Geology

Geology is, broadly speaking, the study of the earth.

The main aim of Geology is to understand how the Earth works, mountains are built and the
oceans formed. Applications of Geology include the search for oil, gas, water and minerals;
environmental studies; reconstructing the past environments of the Earth, which helps us with
predicting the future.

Disciplines of Geology

Mineralogy: Study of the chemical composition and structure of minerals.

Petrology: Study of the composition and origin of rocks.

Geochemistry: Study of the chemical composition of the earth materials and the chemical
changes that occur within the earth and on its surface.

Geophysics: This deals with the application of the principles and methods of physics to the
study of the Earth.

Mining Geology: Study of the location and extraction of mineral resources

Petroleum Geology: Study of the location and extraction of hydrocarbons

Engineering Geology: Study of the interactions of the earth with human-made structures such
as tunnels, mines, dams, bridges and building foundations etc.

Hydrology: It deals with locating and maintaining ground water resources.

Environmental Geology: It deals with the study and understanding of the interaction of all
biotic and abiotic factors with geological environments.
Soil Science

Soil is the unconsolidated upper part of the earth’s crust which serves as a natural medium for
the growth of plants. It is dynamic in nature and composed of mineral and organic materials,
water, air and living forms (plants and animals) that supports plant growth.

In any ecosystem, whether your backyard, a farm, a forest, or a regional watershed, soils have
six key roles to play:

1. Soil supports the growth of higher plants mainly by providing a medium for plant roots
and supplying nutrients.

2. Soil properties are the principal factor controlling the fate of water in hydrological
system

3. Soil functions as nature’s recycling system.

4. Soils provide habitats for living organisms.

5. Soils markedly influence the composition and physical condition of the atmosphere.

6. In human-built ecosystem, soil plays an important role as an engineering

medium/materials.

Soil Science is a branch of science/agriculture that deals with soils as a natural resource on the
surface of earth. It includes the study of soil formation, classification and the physical,
chemical, biological and fertility properties of soils in relation to their management for growth
of plants and sustaining a clean environment.

Branches/Disciplines of Soil Science

Soil Chemistry: It is the study of chemical composition of a soil and the chemical reactions
occurring in the soil.

Soil Genesis: It deals with the study of mode of origin of the soil in relation to soil forming
processes and factors.

Soil Classification: It is the study of systematic arrangement of soils into groups or categories
on the basis of their characteristics.
Soil Physics: It deals with the physical properties of a soil and physical processes occurring in
the soil.

Soil Fertility: It deals with the ability of the soil to supply nutrient that are essential for plant
growth.

Soil Microbiology: It is the study of micro-organisms inhabiting the soil, their functions and
activities in relation to plant growth and environmental health.

Soil Mineralogy: It is the study of minerals occurring in the soil.

Soil Salinity: It is the study of salt affected soils, their effects on plant growth, their
management and amelioration/reclamation.

Soil Survey: It is the systematic examination, description, classification and mapping of soils
in a specific area.

Soil Morphology: It is the branch of soil science that deals with the visual observations of
morphological features of a soil.

Environmental Science

Environment is all the external factors that affect an organism or group of organisms during
its lifetime.

Environmental science is an interdisciplinary field that integrates physical and biological

sciences to the study of the environment, and the solution of environmental problems.
Branches of Environmental Science

Atmospheric Sciences: It studies the Earth's gaseous outer layer with relation to other systems.
e.g. greenhouse gas phenomena

Environmental Ecology: It studies the interaction of populations with the environment.

Environmental Chemistry: It is the study of chemical alterations in the soil, water and air
environments and their remediation.

Environmental Microbiology: It is the study of the composition and physiology of microbial

communities and their transformation processes in the environment.

Further Reading: Brady, N.C. and R.R. Weil. 2008. The Nature and Properties of Soils, 14 th
Ed. Prentice Hall, NJ, USA.
 FOUR SPHERES OF EARTH

The area near the surface of the earth can be divided up into four inter-connected "geo-spheres:"
the lithosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere, and atmosphere. Scientists can classify life and
material on or near the surface of the earth to be in any of these four spheres.

