EXPERIMENT NO: 1

1. Title: Torsion Test of Solid Circular Shafts

2. Objective:
a. To investigate the relationship between the torque and the angle of twist for solid
circular shafts of various metals.
b. To determine the shear modulus (modulus of rigidity) of various metals from the
torque-angle of twist data.
c. To determine the maximum shear stress at the elastic limit and at failure.

3. Introduction:
Torsionally loaded bars occur frequently in industrial applications such as shafts connecting
motor–pump and motor–generator sets; propeller shafts in automobiles, airplanes, helicopters,
and ships; and torsion bars in automobile suspension systems. Many tools or tool components,
such as screwdrivers and drill and router bits, possess a dominant torsional component.
Torsion tests aim to measure the shear modulus (G) of a material. Although torsion testing is not
common, it is a useful experiment and an important partner for tensile testing in determining the
mechanical properties of a material.
Torque is a moment that tends to twist a member about its longitudinal axis. To design or
analyze a shaft, the torque that it is to transmit is required which can be calculated from the
relationship between power, angular speed and torque.
The test machine applies a uniformly increasing torque to the specimen till fracture at a specific
angular speeds and the amount of strain is measured as an angle through which the specimen has
turned. Machine has got a LC display which indicates the value of applied torque and the
corresponding angle of twist of the specimen.

4. Apparatus, Equipment and Materials Required:

a. A torsion test machine
[Link] unit with geared motor.
[Link] rod of mild steel or cast iron, aluminum, brass
[Link] rod holder (commercially available ¾" socket).

1|By: Asst. Prof. Sunil Adhikari

 [Link] on guide rails, can be set up rapidly, with torque measuring device.
[Link] resistant base plate.
[Link] protective cover.
b. Steel rule
c. Vernier caliper or a micrometer
d. Lab manual and other stationeries (Calculator, graph papers, copy, pencil)
e. Other requirements: Electrical Power Supply : 240VAC/1-phase/50Hz

Figure: Torsion Testing Machine with Specimen

5. Theory:
When a shaft is subjected to torque it undergoes torsional deformation characterized by the angle
of twist. The relation between the angle of twist (∅) and the torque (T) is a measure of the
torsional stiffness, and the shear modulus of material (G) can be found from this relation.
Relations for the engineering strain.
∅
[since for small strains tan 𝛾 ≈ 𝛾 ]

where 𝜌 is the radius at which the square

element is taken and L is the length of the
shaft.

2|By: Asst. Prof. Sunil Adhikari

Shear stress is related to shear strain by,

𝜏 = 𝐺 𝛾;

Where J is the polar moment of inertia.

So,for a solid circular shaft, 𝐽= where 𝑑 = 2 𝑟

Another useful relation for angle of twist is; ∅=

6. Description of the Test Machine:

The unit is used for torsional testing of different materials to fracture. Test moment and angle of
twist are measured. Bars of different length and diameter are used as specimens. The moment is
applied using a reduction geared motor that provides four different drive speeds via the
frequency converter. A strain gauge measuring shaft provides the moment as an electrical signal,
the angle of twist is recorded by an optoelectronic angular encoder. Both values are displayed on
a LC display. The moment is transmitted to the test bars using commercially available hexagonal
sockets. For adaptation to different length probes, the dolly can be slid. The base plate is
reinforced against twisting with square sections. A transparent plastic cover provides protection
against flying debris on fracture.

