass flow inlet with mass flowrate 0.015 kg/s
system
Catalytic domain of exhaust Porous region Inertia resistance Pi = 55.78 kg/m4, Viscous
system resistance Pv = 603.43 kg/(m3s)
Water-tank of radiator Coolant (mixture of 50% Fluid Flow Mass flow inlet with mass flowrate 0.487 kg/s
glycol and 50% water) (measured), coolant temperature 95 °C
Inner flow domain of water Fluid Flow Mass flow inlet with mass flowrate 0.487 kg/s,
jacket coolant temperature 85 °C; Pressure outlet
with pressure value 20 kPa relative to
atmosphere pressure
Water-side of radiator core Porous region Inertia resistance Pi = 200 kg/m4, Viscous
resistance Pv = 500 kg/(m3s)
Rear wheel / Specified speed Rotation speed 1027 r/min

Table 2 Boundary conditions for solid regions.

Solid components or surfaces Materials Thermal boundaries
Engine body (cylinder head, cylinder block, cylinder head aluminium thermal conductivity 193 W/(mK), density 2800 kg/m3, specific
cover, crankcase, crankcase cover, etc.) alloy heat capacity 880 J/(kgK), emissivity 0.4
Frame, intake and exhaust pipe, flange, muffler support stainless thermal conductivity 15 W/(mK), density 8055 kg/m3, specific
frame, oil pan steel heat capacity 480 J/(kgK), emissivity 0.9
Inner surface of oil pan / Temperature 110 °C, Heat transfer coefficient 200 W/(m2K)
Lower inner surface of crankcase Temperature 100 °C, Heat transfer coefficient 60 W/(m2K)
Upper inner surface of crankcase Temperature 110 °C, Heat transfer coefficient 80 W/(m2K)
Inner surface of cylinder head Temperature 120 °C, Heat transfer coefficient 100 W/(m2K)
Inner surface of cylinder head cover Temperature 120 °C, Heat transfer coefficient 100 W/(m2K)

Fig. 6 two different coupling way for co-simulation method.

12950 L. Tan et al.

mula of radiation heat transfer energy between surface A1 and 2.4. Computer simulations
surface A2 is shown as follows [55]:

ðEb1  Eb2 Þ ðEb2  Eb1 Þ Two simulation file are created for the construction of fluid-
ub12 ¼ 1
¼ 1
ð5Þ solid coupling analysis model, namely, one simulation file for
X12 A1 X21 A2 fluid domain and another simulation file for solid domain.
The coupling between fluid domain and solid domain is real-
where A1 and A2 are surface areas, m2; Eb1 and Eb2 are radia-
ized by data exchange between the interfaces created in simu-
tion capacity, W/m2; X12 and X21 are angle coefficients; ub12 is
lation file. The CFD software STAR-CCM+ can couple two
radiation energy, W.