Lithosphere (Geosphere)

The lithosphere is the solid, rocky crust covering

entire planet. This crust is inorganic and is composed
of minerals. It covers the entire surface of the earth.
The lithosphere is also called as Geosphere.

Hydrosphere

The hydrosphere is composed of all of the water on Figure 1

or near the earth. This includes the oceans, rivers, lakes, and even the moisture in the air.
Ninety-seven percent of the earth's water is in the oceans. The remaining three percent is fresh
water; three-quarters of the fresh water is solid and exists in ice sheets

Biosphere

The biosphere is composed of all living microorganisms. Plants, animals, and microorganisms
are all part of the biosphere.

Atmosphere

The atmosphere is the body of air which surrounds our planet. This gaseous envelop is most
dense at sea level and rapidly decreases with increasing altitude. It is an important geological
agent. It acts as a thermal blanket, captures heat and supply snow and rain water.

The air of our planet is about 78% nitrogen and about 21% oxygen; the small amount remaining
is composed of carbon dioxide (0.03%) and other gasses such as neon, helium, krypton, xenon,
water vapours, dust particles and hydrocarbons etc.
Earth’s cycles and spheres are interconnected (Figure 1). All four spheres can be and often are
present in a single location. The
importance of soil as a natural body derives
in large part from its role as an interface
between the above four spheres of earth.
This interface where the worlds of rock
(lithosphere), air (atmosphere), water (the
hydrosphere), and life (biosphere) all meet,
is termed as pedosphere or soil. For
example, a piece
of soil will of course have mineral material
from the lithosphere. Additionally, there will be elements ofFigure
the hydrosphere
2 present as
moisture within the soil, the biosphere as insects and plants, and even the atmosphere as pockets
of air between soil pieces (Figure 2).

Further reading: Brady, N.C. and R.R. Weil. 2008. The Nature and Properties of Soils, 14th
Ed. Prentice Hall, NJ, USA.
 MINERALS AND ROCKS

Minerals and rocks are the most common material of the earth. This section briefly describes
the definition of mineral and rock, and types of minerals and rocks.

Mineral

Mineral is a natural inorganic substance of definite chemical composition and generally with a
definite crystal form. All minerals except water and mercury are solids at normal temperature.

Types of Minerals

1. Primary minerals: Minerals that have not been altered chemically since deposition and
crystallization from molten lava.

Examples: Quartz, feldspar, mica etc.

2. Secondary minerals: Minerals resulting from the decomposition of a primary mineral or

from the re-precipitation of the products of decomposition of primary minerals.

Examples: Calcite, gypsum, dolomite etc.

Rocks

Rock is defined as a natural aggregate of one or more minerals to form an appreciable part of
the solid portion of the earth.

Types of Rocks

The rocks are classified into three types according to their origin

1. Igneous rocks
2. Metamorphic rocks
3. Sedimentary rocks
1. Igneous rocks

Rocks formed by the cooling and solidification of extremely hot molten material (lava) are
called igneous rocks.

Geologists consider that igneous rocks were the first rocks formed on the earth whereas
sedimentary and metamorphic rocks originated from igneous rocks.

The word igneous is derived from a Latin word meaning fire, which provides a clue to the
origin of the rocks. Many areas of the earth contain points of weakness in the crust, and
sometimes the molten material within the earth forces its way through these points of weakness
and appears on the surface. Once the molten material has escaped from the conditions of high
temperature and pressure which exist under the surface, it begins to cool down. Eventually the
flowing material slows down, comes to a stop and solidifies and becomes a solid igneous rock.

The characteristics of igneous rocks are determined by the composition of the original material
from which it was formed.

EXAMPLES: Granite, Gabbro and Basalt.

2. Sedimentary rocks

Sedimentary rocks are formed from the layers of accumulated sediments.

Pre-existing rocks of any group (igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary) are broken down by
the continuous process of weathering to form debris known as sediments. The process
continues over millions of years and the early sediments are gradually buried and more
sediment accumulate. The accumulated sediment is finally compacted through the weight of
the sediment layers one above the other, the water squeezes off and the minerals become
cemented.

