Lesson 1: From the Perspective of

lecture but instead asked questions and

engaged the person in a discussion.
Philosophy SOCRATES’ VIEW OF HUMAN NATURE
- “The unexamined life is not worth
- Athens of Ancient Greece, approx. 600
living.”
BCE marked the birth of Philosophy
- His Socratic method allowed him to
(literally the love of wisdom).
question people’s beliefs and ideas,
- The Greek in search of knowledge
exposing their misconceptions and get
came up with answers that are both
them to touch their souls.
cognitive and scientific in nature. (Price,
- Socrates said that the true self is not
2000)
the body but the soul. Understanding
- Greek philosophers in Miletus chose to
comes from within the person. His
seek natural explanations to events and
method forces people to use their
phenomena instead of the supernatural.
innate reason by reaching inside
SOCRATES
themselves to their deepest nature.
- Mentor of Plato and Plato, the mentor
PLATO
of Aristotle.
- Real Name: Aristocles (428-348 BCE).
- Athens was the center of Western
- Born in Athens to one of Greece’s
thought. Athenians settled arguments
aristocratic families.
by discussions and debates and those
- Nickname Plato because of his physical
skilled in doing those were called
build which means wide/broad.
Sophists, the 1st teachers of the West.
- Established a school known as “The
- Their arguments are usually about
Academy.”
practical things and not metaphysical
- Plato’s metaphysics (philosophical
speculations.
study on the causes and nature of
- Then came Socrates (470-399 BCE).
things) is known as the “Theory of
Socrates wanted to discover the
Forms.”
essential nature of knowledge, justice,
- His Theory of Forms explained that
beauty, and goodness. (Moore & Bruder,
Forms refers to what’s real. They are
2002).
not objects that are encountered with
- A lot of his thoughts were only known
the senses but can only be grasped
through Plato’s writing “The Dialogues”.
intellectually.
It was through Plato where it was
- Forms are ageless therefore eternal,
learned that Socrates was a brilliant
unchanging therefore permanent,
debater and was idolized by many
unmoving and indivisible.
Athenians.
- Plato’s Dualism: The Realm of the
THE SOCRATIC METHOD
Shadows and The Realm of the Forms
- The method for discovering what is
PLATO’S VIEWS OF HUMAN NATURE
essential in the world and in people is
- Made use of Socrates’ dialectic method
what is known as the Socratic/dialectic
and considered it an important tool in
method. It involves the search for the
discovering knowledge.
correct definition of a thing. He did not
 - Knowledge lies within the person’s self-realization and perfection. It is the
soul. Considered human beings as way of knowing and realizing the truth.
microcosms of the universal ST. AUGUSTINE OF HIPPO
macrocosm. - Christianity influenced the Western
- Even if the materials of the human body thought after the fall of the
and physical world are imperfect, Hellenistic-Roman eras.
humans have the immortal, rational - Christian philosophers and the medieval
soul which Plato believed is created in era were also theologians. Their
the image of the Divine. concern was with God and man’s
- 3 Components: relationship with God.
1. The Reason is rational and is the - They believed that man should rely on
motivation for goodness & truth. God’s commands and his judgment of
2. The Spirited is non-rational and is the what constitutes good & evil.
will or the drive toward the action. - Christianity sees man as sinners who
3. The Appetites are irrational and lean oppose God’s commands.
towards the desire for pleasure of the ❖ Love of physical objects led to greed.
body. ❖ Love for other people is not lasting and
PLATO’S THEORY OF LOVE & BECOMING excessive love for them leads to
- “Allegory of the Cave”. People in the jealousy.
cave will only see shadows of reality ❖ Love for the self leads to pride.
which they believe are real things and ❖ Love for God is the supreme virtue and
represent knowledge. only through loving God can man find
- Shadows are not real because real happiness.
according to Plato, “only the Forms are RENE DESCARTES (1595 - 1650)
real.” - “Father of Modern Philosophy”
- COnsidered as one of the rationalist
philosophers of Europe. This group of
philosophers considered the truth as a
universal concept and reason is superior
to and independent of sensory
experience.
- Introduced the cartesian method and
invented analytic geometry.
DESCARTES’ SYSTEM
By math, he discovered that the human mind
- Once out of the cave, they’ll see Forms has 2 powers:
which is what real knowledge is. 1. Intuition - the ability to apprehend direction
- In knowing the truth, the person must of certain truths.
become the truth. “Theory of Being” 2. Deduction - the power to discover what is
- Love - force that paves the way for all known by progressing in an orderly way from
beings to ascend to higher stages of what is already known.
 - He believed that reasoning could DAVID HUME (1711-1776)
produce absolute truth about nature, - Born in Edinburgh, Scotland
existence, morality and God. - Credited for giving empiricism its
- Priori - truth that can’t be discovered. clearest formulation.