2.3. Boundary conditions

Table 1 shows boundary conditions for each fluid domain. The

data exchange between the coolant side and air side of radiator
core is realized by ‘‘heat exchanger” two-fluid flow module
available in CFD software STAR-CCM+. The inertia resis-
tance and viscous resistance for water-side flow domain and
air-side flow domain of radiator core are derived from wind
tunnel performance test of radiator. The flowrate for water
jacket, water tank of radiator and exhaust system are mea-
sured during bench test of motorcycle thermal balance by
flowmeter. Cooling fan rotation in steady state analysis is
achieved by a moving reference frame (MRF) modeling tech-
nique available in STAR-CCM+ [56,57]. In MRF approach,
a separate region enclosing the entire rotation region must
be defined, and a rotating reference frame is assigned to that
region. Therefore, a constant grid flux will be generated in
the appropriate conservation equations[58]. The fan rotation
speed in current research is in accordance with the maximum
motorcycle velocity speed 120 km/h.
The thermal boundary conditions for solid domain includes
the radiation boundary (emissivity) and thermal values (tem-
perature and heat transfer coefficient). The internal surfaces
of solid domains which need to apply thermal boundary con-
ditions include the internal surfaces of motorcycle engine
body, inner surfaces of combustion chamber, intake-exhaust
port and cylinder liner. The numerical analysis of combustion
process in combustion chamber for engine is complicated.
Understanding in detail the combustion process occurring
within an engine cylinder is very crucial for the engineering
problem of improving engine performance [59,60]. However,
for solely giving the thermal boundary conditions to the
fluid-solid coupling analysis of motorcycle is really not neces-
sary for considering the combustion process in detail and pre-
vious relevant literatures proves that the cycle averaged
method for extracting thermal characteristic values and map-
ping on the specified boundaries are feasible and can be used
for global flow field and temperature analysis [61-63]. There-
fore, in current research, the thermal boundary conditions
for inner surfaces of combustion chamber, intake-exhaust port
and cylinder liner are obtained by mapping the cycle-averaged
results of combustion cycle in motorcycle engine. The other
thermal boundary conditions for solid domain are shown in
Table 2. The STAR-CCM+ to STAR-CCM+ co-simulation
method is used to conduct the fluid-solid coupling analysis
of motorcycle. The co-simulation allows communication/data
exchange between two models at a specified time interval.
The main advantages of the co-simulation framework is that
solvers utilize independent time marching schemes and allows
for a considerable reduction in required computational
resources and time [57]. The details for co-simulation is
described in subsequent sections. Fig. 7 Thermal management experimental test of motorcycle.
Numerical simulation on fluid flow and temperature prediction 12951

Fig. 8 Thermal management experiment results of motorcycle at engine speed 6500 r/min.

simulation files through parallel port link for calculation. This acceptable range, it returns to modify the initial thermal
analysis method is called co-simulation, which is widely used boundary condition and restart the simulation procedure,
for conjugate heat transfer and fluid-structure coupling simula- repeat this process until relative error between the simulation
tion, as well as arbitrary scalar or vector exchange calculation result and experimental result is acceptable and verifies the
across boundary or region. Fig. 6 shows the coupling choice accuracy and feasibility of simulation model [64].
for co-simulation method. The co-simulation way between In this work, the bidirectional coupling co-simulation
STAR-CCM+ to STAR-CCM+ includes unidirectional cou- method of STAR-CCM+ to STAR-CCM+ coupling avail-
pling and bidirectional coupling. Unidirectional coupling able in CFD software STAR-CCM+ is used to realize data
means that leading simulation of computational model needs interaction and iterative calculation on the interface. The
to transfer data to the lagging simulation of the computational specific settings for data interaction on the interface of fluid-
model, but does not need to receive data calculated from the solid coupling are as follows: after a certain number of steps
lagging simulation model. Bidirectional coupling means that (1000 iterative steps) are calculated on the fluid domain side,
two simulation models transfer data to each other, after the the local heat transfer coefficient and local heat transfer refer-
calculation of model’s leading simulation is completed, the ence temperature on the interface are transferred to the solid
data is given to the model’s lagging simulation by means of side through the built-in co-simulation link zone template in
data mapping and transferring. After the lagging simulation STAR-CCM+, After identifying the heat boundary trans-
model receives the data and completes its calculation, the data ferred from the fluid domain mapping on the solid side, the
is fed back to the leading simulation model. The data exchange calculation of the temperature field in solid domain is started.
and calculation process can be stopped until the calculation of After the calculation steps of solid domain is finished, the tem-
this two simulation model are converged. The temperature pre- perature is transferred through co-simulation link zone and
diction accuracy of this fluid-solid coupling analysis model is mapped on fluid side, and then the calculation of the fluid
verified by thermal management experimental test. If the error model is running again. This iteration and data exchange pro-
between simulation result and experimental result is not in an cess is automatically repeated and not stopped until both the
12952 L. Tan et al.