3|By: Asst. Prof. Sunil Adhikari

Machine and Specimen Specification:
Max. test moment : 200Nm
Test speeds : 50, 100, 200, 500 rpm
Specimen length : max. 300 mm
Specimen holder : hexagonal socket 19 mm A/F
Strain gauge torque measurement : upto 199.9 N-m
Absolute angle encoder, optoelectronic
- measuring range : upto 3200°
- resolution : 0.1°
PC interface : RS232
Frequency converter with 4 fixed speeds
Motor output : 0.12 kW

7. Precautions:
a. Remember to use emergency stop button when required.
b. Check whether emergency stop button is at OFF position before starting the machine.
c. The specimen should be prepared in proper dimensions.
d. Select the suitable rod holder sockets to suit the size of the specimen.
e. The specimen should be properly placed to get between the holder sockets and
remember to clamp the dolly tight on guide rails.
f. No attempt should be made to remove a specimen when under load.
g. Take reading accurately as possible.
h. Continue operating the machine till fracture of the specimen.
i. After the completion of experiment, do not forget to switch OFF the main supply

4|By: Asst. Prof. Sunil Adhikari

8. Experimental Procedure:

1. Measure the effective length of the given test rod using vernier caliper or steel rule.
2. Measure the diameter at about three places using vernier caliper or micrometer and take
the average value.
3. Fixed the test rod into the sockets by sliding the dolly on guide rails.
4. Close the protection plastic cover.
5. Make sure that the ON/OFF switch and emergency stop button both are at off position.
6. Switch on the main supply of the machine.
7. Choose the direction and speed of rotation by operating selector switches front on the
drive unit.
8. Switch on the machine and set the null value of torque and angle of twist pressing ‘tar’
button.
9. From LC display panel, note down the applied torque and angle of twist in every 20° till
fracture of the test rod.
10. Stop the machine.
11. Take tested rod out of the machine.
9. Calculation and Observation Table:
a. Total length :
b. Effective length :
c. Diameter of specimen : (take average of three readings)

S.N. Torque (N. m) Angle of twist (∅) Angle of twist (∅) Shear strain Shear stress (τ)
(in degree) (in radian) (𝛾) (N/m2)

5|By: Asst. Prof. Sunil Adhikari

10. Result Analysis:
a. Plot curves of torque vs. angle of twist for all specimens on a single graph. Also plot
shear stress versus shear strain diagram.
b. Determine the modulus of rigidity (shear modulus) for each specimen.
11. Conclusion:
a. Calculate the torsional modulus of rupture for each specimen.
b. Calculate the proportional limit shear stress for each specimen.
c. Validate the result calculating the percentage error with the standard value.

*** *** ***

6|By: Asst. Prof. Sunil Adhikari

 EXPERIMENT NO: 2

1. Title: Buckling of Columns

2. Objective:
a. To study the elastic deformation by buckling of columns by plotting axial load-
transverse deflection curve for various loading conditions.
b. To find the crippling load and the effect of various end conditions and eccentricities
on loading of column.
c. To examine the Euler theory of buckling.
3. Introduction:
The collapse of column supporting stands in a stadium or the roof of a building usually draws
large headlines and cries of engineering negligence. In technical mechanics, loss of stability is
known as buckling. Under the effects of compressive forces, and under increasing load, the axis
of the bar deflects laterally until it suddenly and violently fails (collapses), even before the
fracture point is reached. The stresses in the bar often remain within the elastic range during this
process. Some of the examples where buckling plays an important role in engineering are:
- Columns and supports in construction and steel engineering.
- Stop rods for valve actuation and connecting rods in motor construction.
- Piston rods for hydraulic cylinders.
- Lifting spindles in lifting gear etc.
The more that is known about buckling failure the lower can be the safety factor used in design
and the more economical structures become. Experiments of column would demonstrate various
influences, such as bar lengths, materials and methods of support on buckling phenomena.