In the process of sedimentary rocks formation, layers of sediments are built up layer by layer.
Layering is therefore a fundamental characteristic of these rocks. Each layer is separated from
the one above and the one below by a line of demarkation known as bedding plane. This
generally represents the sudden change in the grain size or in the composition of the sediment
being laid down.
EXAMPLES: Shale, mudstone and limestone.

3. Metamorphic rocks

Meta means change and Morph means shape or form. Therefore, metamorphic rocks are those
rocks which are formed due to change in shape of pre-existing igneous or sedimentary rocks
under very high temperature and pressure. The process of change is called metamorphism.
Under extremes of heat and pressure, physical and chemical changes occur in pre-existing
rocks and this process of metamorphism generally occurs deep within the earth’s outer layers.
Because of this, most metamorphic rocks are revealed after a considerable amount of erosion
has taken place.

Both sedimentary and igneous rocks can be changed into new rock types by the process of
metamorphism.

FOR EXAMPLE: The metamorphic rock slate is derived from sedimentary shales and
mudstone whereas sedimentary limestone can be metamorphosed into marble.

Sedimentary rock changes into Metamorphic rock

Shale Slate

Mudstone Slate

Limestone Marble
 WEATHERING

Weathering is a process in which different physical and chemical changes are produced in rocks
at or near the earth’s surface by atmospheric agents. There are two basic weathering processes.

1. Mechanical/Physical weathering (disintegration): It causes decrease in size of rocks

and minerals without appreciably affecting their chemical composition.
2. Chemical weathering (decomposition): It is a process in which chemical changes take
place in rocks and minerals. In this process soluble materials are released, new minerals
are synthesized and some resistant products remain as such.

Mechanical/Physical Weathering (Disintegration)

Temperature

Rocks heat up during the day and cool down at night, causing alternate expansion and
contraction of their constituent minerals. As some minerals expand more than others,
temperature changes set up differential stresses that eventually cause the rock to crack apart.
Further the outer surface of a rock is often warmer or colder than the inner resulting in the
peeling away of outer layers. This process is called exfoliation.

Abrasion by Water, Wind, and Ice

When flowing water is loaded with sediments, it has tremendous cutting power. These
sediments colloid with each other and breakdown into smaller particles. The rounding of
riverbed rocks and beach sand grains is an evidence of the abrasion that accompanies water
movement.

Wind-blown dust and sand can break down rocks by abrasion in certain arid regions. In glacial
areas, huge moving ice masses carrying soil and rock fragments, grind down rocks in their path
and carry away large volumes of material.
Action of Microorganisms, Plants and Animals

Lower plants like mosses, lichens grow on exposed rocks, catch dust particles, accumulate
organic matter and encourage further plant growth. Pressure by roots of higher plants assist
disintegration by opening up spaces for the penetration of water which may freeze and expand
later.

Burrowing animals such as earthworms, ants and rodents and also hoofed animals through their
action contribute slowly to the disintegration of rocks. Humans accelerate the slow process of
physical weathering by ploughing and cultivating.

Chemical Weathering (Decomposition)

Hydration: It is the addition of water molecule in chemical combination with a mineral to

form hydrated compounds. Hydrated minerals are more prone to decomposition due to their
increased volume which makes it softer and more stressed.

Hydrolysis: In hydrolysis reactions, water molecules split into their hydrogen and hydroxyl
components and the hydrogen often replaces a cation from the mineral structure.

Dissolution: Water dissolves many minerals by hydrating the cations and anions until they
become dissociated and surrounded by water molecules. These dissolved minerals are
converted into solution form which permits greater chemical changes than could occur in an
unionized (generally solid) state.

Acid reactions: Weathering is accelerated by the presence of acids, which increase the activity
of hydrogen ions in water. Soils contain stronger acids, such as nitric acid (HNO3), sulfuric and
(H2SO4), and many organic acids like carbonic acid. Hydrogen ions are also associated with
soil clays. Each of these sources of acidity is available for reaction with soil minerals resulting
in enhanced weathering.
Oxidation-reduction: Minerals that contain iron, manganese, or sulfur are especially
susceptible to oxidation-reduction reactions. The variation in oxidation-reduction ability cause
weathering.

The various chemical weathering processes occur simultaneously and are interdependent.
 PARENT MATERIALS

Unconsolidated product of weathering from which soil develops is called parent material.