Fig. 9 Temperature comparison curves.

fluid side and the solid side models reach the convergence cri- 3. CFD simulation results and analysis
teria (numerical simulation is automatically stopped when all
the residuals of continuity, energy, X momentum, Y momen- 3.1. Experimental test
tum, Z momentum, turbulent kinetic energy and turbulent dis-
sipation rate were lower than 10-5 for assuring the convergence
Fig. 7 shows the thermal management experimental test of
of the simulation). When two simulation models are con-
motorcycles. The bench test is carried out on AVI APICOM
verged, the post-processing for fluid-flow and temperature of
chassis dynamometer test bench. The main measuring instru-
motorcycles are started and give some valuable prediction
ment includes temperature sensor, DEWESOFT data collec-
results for motorcycle designers.
tor, flowmeter, pressure sensor, anemometer and high
The finite volume method is used for solving the govern-
temperature resistant solid glue. The high temperature resis-
ing equations on flow and heat transfer[65-67]. In the
tant solid glue is used to paste the temperature sensor to the
employed numerical solving method, for discretizing govern-
corresponding temperature measuring point, and the data col-
ing equations on momentum and pressure, the second-order
lector is used to collect all the measured data (pressure, tem-
discretization is used. Also, for discretizing the energy equa-
perature, flowrate and air velocity), and the real-time
tion, the second-order approach is employed. The velocity
monitoring is carried out through the computer. The thermal
and pressure fields are coupled by the SIMPLE algorithm.
balance test methodology is to control the vehicle speed at
The enhanced wall treatment method is used to handle the
120 km/h and the test environment at 30 °C, and let the motor-
near-wall phenomena of motorcycle. For computer resource
cycle keeps running continuously until radiator inlet tempera-
used for simulations, the Dell Precision 5820 desktop work-
ture, radiator outlet temperature and engine oil temperature
station with a 3.70 GHz Intel Xeon processor with 16 cores
tend to be stable, and the temperature fluctuation does not
and 64 GB of RAM is used. The average computation time
exceed 0.5 °C in 3 min. It is deemed that the motorcycle has
to complete the fluid-solid coupling analysis of motorcycle
reached the thermal balance state under the test condition,
is about 24 h.
Numerical simulation on fluid flow and temperature prediction 12953

Fig. 10 Velocity distributions of plane sections.

and all flowrate, pressure and temperature data are recorded measurement method using high-temperature adhesive (cloth
through the data collector connected to computer workstation. glue) are applied on radiator surface and 9 measuring points
As shown in Fig. 7.a, the tested motorcycle is installed on are taken for measuring the air temperature of radiator at inlet
chassis dynamometer test bench and flowmeter is connected side and 16 measuring points are taken for measuring the air
on the pipe between radiator outlet and pump inlet for measur- temperature of radiator at outlet side. Meanwhile, for predict-
ing the flowrate of radiator. Fig. 7.b shows a simple schematic ing the thermal comfort when riding on motorcycle, two mea-
diagram that the temperature sensor is pasted on the muffler suring points (air temperature around left thigh and right
surface with high-temperature adhesive (mud glue) to obtain thigh) are measured. Fig. 7.c shows the schematic diagram that
the surface temperatures of muffler components. For exhaust the measurement points on engine and its cooling system. The
muffler surface temperature measurement, 13 temperature temperature and pressure of radiator_inlet, radiator_outlet,
measuring points are marked and recorded for further compar- waterjacket_inlet are measured through temperature sensor
isons with experimental measurement. Meanwhile, 12 temper- and pressure sensor, the two cylinder temperature (left cylinder
ature measuring points on muffler cover are marked and and right cylinder), oil pan temperature are measured through
recorder for obtaining the temperature distribution of muffler temperature sensor. The flowrate of pump_outlet and radia-
cover surface and further comparison with experimental mea- tor_inlet are measured through flowmeter. After the comple-
surement to verify the simulation model. Similar temperature tion of thermal management experiment, three pressures
(cooling system), fifty-eight temperatures (25 temperature mea-
suring points on radiator, 13 temperature measuring points on