4. Apparatus, Equipment and Materials Required:

a. Experimental unit
i. HST1 frame
ii. Loading arm with load tray
iii. Deflection measuring equipment (dial gauge or steel ruler)
iv. Restraint beam

7|By: Asst. Prof. Sunil Adhikari

 b. Column specimen
c. Set of weights
d. Vernier caliper
e. Measuring tape
f. Laboratory manual
g. Stationeries (Calculator, graph papers, copy, pencil)

5. Theory:
A compression member where length is considerably greater than the least radius of gyration of
the cross-section is called a strut or column.
The majority of columns in structural steel or aluminum alloy design are liable to fail by
buckling. In practical contest a strut may bend under the action of a lateral loading due to its
lack of straightness, lack of homogeneity of materials, the eccentricity of load applied etc. Even
though a strut does not possess above three factors i.e. in ideal condition, strut has tendency to go
through bending above a certain critical value, i.e. crippling load. Euler’s theory is based on the
ideal condition of a strut.
Euler’s formula is used for calculating the critical load for a column or struts and is as follows:

Where 𝑃 = critical load

𝐸 = modulus of elasticity
𝐼 = least moment of inertia of the section of the column
𝑙 = effective length of the strut
A column of given length, cross-section and material will have different values of crippling loads
for different end conditions, the various value of equivalent length of the strut varies with the end
conditions and influence the crippling load for all given conditions. The different cases for end-
conditions are as follows:

8|By: Asst. Prof. Sunil Adhikari

 Figure: Effective length of column for various end conditions.
The basic difference between the theoretical and experimental approach to the testing of struts
lies in the fact that in the theoretical approach the natural concern is with the stresses induced in
the strut when subjected to load, whilst in the experimental approach it is to observe and measure
deflection.
The above difference is further complicated because, theoretically, a strut will remain straight
until the Euler crippling load is reached. In practice the strut invariably deflects during loading
and one has to use the fact that at some point the deflection becomes large as the load reaches a
certain constant value. But if the strut is to be re-useable the yield stress most not exceeded. In
this case the maximum experimental load must always be less than the Euler crippling load.

6. Description of testing machine:

Using an HST1 frame a compression testing machine is constructed where the bottom of the
column or strut is supported near the lower right corner and load is applied by a lever
mechanism, built off the upper member, to the top of the strut. A horizontal deflection scale
(steel ruler) can be fixed on the frame at any height up the strut, to show the movement of an
indicator clamped on the strut.

9|By: Asst. Prof. Sunil Adhikari

 Figure: Column buckling Module

In addition to a knife edge at the base of the strut, there are two brackets which can vertically
restrain a horizontal beam rigidly attached to the bottom of the test strut. This enables a range of
conditions of rotational end restraint to be imposed at the bottom end of the strut.

Both ends of the strut are fitted with transverse plates which permit the vertical load to be
applied at different eccentricities to the axis of the strut. In addition the top end of the strut can
be held by a knife edge for pin ended work or a clamping block for simulating a fixed end. To
prevent total collapse of the strut as it buckles a stop bracket holds the load on the lever after a
pre-determinable vertical movement. The struts are, in fact, made of high strength steel so that
they remain in the partially buckled configuration. This is an experimental compromise to
permit continual re-use of the struts.

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Specimen Specification:
 Material : High Strength Steel (205 GPa), Aluminium (E about 1/3 E for steel), a
plastic (E about 1/80 E for steel)
 Length (L) : 590 mm
 Breath (b) : 25.4 mm
 Thickness (t) : 1.58 mm

7. Precautions:
a. Make careful measurements of the column dimensions.
b. Check that the lower knife-edge is located directly beneath the upper knife-edge by
measuring the distances from these boundaries to the right hand side of the frame.
c. Use a tiny 2 N weight on the hanger (load tray) to keep the beam-column in place
during assembly.
d. Weights should be handled carefully as it could spill off the hanger while loading.
e. Weights for loading must always be applied gently. A load suddenly added will
instantaneously apply twice its static value.
f. Never deflect more than max. 6 mm, since there is a risk or plastic deformation and
damage to the rod specimen.
g. Read the deflection reading of strut accurately as possible.
h. After the completion of experiment, keep the strut free of load by removing it from
loading mechanism.