Generally there are two groups of parent materials, i.e. sedentary and transported. The
transported materials are further subdivided according to transporting agency and place of
deposition.

A. Sedentary or Residual: The parent material formed in place and still at the original
site.

B. Transported: The parent material carried and deposited by various transporting

agencies.

1. By gravity- Colluvial
2. By water- Alluvial
3. By ice- Glacial
4. By wind- Eolian

The nature and properties of parent material together with climate are the most important
factors affecting the kind and quality of soils. So to understand soils we must know the sources
of parent material, mechanisms of weathering and transporting agencies.

A. Sedentary or Residual Parent Material

This material develops in place from the rocks, generally by long and intense weathering. In
warm humid climate, it is well oxidized and leached of basic cations (Na, K, and Ca). It has
red and yellow colors due to oxidation of iron. In cooler and drier climates, weathering is less
intense; leaching of basic cations does not take place. In Pakistan pothohar plateau is covered
with such materials. The nature of these materials depends upon the nature of rocks from which
these materials have formed.
B. Transported Materials

1. Colluvial deposits:

A material transported by gravity that has been deposited at the base of foothills or mountains.
These deposits are extremely variable in composition. Soils developed from these parent
materials may be coarse and stony because physical rather than chemical weathering is
dominant. This material has good drainage.

2. Alluvial deposits:

The material which has been transported/deposited by river and streams is termed as alluvium.

Alluvial soils are finely layered to great depths, which shows marked changes horizontally.
This is somewhat sandy near river bank to clayey away form river bank. These soils are
generally level, fertile and highly productive, however if clayey there may be drainage
problem.

3. Glacial deposits

This refers to all the materials of glacial origin, whether deposited directly by the ice or by
associated water. It consists of heterogeneous mixture of debris, varying in size from coarse
fragments to clay particles.

4. Eolian deposits

These are materials carried and deposited by wind. Such wind blown materials are
differentiated into loess, sand dunes, adobe and volcanic ash depending upon the type of
original material that was subjected to such actions.

a. Loess

It is generally silty in nature with some sand and clay. Mostly Pakistani soils are alluvial in
nature, however some soils are formed from loess. Loess generally forms productive soils and
these soils are quite open and porous.

b. Sand dunes
This is the sandy materials carried and deposited by wind. The coarse particles deposit near the
source and accumulate in the form of sand dunes.

c. Adobe

It is similar to loess but calcareous in nature.

 SOIL GENESIS / SOIL FORMATION

It is mode of origin of soil. Soil formation means both the production of parent material and
soil profile development. The process of weathering and soil profile development occur
simultaneously.

The formation of soil happens over a very long period of time. It may take thousands of years.
Soil is formed as results of weathering of rocks and minerals. The surface rocks break down
into smaller pieces through a process of weathering and is then mixed with organic matter.
Over time this creates a thin layer of soil and then lower plants grow and soil development is
enhanced. Later on higher plants grow and attract animals. When the plants and animals die,
their bodies decay/decompose. Decaying matter makes the soil thick and rich. This continues
until soil is fully developed.

Factors of Soil Formation

1. Parent material

Parent material is the unconsolidated initial material from which soils develop. The nature of
parent material greatly influences soil characteristic. Parent material influence soil formation
by its following properties/characteristics:

a. rate of weathering
b. the nutrients
c. the particle size

For example sandstones give rise to sandy and shale’s to clayey soils. The less the soil
developed the grater will be the effect of parent material on the soil properties.

Parent material also influences the quantity and type of clay minerals present in soil profile.
Soil developed from potassium rich parent material may have illite as the dominant clay
mineral.
2. Climate

Climate is the average weather conditions at a particular place over a period of time as
determined by temperature, precipitation, wind velocity and other morphological factors.

Climate is the dominant factor of soil formation because of the effects of:

 temperature
 rainfall
 wind

These sub-factors affect the rate of chemical, physical and biological processes that are
responsible of soil development. The biochemical changes are sensitive to temperature. These
changes are favored by temperature range of 20-30oC. Temperature also influences the organic
matter content of the soil. Decomposition of organic matter is more at higher temperatures.
That is why organic matter is generally low in soils of dry regions like Pakistan.