Fig. 11 The engine surface velocity distribution. Fig. 12 Velocity distribution of exhaust system inner flow.
12954 L. Tan et al.

exhaust muffler, 12 temperature measuring points on muffler

cover, 3 temperature measuring points on engine, 3 tempera-
ture measuring points on cooling system, and 2 temperature
measuring points on rider legs area for thermal comfort) and
two flowrate results are collected by data collector and
recorded in computer.
The main measured temperature results are shown in Fig. 8.
The left and right cylinder temperature are 183 °C and 190 °C,
respectively. The oil temperature is about 120 °C, the air tem-
perature of radiator at inlet side are from 29 °C to 35 °C, the
air temperature of radiator at outlet side are from 60 °C to
90 °C, the water temperature of radiator inlet and radiator
outlet are 96 °C and 89 °C, respectively. The air temperature
around left thigh and right thigh are 31 °C and 34 °C, respec-
tively. The temperature around two thighs are not high and it
will not affect the driver’s thermal comfort.

3.2. Temperature validation analysis

Fig. 9 shows the comparison curves between the simulated and

experimental temperature values for radiator surface air tem-
perature, muffler cover surface temperature, exhaust muffler
surface temperature and radiator outlet water temperature.
The simulated temperature values of air temperature on radi-
ator surface at inlet side, muffler cover surface temperature
and exhaust muffler surface temperature are in good agree-
ment with those values measured by thermal management Fig. 13 Temperature distributions of plane sections at fluid side.
experiment. In the comparison curve of air temperature on
radiator surface, the temperature difference for point 5 and
point 8 is about 3.5 °C. The maximum temperature difference plate inside the motorcycle, the cooling air with larger wind
between simulation value and experimental value for muffler speed is directed to the engine cylinder head and near the
cover surface temperature is about 4.5 °C, and the relative exhaust muffler, which is conducive to the heat dissipation of
error is 8.7%. The error is within the acceptable range, which the motorcycle.
indicates that fluid-coupling analysis model established in this Fig. 11 shows the surface velocity distribution of engine
work is effective. The temperature difference between simula- powertrain. The surface velocity distribution of radiator is uni-
tion value and experimental value for exhaust muffler surface form and no obvious flow dead-zone. As for forced air cooling
temperature is within 10 °C. The temperature at the exhaust of motorcycle, the distribution of convective heat transfer coef-
inlet is the highest, about 360 °C; the temperature at the muf- ficient is directly related to the velocity magnitude of fresh
fler outlet is the lowest. From the exhaust port to the muffler cooling air [68]. Both of them have the same distribution char-
outlet, the temperature basically presents a downward trend, acteristics, that is, the region with high air flow velocity and
and the muffler outlet temperature is the lowest, about good velocity uniformity correspond to large and uniform heat
45 °C. This muffler outlet temperature will not produce grate transfer coefficient; the area with low air flow velocity, poor
thermal effect on human body and have no impact on driving velcoity uniformity or zero velocity have small heat transfer
comfort. For inner flow field, the comparisons of water tem- coefficient. The larger the heat transfer coefficient is, the faster
perature of radiator outlet shows that the simulated radiator
outlet water temperature is in a good agreement with the
experimental values and the relative error is only 1.5%, further
validate the accuracy of fluid-solid coupling model built in this
work.