8. Experimental Procedure:
Part I: Strut with one end pinned and the other fixed:
a. Measure the length ‘L’ of the struts and the cross dimensions so that I can be
calculated.
b. Add the restraining bar to the base of the strut and set up the strut with the two
restraining brackets close to each other.
c. The top of the strut is held by the upper knife edge.
d. Set up the strut between knife edges at zero eccentricity and set the deflection scale at
210 mm from the top.

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 e. Check that the counterpoise weight on the load arm exactly balances the arm and its
load hanger.
f. Adjust the deflection scale to read zero.
g. Apply load in increments of 10 N at first, recording the deflections in observation
table.
h. As the deflection is seen to increase more rapidly per increment decrease the added
loads to 5 N and then 2 N and 1 N.
i. Finally try to establish that load at which the strut collapses.
j. Repeat the procedure with the strut loaded at two different eccentricities, say 3 and 6
mm.
Part II: Fixed end strut:
a. Measure the length ‘L’ of the struts and the cross dimensions so that I can be
calculated.
b. Add the restraining bar to the base of the strut and set up the strut with the two
restraining brackets close to each other.
c. The apparatus is set up by removing the knife edge support on the loading arm and
putting the top clamp in its place.
d. The deflection scale is fixed at mid-height.
e. Check that the counterpoise weight on the load arm exactly balances the arm and its
load hanger.
f. Adjust the deflection scale to read zero.
g. Apply load in increments of 20 N at first, recording the deflections in observation
table.
h. As the deflection is seen to increase more rapidly per increment decrease the added
loads to 10 N and then 5 N and 2 N.
i. Finally try to establish that load at which the strut collapses.
j. Repeat the procedure with the strut loaded at two different eccentricities, say 3 and 6
mm.

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9. Calculation and Observation Table:

e = 0 mm e = 3 mm e = 6 mm
Load Deflection Load Deflection Load Deflection
(N) (mm) (N) (mm) (N) (mm)

Load P Deflection (S) S/P

(N) (mm) (mm/N)

10. Result Analysis:

a. Plot the graph for crippling load (P) vs. deflection (S) showing the curve for different
end conditions.
b. Plot the graph for crippling load (P) vs. deflection (S) showing the curve for different
load eccentricities.
c. Plot the graph for S (mm) vs. S/P (mm/N) for different end conditions and for
different load eccentricities.

11. Discussion and Conclusion:

a. Compare how the different end conditions resisted buckling in the columns. What
applications, in real life, could of these different columns be used for?
b. There might be some unusual behavior in the displacement vs. load graphs, such as
sudden dips, spikes or slow reactions to loading. Isolate these instances and explain
technically why they exist and would they affect the results of the experiment.

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 c. What is meant by the “critical” load? Calculate its theoretical and experimental value
for various end conditions and eccentricities.
d. Explain why the displacement control instead of the load control has been used in this
experiment.
e. Identify and discuss at least three factors that may make the buckling experiments
less accurate.
f. How reliable was this test based on the obtained results (in general, engineering tests
are deemed reliable if they have less than 10% errors)?
g. In your opinion, as an engineering student, is this a sensitive experiment (i.e. do small
variations in input variables result in large differences in output)? Explain in proper
engineering terms, using equations, analysis and results educated to back up your
comments.
.

*** *** ***

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 EXPERIMENT NO: 3

1. Title: Deflection of Beams

2. Objective:
a. To observe and determine the load-deflection relationship of beams under various
loads, supports, material conditions and cross-sections.
b. To determine the modulus of elasticity and flexural rigidity of the beam using beam
deflection theory.
c. To verify the theory of pure bending and static equilibrium.
3. Introduction:
Beams have been used since dim antiquity to support loads over empty space, as roof beams
supported by thick columns, or as bridges thrown across water, for example. These beams are
structural members that are only loaded non-axially (transversely) causing them to be subjected
to bending. “A piece is said to be in bending if the forces act on a piece of material in such a way
that they tend to induce compressive stresses over one part of a cross section of the piece and
tensile stresses over the remaining part”
The deflections of a beam caused by bending are an engineering concern as they can create an
unstable structure if they are large. People don’t want to work in a building in which the floor
beams deflect an excessive amount, even though it may be in no danger of failing. Consequently,
limits are often placed upon the allowable deflections of a beam, as well as upon the stresses.
If a beam is supported at two points, and a load is applied anywhere on the beam, the resulting
deformation can be mathematically estimated. But, the actual results experienced varied
substantially when compared against the theoretical values. This experimentation explains how
the theoretical and actual values were determined, as well as suggestions for improving upon the
experiment. The percent error should be calculated so as to validate the experimental results.