Moisture is another important factor in soil formation. Rainfall is the major source of moisture.
In areas receiving low rainfall, there is shallow accumulation of carbonates in the soil, in humid
areas, acid soils are developed under conditions of intense weathering and leaching. Erosion
caused by water may remove upper fertile portion of soils and may deposit it at some other
places. A soil is said to be developed when it has detectable layers (horizons), such as
accumulated clays, organic colloids, or soluble salts that have been moved by water.

Wind can affect soil development through erosion as it may decrease the depth of soil
developed and may damage the vegetation. In sandy areas like Cholistan the destructive effects
of winds are more pronounced.

Climate also influences the natural vegetation. In humid regions, high rainfall provides an
environment favorable for the growth of trees. In contrast, grasslands are dominant with native
vegetation in semi arid regions and shrubs of various kinds in arid areas. In these areas the
vegetation is not dense enough to protect soil from wind and water erosion.

3. Living organisms
The activities of living plants, animals and the decomposition of their wastes and residues have
marked influence on soil development. Soil organisms play a major role in soil profile
differentiation through

 Organic matter accumulation

 Profile mixing
 Nutrient cycling
 Soil structure stability

Burrowing animals such as moles, earthworms, ants, and termites are highly important when
they exist in large numbers. Soils having large numbers of these animals have fewer but deeper
horizons because of the constant mixing within the soil profile. Microorganisms present in the
soil attack plant and animal residues producing organic materials. These microorganisms along
with an abundance of plant roots help to bind soil particles into stable aggregates. Similarly,
certain microorganisms can fix atmospheric nitrogen into compounds useable by plants.

4. Topography

Topography is the difference in elevation or slope between the uplands and low lands of a
valley or it is the earth’s surface contour.

Topography of a land can hasten or delay the work of climatic forces. In smooth and flat
surfaces excess water is removed less rapidly than in areas of steep slopes. Soils having steep
slopes encourage natural erosion of the soil surface which reduces the possibilities of the
development of a deep soil. On the other hand, if water remains available for part or all of the
year on gentle slopes there will be more vegetation and organic matter accumulation resulting
in the development of a deep soil profile.

Topography also determines the type and amount of vegetation. e.g. in northern hemisphere,
higher plants and more vegetation is present on north facing slopes but scarce and small shrubs
are present on the south facing slopes.

5. Time

The time required for a soil to develop the distinct layers (horizons) depends upon all other
factors of soil formation (climate, nature of parent material, living organisms and topography).
Horizons tend to develop more rapidly under warm, humid and forested conditions where there
is enough water to move clay, humus and other colloids downward. Under ideal conditions,
recognizable soil profile may develop within 200 years, under less favorable conditions, the
time may extend to several thousand years.

Basic Processes of Soil Formation

During soil formation, the unconsolidated weathered material under goes many changes. These
changes are brought about by variations in the four basic soil forming processes. These four
basic processes often referred as soil forming or Pedogenic processes. They are responsible of
soil formation under all kind of environments. These processes are

1. Addition

Inputs of materials to the developing soil profile from outside sources are considered additions.
For example, fallen plant leaves, twigs, dust, animal dung, salts or silica dissolved in
groundwater and deposited near or at the soil surface when rising water evaporates.

2. Losses

Materials are lost from soil profile by leaching to groundwater, erosion of surface material, or
other forms of removal. Leaching causes the loss of water and dissolved substances such as
salts or silica, weathered from parent materials. Grazing of animals or harvest by people can
remove large amounts of both organic matter and nutrient element.

3. Transformation

It involves the physical or chemical modification of soil constituents i.e some materials are
broken down and others are synthesized. For example, weathering of primary minerals results
in disintegration and alteration of various kinds of silicate clays. As primary minerals
decompose, the decomposition products recombine to form new minerals which include
additional type of silicate clays and hydroxides of iron and aluminum. The decomposition of
organic residues gives rise to organic acids, humus and other products

4. Translocation
It involves the movement of inorganic and organic material laterally within a horizon or
vertically from one horizon up or down to another. Water, either percolating down with gravity
or rising up by capillary action is the most common translocation agent. The material moved
within the profile includes dispersed clay particles, dissolved salts and dissolved organic
substances.