3.3. Velocity distribution analysis

Fig. 10 shows the velocity distribution of different sections

(z = 0.1, x = 0.2, y = 0) in fluid domain of motorcycle. It
can be seen from the figure that the wind from the chassis
bench laboratory fan blows to the surface of the motorcycle,
and then flows to the cooling fan, radiator, engine body, muf-
fler, intake and exhaust system and other components. The
cooling air is well distributed to cool the main heat source
components of motorcycle. From the section of Y = 0, it
can be clearly seen that due to the function of the air guide Fig. 14 Temperature distribution of water jacket.
Numerical simulation on fluid flow and temperature prediction 12955

the generated heat is transferred or dissipated. Therefore, Fig. 14 and Fig. 15 shows temperature distributions of radi-
through the good cooling effect of fresh cooling air, the heat- ator core and water jacket, respectively. As shown in Fig. 14,
ing components of motorcycle can get better cooling [69]. The the highest temperature area is the lower exhaust side bridge
cell relative velocity of the cylinder head is higher than that of zone with the maximum temperature 107 °C. This area should
other parts of the engine. The engine cylinder head and be a key concentration for cooling. The cooling performance
exhaust muffler components are heat source components with of water-jacket can be improved by adjusting the cylinder head
higher temperature, the higher the surface cell relative velocity gasket opening for making coolant flow distribution more rea-
is, it means that there is more cooling air flowing pass, and sur- sonable [70,71]. The waterside upstream and downstream tem-
face heat transfer coefficient of engine will be large that is con- perature of radiator core shows that most of areas are 94 °C
ducive to the cooling of the whole vehicle. The surface velocity and the lowest temperature is 89 °C. The average temperature
of exhaust muffler is quite large, indicating that cooling air for air-side upstream of radiator core is about 33 °C and the
flowing pass through it and give a good cooling to exhaust average temperature for air-side downstream of radiator core
muffler. is about 60 °C, the maximum temperature difference between
Fig. 12 shows the velocity distribution in the exhaust muf- upstream and downstream is about 35 °C. The temperature
fler system. The internal flow field of exhaust muffler is quite of air-side upstream and downstream are quite uniform, indi-
smooth and there is no large velocity gradient. The internal cating that the velocity of cooling air flowing through the radi-
velocity distribution of the three-way catalytic section is uni- ator core is relatively uniform and forming a good distribution
form, there is no velocity concentration phenomenon. The of heat transfer coefficient to dissipate heat evenly.
results show that structure design of three-way catalytic sec- Fig. 16 shows the surface temperature distributions of heat
tion is reasonable, and the phenomenon of local ablation source components, non heat source components and engine
caused by local high temperature gas velocity concentration cylinder block. The most important heat sources in motorcy-
will not occur. cles are the engine and exhaust muffler [72,73]. From the ther-
mal point of view, the engine and exhaust muffler releases heat
3.4. Temperature distribution analysis by convective heat transfer and by radiative transfer to its envi-
ronment and surrounding parts. Therefore, the temperature of
Fig. 13 shows the air temperature distribution of different sec- engine and exhaust muffler is crucial and more cooling air
tions (y = 0, z = 0) in fluid domain of motorcycle. After the should be considered for this two important heat sources
cooling air flows through the main part of the engine, the air [74]. Temperature distribution results show that the exhaust
temperature in the whole area increases obviously, and the muffler has the highest temperature and is the main radiation
air temperature near the exhaust muffler is the highest. This source of heat source component. The temperature distribu-
indicates that the cooling air absorbs heat from the solid com- tion of the engine cylinder body is uniform and the simulated
ponents with high temperature, so that making the motorcycle cylinder temperature is about 165 °C, having 15–25 °C differ-
works in an appropriate temperature. ence compared with experimental values and the relative error

Fig. 15 Temperature distribution of radiator core.