- Philosophy should progress from THE HUMAN MIND
simple ideas to complex ideas. The mind receives materials from the senses
DESCARTES’ VIEW OF HUMAN NATURE and calls it perceptions. There are 2 types of
- “I think therefore I am.” perceptions: impressions & ideas.
- Deduced that a thinker is a thing that 1. Impressions are immediate sensations of
doubts, understands, affirms, denies, external reality. These are more vivid than the
wills, refuses and that also imagines ideas it produces.
and feels. (Prince 2000). 2. Ideas are recollections of these impressions.
THE MIND BODY PROBLEM He formulated 3 principles on how ideas
- He considered the soul/mind (also the relate to one another.
self) as a substance separate from the 1. The Principle of Resemblance
body. 2. The Principle of Contiguity
- Body is like a machine that is controlled 3. The Principle of Causation
by the will and aided by the mind. THE PRINCIPLE OF CAUSE & EFFECT
JOHN LOCKE (1632 - 1704) The idea of cause and effect arises only when
- Born in Wrington, England and son of a people experience certain relation between
Puritan lawyer. objects thus it cannot be a basis for knowledge.
- Interested in the workings of the human HUME’S VIEW OF HUMAN NATURE
mind, particularly the acquisition of - The Self
knowledge. - He concluded that man does really have
- Believed that knowledge results from an idea of the so-called self because
ideas that produce a posteriori or by ideas rely on sense impressions and
objects that were experienced. people have no sense impression of a
- Ideas are not innate but rather the mind self.
at birth is a “tabula rasa” or blank state. IMMANUEL KANT’S VIEW OF THE MIND
- “Nothing exists in the mind that was not - Argued that the mind is not just a
first in the senses. passive receiver of sense experience but
LOCKE’S VIEW OF HUMAN NATURE rather actively participates in knowing
Moral good depends on conformity or the objects it experiences.
nonconformity of a person’s behavior towards - It is the external world that conforms to
some law. The 3 laws according to Locke are: the mind.
1. Law of Opinion - where actions that are - He combined the philosophies of
praiseworthy are called virtues and those that Rationalism and Empiricism and defined
are not are called vice. knowledge as a result of human
2. Civil Law understanding applied to sense
3. Divine Law - set by God on the actions of experience.
man.
KANT’S VIEW OF HUMAN NATURE & THE - Freud’s psychodynamic theory would
SELF tell that the workings of the mind or
- The bundles of sensory impressions one's mental life impacts strongly on
imply a unity of the self without which the body resulting in either emotional
there would be no knowledge of stability or psychological dysfunctions.
experience. - The tip of the iceberg represents
- When the self sees an object, it tends conscious awareness which
to remember its characteristics and characterizes the person he deals with
applies the forms of time and space. in his external world.
- Transcendental Apperception - - The person’s observable behavior is
experience of the self and its unity with further controlled by the workings of his
objects. unconscious and subconscious mind.
- Transcendental is used because people - Subconscious serves as a repository of
don’t experience the self directly but as past experiences, repressed memories,
a unity of all impressions organized by fantasies and urges. The 3 levels of the
the mind through perceptions. mind are structured by the following
- He stated that the kingdom of God is components:
within man. 1. Id - structure that is primarily based
SIGMUND FREUD (1856 -1939) on the pleasure principle. Demands
- Austrian neurologist. immediate satisfaction and is not
- Repressed thought and memories hindered by societal expectations.
according to Freud have enough psychic 2. Ego - based on the reality principle.
energy to impose its control on the 3. Superego - primarily dependent on
person’s consciousness, kept and learning the difference between right &
manifested as some form of wrong. Morality of actions is largely
psychopathology. (hysteria) dependent on childhood upbringing
- Made use of methods like free particularly on rewards and
association and dream analysis. punishments.
STRUCTURE OF THE MIND - In his 1920s book “Beyond the Pleasure
Principle”, it presented 2 kinds of
instincts.
- Eros - life instinct. The energy or eros is
called libido and includes urges
necessary for survival such as thirst,
hunger and sex.
- Thanatos - death instinct. There are
cases where man’s behavior is directed
towards destruction in the form of
aggression and violence which are
manifestations of thanatos.
GILBERT RYLE (1900 - 1976) MERLEAU-PONTY’S VIEW OF NATURE AND
- English philosopher whose ideas THE SELF
contradicted cartesian dualism. - Developed the concept of body subject
RYLE’S VIEW OF HUMAN NATURE & and contended that perceptions occur
KNOWLEDGE existentially.
- He thought that freewill was invented - The consciousness ,the world and the
to answer the question of whether an human body are all interconnected as
action deserves praise or blame. they mutually perceive the world.