4. Apparatus, Equipment and Materials Required:

a. Beam apparatus – SM104
b. Test beams: Steel / Brass / Aluminum
c. Dial gauges
d. Load cells

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 e. Weights: 5 N, 10 N, 20 N
f. Weight hangers
g. Measuring scale
h. Vernier caliper
i. Lab manual
j. Stationeries (Calculator, graph papers, copy, pencil)

5. Theory:
The theory of pure bending of a beam shows that when a beam is loaded in such a way that it
bends only in the plane of the applied moment, the stress distribution and curvature of the beam
are related by
𝑀 𝜎 𝐸
= =
𝐼 𝑦 𝑅
Where M is the bending moment (N.m)
I is the moment of inertia of the cross-section of the beam.(m 4)
E is the Young’s modulus of Elasticity.(N/m 2)
R is the radius of curvature (m)
σ is the bending stress at distance y from the neutral axis (N/m2)
A beam that is initially straight will deflect under load and assume a curve in bending. The
curvature of the beam (1/R) will be given well enough by the second derivative of the deflection
curve z(x) of the beam. Thus from the theory of pure bending (with z positive upward
deflection),

𝑑 𝑧 𝑀
=
𝑑𝑥 𝐸𝐼

If M = M(x) and E, I are constant, this equation is very easily integrated to give z(x).

𝑊𝐿
𝑧(𝑥) = 𝑎
𝐸𝐼

where W is concentrated load applied to the beam of length span L and

a is a constant whose value depends upon the type of loading and supports.

a. Simply-supported beam with concentrated loads:

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Referring to the loading in figure 1, the left hand support reaction R 1 is first required and the
reactions can be found from the equations of force and moment equilibrium.
𝑅 +𝑅 =𝑊 +𝑊
𝑙 𝑙
𝑅 ×𝑙 =𝑊 +𝑎 +𝑊 +𝑏
2 2
Therefore,

𝑅 = (𝑊 + 𝑊 ) + 𝑊 −𝑊 ………… 1

And,

𝑅 = (𝑊 + 𝑊 ) − 𝑊 +𝑊 …………. 2

Figure 1: Supports reaction of the simply-supported beam with concentrated loads

The deflection will be maximum at mid span of a simply supported beam with concentrated
loads as shown in figure 1.
Theoritically,

If 𝑊 = 𝑊 = 𝑊 and 𝑎 = 𝑏 = ,

b. Deflection of cantilever beam with concentrated load:

A cantilever beam is that whose one end is fixed and other end is free. The deflection will be
maximum under the load when loaded at the free end of the cantilever beam.

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 Figure 2: Cantilever beam with a concentrated load at the free end
Referring to the loading in figure 2, Theoritically,
𝑊𝐿
𝑧 =
3𝐸𝐼
If EI and L are maintained constant then, 𝑧 = 𝐾 𝑊
If EI and W are maintained constant then, 𝑧 = 𝐾 𝐿
Where 𝐾 and 𝐾 are constants.

6. Description of testing machine:

The SM104 Beam Apparatus (Figure 6) has many features which extend the range of
experiments to cover virtually all coursework requirements relating to the bending of beams. The
basic unit provides facilities for supporting beams on simple, built in and sinking supports;
applying point loads, and measuring support reactions and beam deflections.