Soil organisms also play a major role in translocation of soil material e.g. Incorporation of
surface organic matter into A and B horizons by certain earth worms, transport of B and C
horizon to the surface by termites and rodents.

Fig. 1: Sketch of a typical soil profile showing different master horizon.

.
 SOIL MORPHOLOGY

Soil morphology is the visual observation of morphological features of soil i.e. soil color,
texture and structure of horizons and arrangement of these horizons in the soil profile. This can
be studied in the field by the naked eye (macromorphology), with the aid of hand lens and
binocular stereoscope (mesomorphology), with the electron microscope (micromorphology).

Soil Profile

A vertical section of the soil showing different layers (horizons) and extending into the C-
horizon or parent material (R layer).

Horizon

A layer of soil, approximately parallel to the soil surface, having different properties and
characteristics from adjacent layers below or above it.

Description of a Typical Soil Profile

A common sequence of horizons within a profile comprises of five master soil horizons, i.e.,
O, A, E, B and C. Distinctions within these master horizons are designated by the subscripts to
indicate subordinate distinction within the master horizons and layers e.g., Ap, Bt, etc.

Different master horizons or layers that might occur in a soil profile are described briefly in the
form of a diagram.

O Horizon (Organic): The O horizon is comprised of organic material that forms above the
mineral horizon. This results from litter derived from dead plants and animals. O horizon
usually occurs in forested areas and are generally absent in grassland regions.

A Horizon: Mineral horizon that forms at the surface or below an O layer. A horizon shows
one or more of the followings:

1. An accumulation of humified organic matter intimately mixed with the mineral fraction
results darker in color than that of the lower horizons
2. Not dominated by characteristics/properties of the E or B horizons.
 3. Have properties resulting from cultivation, pasturing or other similar kinds of
disturbance.

E Horizon:

1. Mineral horizon from which silicate clay, iron, aluminum or some combination of these
have been eluviated (leached).
2. Sand and/or silt sized quartz or other resistant minerals remain there and become
concentrated.
3. An E horizon is generally lighter in color than the A horizon and is found below the A
horizon.

Eluviation: It is the movement of materials out of a portion/layer of soil profile as in E horizon.

B Horizon:

1. Horizon that forms below an O, A or E horizon and shows illuviation (accumulation)

of material from above E horizon.
2. In humid regions, B horizon shows the accumulation of Fe/Al oxides, silicate clays and
humus.
3. In arid and semiarid regions, calcium carbonate and calcium sulfate and other salts may
accumulate in B horizon.

Illuviation: It is the movement of materials into a portion/layer of soil profile as in B horizon.

C Horizon:

1. Unconsolidated material underlying the solum (A, E & B horizons).

2. Mineral horizon or layer (not bedrock) relatively unaffected by pedogenic processes,
and lacking the properties of O, A, E, or B horizons.
3. May be like or unlike the parent material from which solum of soil develops.

R Layer (Bedrock): It is of hard bedrock, not practically diggable with a spade and shows no
or little evidence of weathering.

Transitional Horizons
Transitional horizons are layers of the soil between two master horizons. These exhibit
properties of both the master horizons e.g. AB and BA.

.
 SOIL CLASSIFICATION/TAXONOMY

Some sort of grouping is necessary to study any heterogeneous mass in nature. It is especially
true for soils as they vary greatly from place to place. SOIL CLASSIFICATION is the
systematic grouping of soils into various categories based on mainly morphological,
mineralogical and some chemical characteristics. WHILE SOIL TAXONOMY is the science
that deals with laws and principles of soil classification.

Categories of Soil Classification

There are six categories of classification.

These are 1) order 2) suborder 3) great group 4) subgroup 5) family 6) series.

Order is the most generalized category. All soils in the world fit into one of the twelve orders.
The names of orders and there significant features are given below.