- He agrees with Kant that freewill - All knowledge is perceived through the
involves a moral responsibility which body with all its sensory functions
further assumes that man’s actions which take place in the here and now.
must be moral for it to be free. - “The Phenomenology of Perception”
PATRICIA & PAUL CHURHCLAND (1945) describes the nature of man’s
- Paul, a Canadian philosopher born on perceptual contact with the world.
Oct. 21, 1942 was dissatisfied with the Consciousness is a process that
particular approach of philosophers and includes sensing as well as
instead sought to guide scientific interpreting/reasoning.
theorizing with philosophy and guide
philosophy with scientific inquiry.
Lesson 2: From the Perspective of
- Patricia Churchland born on July 16,
1943 is a Canadian-American Sociology
philosopher known for her claims that
Sociology - is one of the social sciences which
man’s brain is responsible for the
aims to discover the ways by which the social
identity known as the self. The
surrounding/environment influences people’s
biochemical properties of the brain
thoughts, feelings and behavior.
according to the philosophy of
neuroscience is really responsible for
George Herbert Mead was born February
man’s thoughts, feelings and behavior.
1863 in Massachusetts
CHURCHLAND’S VIEW OF HUMAN NATURE
Mead’s Social Self
- It seems that what and who the person
- Social behaviorism is the approach
is, how he makes decisions, controls
George Mead used to describe the
impulses and how he sees himself is
power of the environment in shaping
largely determined by his neurons,
human behavior.
hormones and overall genetic make-up.
- He described the self as ‘dimension of
MAURICE MERLEAU-PONTY (1908-1961)
personality that is made-up of the
- French phenomenological philosopher.
individual’s self-awareness and
At the center of his philosophy is the
self-image’,
emphasis placed on the human body as
- The self cannot be separated from the
the primary site of knowing the world.
society.
THE PREPARATORY STAGE world. They see themselves as the
- Self did not exist at birth but instead center of their ‘universe’.
developed over time. - They begin to see other people and are
- Its development is dependent on social now concerned about people’s reaction.
interaction and social experience. - People around him especially the family
- Children’s behavior is primarily based plays a major role in the formation of
on imitation. They imitate behaviors of the self.
those around them. THE I AND ME
- As they grow, they become more - The person’s capacity to see the self
familiar with symbols non verbal or through others implies that the self is
verbal that people use to interact. composed of 2 parts:
THE PLAY STAGE 1. I self - when the person initiates or
- Skills at knowing and understanding performs a social action, the self
the symbols of communication is functions as a subject. This subjective
important for this constitutes the basis element of the self is the I.
for socialization. 2. Me self - when the person takes the
- Children begin to roleplay and pretend role of the other, the self functions as
to be other people. an object. The objective element of the
- It's a stage where a child widens their self is Me .
perspective and realizes that they are
not alone and there are other presences OTHER SOCIOLOGICAL APPROACHES TO
he has to consider. UNDERSTANDING THE SELF
THE GAME STAGE Charles Horton Cooley (1864 - 1929) - an
- The child is about 8-9 yrs. Old. American sociologist who made use of the socio
- Children begin to consider several tasks psychological approach to understanding how
and various types of relationships societies work. “Human Nature and the Social
simultaneously. Order” (1902) discussed the formation of the
- Start to see the others’ perspective and self through interaction,
have the ability to respond to several - In his 3 phases, he made use of the
members of his social environment. word imagine. It may mean that there is
a possibility that people develop
self-identities based on the wrong
perception of how others see them.
I am not what I think I am
I am not what YOU think I am
I am what YOU think I am.
Erving Goffman (1922 - 1982) -
Canadian-American sociologist known for his
roles in the development of “Modern American
MEAD’S THEORY OF THE SELF
Sociology” “The Presentation of the Self in
- The self is not present at birth but
Everyday Life”. He wrote that people in their
begins as a central character in a child’s
social interactions learned to slant their - Homo sapiens didn’t go extinct and
presentation of themselves in order to create instead adapted and gained dominance
preferred appearances and satisfy others. over all of earth’s creatures.
- Impression Management - the process 2. Biological Anthropology - focuses
of altering how the person presents primarily on how the human body
himself to others. adapts to different earth environments.
- Sees similarities of real social They look at probable causes of
interaction to a theatrical presentation diseases, mutation and death.
which is the reason for his - They do comparative studies on human
“dramaturgical approach” to his view. beings both dead & living and other