12956 L. Tan et al.

Fig. 16 Temperature distributions of engine solid parts.

is less than 13%. There are many factors that affect the tem- that the temperature distribution of the two combustion cham-
perature in the process of experiment, but the simulation can bers is basically the same, the highest temperature appears near
not fully consider the changing factors, so it will cause the dif- the exhaust bridge area because of the concentration of ther-
ference between the simulation value and the experimental mal load and the temperature near the intake area is lower
value of cylinder temperature. The temperature of non heat than the exhaust area because of less thermal load on intake
source parts (decoration coverings) due to solid radiation is area [77].
not high, which will not cause ‘‘hot hands and feet” phe- Fig. 17 shows temperature distributions of other crucial
nomenon to drivers. Rider comfort at high vehicle speed is components of motorcycle. There is no large area of high tem-
becoming an important evaluation index in the performance perature existing in those components. Through fluid-solid
improvement of motorcycles [75,76]. Therefore, from the cur- coupling analysis, the temperature on fluid side and solid side
rent CFD results, it can be indicated that the driving comfort can be obtained fully and give valuable flow field and temper-
is acceptable that no heated air blowing on areas of two thighs. ature information for designers to make a comprehensive eval-
The surface temperature of the engine cylinder block shows uation on motorcycle design and do some corresponding
Numerical simulation on fluid flow and temperature prediction 12957

Fig. 17 Temperature distributions of other crucial components.

performance improvement study. For simplified model, only The grid number for fluid-solid coupling analysis of electric
air flow characteristics around motorcycle can be accurately generator is about 48 million. Fig. 19. c shows cell relative
predicted and temperature distribution of solid parts can not velocity distribution of the engine in electric generator. Veloc-
predicted precisely [78,79]. So, the fluid-solid coupling analysis ity distribution of the engine cylinder head and the crankcase
model with consideration of all solid components in motorcy- body is quite high. The uniform or reasonable velocity distri-
cle is an effective alternative way for knowing detail airflow bution can reflect out the better distribution of heat transfer
velocity and temperature of motorcycles. coefficients and give a good cooling performance of hot
regions [80]. Therefore, uniform velocity distribution charac-
3.5. Engineering applications of fluid-solid coupling model teristics is conducive to the cooling of the solid parts of the
engine. The velocity distribution of muffler inner flow
In order to verify the universality of proposed fluid-solid cou- (Fig. 19.d) shows that the internal flow is relatively smooth
pling analysis method for predicting temperature distributions, without large velocity gradient and zero-velocity area, which
this method is applied to two case studies for conducting flow is conductive to the cooling of muffler. The temperature distri-
field characteristics analysis and solid temperature distribution bution of plane section X = 0.28 (Fig. 19.e) at the fluid side
analysis for a two-cylinder engine and an electric generator. shows that temperature around the muffler components is
Fig. 18 shows the model description and temperature analysis quiet high, which can bring large thermal radiation to the sur-
results of a two-cylinder engine. The grid number of this two rounding components. The solid temperature distribution
cylinder engine is 11 million. As shown in Fig. 18.b, the local results (Fig. 19.f) shows that maximum temperature of mag-
temperature distribution in exhaust bridge area of the cooling neto is 137.13 °C, which is within the acceptable range, and
water jacket is high, up to about 130 °C, which should be con- within the temperature requirement that the maximum temper-
sidered for further cooling improvement. Seen from engine ature of magneto should not exceed 150 °C. The highest tem-
temperature distributions, the temperature distribution in perature area of engine cylinder head is near the exhaust pipe
two cylinders is basically the same, the temperature in bridge mouth, about 201 °C. By building fluid-solid coupling analysis
area on exhaust side is the highest, and the temperature differ- model of electric generator, the temperature distribution of
ence between the two cylinders in spark plug area is about each solid part in electric generator can be obtained, which
3 °C, indicating that the heat dissipation and cooling of the can provide the detail temperature data reference for the quan-
two cylinders by coolant is relatively uniform. To validate titative evaluation of the cooling performance of the electric
the model, the coolant outlet temperature and engine cylinder generator. Through two engineering applications of fluid-
temperature between experiment and simulation are com- solid coupling model, it proved to be an effective way for the
pared. Results show that the simulation results are in a good temperature predictions of industrial products.
agreement with experiment and the maximum relative error
for coolant outlet temperature and engine cylinder tempera- 4. Conclusions
ture is 2% and 1.6%, respectively, proving that the fluid-
solid coupling method used in engine temperature prediction In this research work, a numerical study on flow field and tem-
can give a reliable results. perature distributions of motorcycle is conducted by construct-
Fig. 19 shows the model description of electric generator ing fluid-solid coupling analysis model. The fluid-solid co-
and velocity, temperature distribution of electric generator. simulation process is achieved via commercial CFD software
12958 L. Tan et al.