1. Aridisols: Soils of dry regions

2. Entisols: Recently formed soils
3. Inceptisols: Moderately weathered soils
4. Alfisols: High base status soils
5. Mollisols: Dark organic soils
6. Vertisols: Shrinking and swelling dark clay soils
7. Ultisols: Low base status soils (Acid soils)
8. Oxisols: Highly weathered soils
9. Spodosols: Soils, with subsoil accumulations of humus and sesquioxides
10. Andisols: Generally soils of volcanic origin
11. Histosols: Organic soils
12. Gelisols: Frozen soils

The extent of six orders which occur in Pakistan is as under:

Aridisols > Entisols > Inceptisols > Alfisols > Vertisols.

 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOILS

The soil properties that we can see or feel, which are relatively more permanent than chemical
properties are called physical properties of soil. Such properties are difficult to change. Soil
physical properties include texture, structure, particle and bulk density, porosity, air and water
content, consistency (strength), color and temperature.

Soil Texture

It refers to the relative proportions of the three primary soil separates (sand, silt, and clay).

Soil separates and their diameter ranges

International Society of Soil Science (ISSS)
Soil separate name Diameter range (mm)
Coarse sand 2.0-0.2
Fine sand 0.2-0.02
Silt 0.02-0.002
Clay Less than 0.002

Significance of soil texture

Texture is important because it will, in part determine the ease of tilling the soil, the amount of
aeration (necessary for root growth), water intake rates (absorption) and water storage in the
soil. It also influences soil fertility. For example, a fine textured clayey soil is difficult to till,
has poor aeration for good root growth, difficult to wet and difficult to drain but it can retain
more nutrients and water. A coarse sandy soil is easy to wet, easy to drain and easy to till, has
good aeration but loses more plant nutrients by leaching.

Soil Structure

The term structure relates to the clustering (grouping) or arrangement of primary soil particles
into secondary particles or units called peds or aggregates e.g. Plate like, Block like and
Granular.

Importance of soil structure

Soils with good physical condition (tilth) are important to good yield. The formation and
maintenance of stable aggregates is the essential feature of soil tilth. The rate of water
infiltration, water-holding capacity, heat transfer, aeration, porosity and root development are
greatly influenced by soil structure. For instance, both granular and single-grain (structure less)
soils have rapid infiltration rates, prismatic and blocky soils had medium rates and platy and
massive soil conditions have slow infiltration rates.

Aggregated soil is generally the most desirable condition for plant growth, particularly in the
critical early stages of germination and seedling establishment. The continued existence of
large pores in the sol depends on the stability of the aggregates.

Particle Density

Particle density of soils refers to the ratio of total mass of the solid particles to their total volume
excluding pore spaces (between particles). In technical work, its units are mega-grams per
cubic meter (Mg/m3) or grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm3) or kilogram per cubic meter
(kg/m3).

Particle density for most mineral soils usually varies between 2.60 and 2.70 Mg/m3. However,
the standard value used in calculations is 2.65 Mg/m3 if actual particle density is not known.

Bulk Density

It is defined as the mass of dry soil solids per unit bulk volume. Bulk volume means the volume
of the soil particles plus pore space. So the density for a volume of soil as it exists naturally is
called bulk density. The value is expressed in Mg/m3 or g/cm3 or kg/m3 (1 g/cm3 = Mg/m3).
Significance of bulk density

1. The bulk density of soil is used for estimating the mass of a volume of a soil too large
to weigh. For example, the average weight of soil for a hectare or acre area per unit
depth is calculated by multiplying the soil volume by its bulk density.
2. It is needed for converting water percentage by weight to content by volume.
3. It is also used for calculating porosity when the particle density is known.
4. It can indicate the differences in compaction of a given soil resulting from heavy tillage
equipment on wet clayey soil.
5. Plant roots of field crops are hindered by soils high in bulk density but to varying
degrees.

Pore Space

The pore space of a soil is the portion of soil bulk volume occupied by soil pores (or by air and
water). So it consists of that portion of the soil volume not occupied by solids, either mineral
or organic).

Importance

The micro pores are generally filled with water in a moist soil and there is slow movement of
air and water into or out of the soil. On the other hand, the macro pores allow the ready
movement of water and air, thus, the movement of water and air through a sandy soil is rapid
due to the dominance of the macro pores, even though total porosity is relatively lower. Clayey
soils, particularly those without good structure allow relatively slow air and water movement
despite having large total pore space. In these soils, the dominating micro-pores generally
remain full of water. However, improvement in structure can promote aeration by increasing
the proportion of macro-pores. Therefore, the pore size distribution is more important rather
than the volume of total pore space.
Soil Aeration

It is the process by which air in the soil is replaced by air from the atmosphere (gaseous
exchange). The rate of aeration depends mainly on the volume and continuity of air-filled pores
within the soil.