Lesson 3: The Self from the

primates.
3. Linguistic Anthropology - focuses on
Perspective of Anthropology using language as a means to discover
a group's manner of social interaction
Anthropology - a field of the social sciences
and their worldview. They want to
that focuses on the study of man and the
discover how language is used to create
totality of what it means to be human. The field
and share meanings, form ideas and
looks into the physical/biological characteristics,
concepts to promote social change.
social relationships and influences of his culture
- They also study how language and
from the dawn of civilization up to present.
modes of communication change over
time. From the story, “Tower of Babel”
4 Subfields of Anthropology:
which provided an alternate view on
1. Archeology
how language originated, it can be
2. Biological Anthropology
attested that through the centuries,
3. Linguistics
man had been searching for ways in
4. Cultural Anthropology
order for people to understand one
These suggest that human beings are similar
another.
yet different at the same time. These similarities
4. Cultural Anthropology - interested in
and diversities are what makes life so
knowing what makes one group's
interesting. They’ll know the information that
manner of living particular to that group
makes him similar and the different
and forms an essential identity.
characteristics that sets him apart.
- An individual is a product of culture.
- Theory of Cultural Determinism - the
THE FIELDS OF ANTHROPOLOGY
contention that culture has a strong
1. Archaeology - a scientist who studies
impact on how the individual views
artifacts in order to discover how these
himself. Human nature is determined by
people lived. Archaeologists focus is the
the ideas, meanings, beliefs, and values
past and how it may have contributed
learned as a member of society.
to the present ways of how people
- On the positive side, the theory
conduct their daily lives.
suggests that humans can be shaped to
have the kind of life they prefer but, it
 can also mean that they have no control ME self as the empirical ME and the I self as the
over what they learn. Pure Ego/thinking self. The ME self is further
Values - considered to be the core of every divided into 3 components namely:
culture. They are unconscious and can neither 1. Material Self - consists of the things or
be discussed nor be directly observed but can objects that belong to the person or entities
only be inferred from the way people act and that a person belongs to. Ex. their own body,
react to situations. books, money, family etc.
- Involves human tendencies/preferences 2. The Social Self - refers to who the person is
towards good or bad, right or wrong. in a particular social situation. Changes in
- behavior usually result from the different social