The main frame of the apparatus consists of an upper cross member carrying graduated scales
and two lower members bolted to tee-legs to form a rigid assembly. The load cells and cantilever
support pillar slide along the lower members and can be clamped firmly in any position. The
load cells are direct readings and each is fitted with a hardened steel knife edge which can be
adjusted by a thumb nut to set the initial level or to simulate a sinking support. A lead screw in

18 | B y : A s s t . P r o f . S u n i l A d h i k a r i
the base of each load cell can be screwed upwards to support the knife edge and thus convert it to
a rigid support when required.
The cantilever support consists of a rigid pillar with a sturdy clamping arrangement to hold the
beams when built-in end conditions are required. Weight hangers and a set of cast iron weights
are supplied for applying static loads. All beam deflections are measured by dial gauge mounted
on magnetic carriers which slide along the upper cross member. The dial gauge carriers, load
cells and weight hangers are all fitted with cursors which register on the scale located on the
upper cross member, thus ensuring easy, accurate positioning.
Specimen specification:
• 3 steel: 3 mm, 4.5 mm and 6.4 mm thick (nominal), Esteel =207 GN/ m2
• 1 brass: 6.4 mm thick (nominal)
• 1 aluminium: 6.4 mm thick (nominal)
All beams are of nominal dimensions 19 mm wide x 1340 mm long

7. Precautions:
a. Apply the loads without any jerk.
b. Gently tap the dial gauge before observing the readings and gauge should be viewed
exactly perpendicular to the ruler to avoid parallax error.
c. The load applied should be within the allowed limits for the apparatus so refer with
the instructor.
d. Make sure that beam and load are placed at a proper position.
e. The cross-section of the beam should not be too small as it can deflect large.
f. Note down the readings of the vernier scale carefully.
g. Small weights should be used for thin beams with low value of modulus of elasticity
as the bending should be within the elastic range.
h. Do not let the load handers touch the ground.
i. Ensure that the supports are rigid.
j. Perform the experiment at a location, which is away from any external disturbance.

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8. Experimental Procedure:
Part I: Simply-supported beam with concentrated loads:
a. Choose a suitable reading on the upper scale of the apparatus for the mid-span of the
beam.
b. Set up one of the load cells so that it is 1/4 span to the left of the marker chosen in
step 1. (Do not forget to take account of any offset in the position cursor).
c. Set up the second load cell 1/4 span to the right of mid-span reading. Lock the knife
edge.
d. Place the beam in position with1/4 span overhang at either side.
e. Place the hanger at mid span so that the loading point is on the center-line of the
beam.
f. Place a dial gauge in position on the upper cross member so that the ball end rests on
the center-line of the beam immediately above the left-hand support. Check that the
stem is vertical and the bottom O-ring has been moved down the stem. Adjust the dial
gauge to read zero and then lock the bezel in position. Move the dial gauge to a
position above the right-hand support, check that the beam is parallel to the cross-
member then adjust the height of the knife edge so that the dial gauge reads zero.
g. Place the dial gauge at mid-span so that the ball end of the plunger rests on the center
of the setscreen. Adjust the dial to read zero and lock the bezel.
h. Apply a load to the hanger and record the beam deflection on dial gauge.
i. Increase the load and record the new dial gauge reading (deflection). Do this at least
five times.
j. Decrease the load by the same steps as in 9 and record the beam deflection at each
step.
k. Repeat the experiment for all the beams.

Part II: Cantilever beam with concentrated loads:

a. Set up a load cell at a convenient position near to one side of the frame.
b. Set up the clamp to give a cantilever of convenient length.