Composition of soil and atmospheric air

In a well-aerated soil, the soil air is very similar in composition to the atmospheric air above
the soil. However, poorly aerated soils generally contain a much higher percentage of CO2 and
a correspondingly lower percentage of O2 than the atmospheric air above the soil. Atmospheric
air has about the following composition of the important gases in soils:

Dinitrogen (N2) = 79.0%, oxygen (O2) = 20.95%

Carbon dioxide (CO2) = 0.03%

Water vapor or relative humidity = 20-90%. Soil air is different from atmospheric air as it has
lower oxygen content (14-20%) and relative humidity (95-99%). Plant roots and micro-
organisms take oxygen from soil air and release carbon dioxide into it.

Significance

The oxygen contents are the most important for plant growth as are needed for respiration

(necessary for life and growth). Except rice, most plants need oxygen to be present in the pores
where roots are growing. So the rate at which soil oxygen exchanges with atmospheric oxygen
ODR (oxygen diffusion rate) is important.

Organic matter decomposition by soil micro organisms also uses oxygen in soils, when there
is little oxygen in soil anaerobes start working and anaerobic micro organisms produce gases
(other than CO2) such as Nitrous oxide (N2O), methane CH4) and H2S. Theses gases are
harmful and are source of pollution.

SOIL WATER

The availability of water in soil is essential for plant growth. It is also essential to
microorganisms that grow in soil and decompose organic matter. It is important in the
weathering process which involves the breakdown of rocks and mineral to form soil and release
plant nutrients. Water is the solvent that together with the dissolved nutrients make up the
solution from which plants absorb nutrients (mainly through the roots). Soil water can provide
control over both soil air and soil temperature (other two factors essential for plant growth).
Water is generally held in the soil by micro pores. The force of gravity causes water to move
downward through the soil, particularly in the larger pores.

Soil Water Potential

The difference between the free energy of soil water and that of pure, free water in a standard
reference state is known as soil water potential. The soil water potential can be expressed in
bars, atmospheres or kilopascals (kPa).

Soil Water Classification

The most useful classification of water content in soil is the biological classification as it relates
water to plant growth. There is a definite relationship between water retention and its use by
plants. These water contents are classified as gravitational (drainage) water, field capacity,
permanent wilting point and plant-available water.

a. Gravitational water

Water present in excess of field capacity or water held at a potential greater than -33 kPa (-10
to -33 kPa and upward depending upon soil texture) is called gravitational water. It is available
as it moves through the plant roots if adequate aeration is maintained. It is of limited use to
plants as it is present in the soil only for short periods of time. It can affect plant growth due to
poor aeration.

b. Field capacity

The contents of water remaining in a soil two to three days after having been saturated with
water and after the free water (gravitational water) has been allowed to drain away is called
field capacity. It is the percentage of soil water that is held at -10 to -33 kPa water potential
and is a measure of the greatest amount of water that a soil can store (or hold).
c. Permanent wilting point

It is the amount of water at which plants growing in that soil will wilt and not recover when
placed in a humid chamber. It is estimated at about -1500 kPa water potential or less (more
negative). Water is held so strongly that plants are not able to absorb it fast enough for their,
needs.

d. Plant available water

Plant-available water is defined as the weight percentage of total soil water held with a water
potential between -10 to -33 and -1500 kPa and is said to be usable by plants. It is estimated
by subtracting the percentage of water held at the permanent wilting point from the percentage
held at field capacity.

Soil Temperature

The temperature of a soil influences plant growth and crop yields as it generally influences date
of planting, germination and number of days for a crop to mature. The sub-soil temperature is
less variable than the air and surface soil temperatures. The average annual soil temperature
can be approximated by adding about 2oF to the mean annual air temperature (except in arid
sunny regions). Factors influencing heat absorption include soil color, water contents, mulches,
vegetative cover and soil slope as well as its direction.