Lesson 4: The Self from the

situations the person finds himself in .
3. Spiritual Self - refers to the self that is more
Perspective of Psychology concrete or permanent when compared to the
material and social selves This self is the most
Psychology - field of the social sciences that
subjective and intimate part of the self. It
deals with the description, explanation,
always engages in the process of
prediction and control of behavior. It assumed
“introspection” (self-observation) which is a
the existence of the states of consciousness in
method that includes reflecting or looking
humans. It further believes that the world of
inward to study and understand the how and
material things including people, exist
why of the self.
independently of the perceiving human mind.
Nature-Nurture Controversy - experts in the
The “I” self or Pure Ego - is similar to the
field have sought for ways to best explain the
person’s soul or mind. It is considered to be
causes of human behavior only to discover that
on-substance, the “I” self cannot be studied
both nature and nurture influence behavior,
objectively. It takes into account the past, the
each one to a greater lesser degree.
present and future selves of the individual.
WILLIAM JAMES (THE ME AND THE I)
He concluded that human thoughts have 5
GLOBAL & DIFFERENTIATED SELF MODELS
characteristics:
- Represents the overall value that a
1. All human thoughts are owned by some
person places upon himself. The global
personal self.
self is the product of all experiences
2. All thoughts are constantly changing or are
that he had in the society which
never static.
accounts for the kind of person he really
3. There is a continuity of thoughts as its focus
is.
shifts from one object to another.
Murray Bowen (1913 - 1990) - an American
4. Thoughts deal with objects that are different
Psychiatrist and Professor was among those
from and independent of consciousness itself.
who developed the “Family Therapy” and
5. Consciousness can focus on particular objects
“Systematic Therapy.”
and not others.
Differentiated Self - in this theory, he observed parts of the self may manifest themselves when
that there are 2 forces affecting the person; the situation calls for it.
togetherness and individuality. TRUE & FALSE SELVES
- A different self has the ability to D.W. Winnicott (1896 - 1971) - an English
separate feelings & thoughts. pediatrician and psychoanalyst studied child
REAL & IDEAL SELF-CONCEPTS development.
Carl Rogers (1902 - 1987) - an American True Self - is the individual who knows their
psychologist proposed the personality theory strengths and limitations, enjoys winning and
known as the “Person-Centered Theory.” He success and learns from mistakes and failures.
stated that “self-concept” is used to refer to False Self - can be manifested as a form of
how a person thinks of themselves. There are 2 defense. Lacks spontaneity, is dead and empty.
types of self-concept; real self-concept and It is a mask that hides the true person’s fear of
ideal self-concept. pain and rejection and failure.
Real Self-Concept - refers to all information THE SELF AS PROACTIVE AND AGENTIC
and perception the person has about himself. Albert Bnadura (1925 - present) - the
“Who am I?” This idealized view was born out proponent of the personality theory;
of his experiences, standards and demands of The Social Cognitive Theory - it is where the
society and the heroes and models which he person is seen as proactive and agentic which
chooses to imitate. means that he has the capacity to exercise
Ideal Self-Concept - what the person aims for control over his life.
himself to be. “Who do I want to be?” Triadic Reciprocal Causation Paradigm -
- There should be “congruence” explains further how human beings are affected
(sameness) between the real and ideal by the interaction among environmental events,
self in order to be happy and satisfied behavior and personal factors.
with life. - The basic principle involved in human
- If the real self is very different from the learning is learning through
ideal self then the person will observation. Human nature is plastic
experience dissatisfaction and will see and flexible.
himself as a loser. - The Social Cognitive Theory suggested
Self-Discrepancy Theory of Higgins 1987 - that human beings are proactive,
people used internalized standards to which self-regulating, self-reflective, and
they compare themselves. These are called self-organizing.
“self-guides” which provide directions for how FEATURES OF HUMAN AGENCY
the person should present himself. It may cause 1. Intentionality - refers to the actions
emotional discomfort to the individual and can performed by the person intentionally or with
be manifested as guilt or indifference. full awareness of his behavior.
MULTIPLE & UNIFIED SELVES 2. Forethought - a person’s anticipation of likely
Multiple Selves Theory - there exists in the outcomes of his behavior.
individual different aspects of the self. The self 3. Self-reactiveness - the process in which the
is a whole made up of different parts. These person is motivated and regulates his behavior
as he observes progress in achieving his goals.
4. Self-reflectiveness - how the person looks Ren - can be understood as human goodness. It
inward and evaluating his motivations, values, is what makes humans different from beasts. It
life goals and other people’s effect on him. involves feelings and thinking which serves as

Lesson 5: The Self in Western &

the foundation of all human relationships.
Li (Propriety) - in order to guide human actions,
Eastern Thought rules of propriety should be followed. Such
rules involve adherence to the rituals of the
Individualistic Self - through the process of
community. These are the customs, ceremonies
introspection and reflection, man begins to
and traditions that form the basis of “li” which
search for clues as to the probable purpose of
persisted and was strengthened by human
existence and the role he plays.
practice through generations.
- The development of an individualistic
“To master oneself and return to propriety is
self begins after birth and is observed in
humanity”
the child-rearing practices of parents in
Xiao (Filiality) - the virtue of reverence and
the West.
respect for family. Parents should be revered for
- Offsprings reaching 18 years of age are
the life they have given. Reverence for parents
expected to move out and explore their
is further shown by bringing honor to the family,
individual freedom.
making something of himself to earn the
Collective Self - in the cultures of the East, the
respect of others.
development of a collective self is ingrained into
Yi (Rightness) - the right way of behaving. It is
an individual and is lost and does not exist
unconditional and absolute. Right is right and
except as a part of the group. The family and
what is not right is wrong. Obedience to
the society control how the group members
parents, for instance, is expected of children
should think, act.
because it is morally right and obligatory to do
THE SELF IN WESTERN THOUGHT
so.
Recently, the West introduced the “ecological
“Do not do to others what you want them to do
self” which sees the self as a process that is
to you.”
undergoing development. Human biological and
environmental characteristics like race, gender,
social status, education, and culture are factors
that influence self-development.
THE SELF IN CONFUCIAN THOUGHT
Confucius was the name for which Kong
Zhongni of China was known in the West, born
in the Zhou Dynasty in 551 BCE in the small
state of Lu. He came to be known as “Master
Kong” and as a “Great Sage and Teacher.”

The philosophical concept of Confucianism is

centered on the “ren” which can be manifested
through the “li” (propriety), “xiao” (filiality) and
“yi” (rightness).