(a) Mesh model for a two-cylinder

( b) Temperature of water-jacket and engine body

100

83.5 85
coolant outlet temperature / °C

80

60

40

20

0
Experiment Simulation
Comparison state

(c) Coolant outlet temperature comparisons between experiment and simulation

240
Experiment
Simulation
200 188 191 191 193
Cylinder temperature /°C

160

120

80

40

0
Left cylinder Right cylinder
Comparison state

(d) Cylinder temperature comparisons between experiment and simulation

Fig. 18 Model description and temperature analysis results of a two-cylinder engine.

Numerical simulation on fluid flow and temperature prediction 12959

Fig. 19 Model description and velocity, temperature distributions of an electric generator.

12960 L. Tan et al.

STAR-CCM+. The numerical simulation and thermal man- proves to be an effective and reliable way to predict flow
agement experiment test of motorcycle at maximum vehicle field and temperature distributions of each solid parts
speed 120 km/h is investigated. Through fluid-solid coupling for a given industrial product. The vehicle performance
analysis, the flow field characteristics and temperature distri- is closely related to the performance of various compo-
butions of motorcycle are obtained and the simulation model nents of the subsystem, such as the influence of radiator
is validated by experimental data obtained by thermal manage- fin and tube size on heat dissipation, the influence of
ment experiment test. The main outcomes of the present work cooling system structure on engine thermal manage-
are summarized as follows: ment, the influence of cooling system 1D/3D collabora-
tive computing on vehicle performance, etc [81-83].
1) The thermal management experiment test considering Further work can be done on the integrated simulation
three pressure measuring points, fifty-eight temperature on subsystem optimization and vehicle thermal manage-
measuring points and two flowrate measuring points is ment considering fuel consumption and emission
investigated and experiment test results show that the savings.
left and right cylinder temperature are 183 °C and
190 °C, respectively. The oil temperature is about
Declaration of Competing Interest
120 °C, the air temperature of radiator at inlet side are
from 29 °C to 35 °C, the air temperature of radiator at
The authors declare that they have no known competing
outlet side are from 60 °C to 90 °C, the air temperature
financial interests or personal relationships that could have
around left thigh and right thigh are 31 °C and 34 °C,
appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
respectively.
2) CFD results of air temperature near the radiator, muf-
fler cover surface temperature, exhaust muffler surface Acknowledgements
temperature, radiator outlet water temperature are in
good agreement with experimental results and the max- The authors thank the Loncin Motor Co. Ltd and its technical
imum relative error is less than 10%, proving the fluid- staff of CFD team for their support on the development of
solid co-simulation model is reliable and effective. The this research by allowing the use of its facilities (High
temperature at the exhaust inlet is about 360 °C and performance computing server) and the required technical
the muffler outlet temperature is about 45 °C. The cell guidance.
relative velocity of the cylinder head is higher than that
of other parts of the engine, indicating that there is more
Funding
cooling air flowing pass, and surface heat transfer coef-
ficient of engine will be large that is conducive to the
cooling of the whole vehicle. The surface velocity of This work is funded by the National Natural Science Founda-
exhaust muffler is quite large, indicating that more cool- tion of China (Grants No. 51876109), Key project of Interna-
ing air flowing pass through it and give a good cooling tional Science and Technology Cooperation Program for
to exhaust muffler. Shaanxi Province (Grants No.2020KWZ-015).
3) The highest temperature area of water jacket is in the
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