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 c. Pass one end of the beam through the clamp and rest the other end on the load cell. (It
is convenient to lock the knife edge during assembly). Tighten the clamp and tie up
the free end of the beam using a short piece of string.
d. Place the dial gauge near to the clamp and set the zero. Move the dial gauge to the
free end of the cantilever, unlock the knife edge and adjust it so that the dial gauge
returns to zero. Set the pointer of the load cell to zero.
e. Adjust the knife edge upwards to give a convenient reading on the load cell. Record
the load and the dial gauge reading.
f. Adjust the knife edge upwards to give a number of load increments recording loads
and dial gauge readings.
g. Return the knife edge to its initial position; lock the knife edge; slacken the clamp and
move it to a new position (this is more convenient than moving the load cell).
h. Repeat the experiment for several lengths of cantilever.
i. Use the steel beams 3 mm, 4.5 mm and 6.4 mm thick to vary I.
j. Use the Aluminum, Brass and Steel beams 6 mm thick to varying E value.

9. Calculation and Observation Table:

Part I: Simply-supported beam with concentrated loads:
i. Length of beam (L) : …………. m
ii. Width of beam (b) : …………. m
iii. Thickness of beam (h) : ………… m
iv. Working length of beam (l) : …………. M

𝑊 (N) 𝑊 (N) 𝑅 (N) 𝑅 (N) 𝑊 + 𝑊 (N) 𝑅 + 𝑅 (N)

5 5
10 10
15 15
25 25
30 30

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 Maximum Deflection of steel beam, z (mm)
Load, W
h = 3 mm h = 4.5 mm h = 6.4 mm

5
10
15
20
25
30

Part II: Cantilever beam with concentrated loads:

Length (mm) 200 400 600

Load, W (N) Deflection, z (mm)
2
4
6
8
10

10. Result Analysis:

Part I: Simply-supported beam with concentrated loads:
a. Plot the graphs of 𝑅 and 𝑅 against 𝑊 = 𝑊 = 5 N, 10 N, … 30 N.
b. Plot the graphs of 𝑅 + 𝑅 against 𝑊 + 𝑊
c. Plot the graphs of maximum deflection (z) against W for different beam thickness.

Part II: Cantilever beam with concentrated loads:

a. Plot graphs of z against W for each length of beam.
b. Plot graphs of z against L3 for each load.

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11. Discussion and Conclusion:
a. Discuss the verification of equation 1 and equation 2. Discuss the obtained graph
from the experiment and compare it with the theoretical graph.
b. How would you calculate and use the occurred errors? Discuss the factors that can be
affected to the experimental results. Give the overall conclusion based on the
experimental results.
c. What is meant by the “stiffness” of a beam? How would you calculate the young’s
modulus of the beam? Calculate its theoretical and experimental value of simply-
supported beams for different beam thickness.
d. Explain why beam is placed in position with1/4 span overhang at either side?
e. Identify and discuss the possible sources of inaccuracies in the experiments.
f. What will happen to the deflection as the span of the beam is increased? Define the
nature of curves and compare with the theoretical one?
g. What does this experiment tell us about the use of beams in structural applications?
Give your engineering point of view.

*** *** ***

23 | B y : A s s t . P r o f . S u n i l A d h i k a r i
24 | B y : A s s t . P r o f . S u n i l A d h i k a r i
 EXPERIMENT NO: 4

1. Title: The Thin-Wall Cylinder

2. Objective:
a. To learn the effect of pressure on thin wall cylinders in developing principal stresses
for open end and closed end conditions.
b. To determine the circumferential (hoop) and longitudinal strains developed in the
wall of the cylinder for open end and closed end conditions.
3. Introduction:

In order to meet with several requirements, the fluids are stored under pressure in pressure
vessels or shells and transported from one place to the other through pipes. Both spherical and
cylindrical forms of vessels are used for storing fluid under pressure e.g. steam boilers, air
compressors, tanks etc.

In relation to stress analysis, cylinders are divided into two groups: thick and thin. The
distinction between the two relates to the ratio of internal diameter to wall thickness of a
particular cylinder. A cylinder with a diameter to thickness ratio of more than 20 is considered to
be thin. A ratio of less than 20 is considered to be thick. This distinction is made as the analysis
of a cylinder can be simplified by assuming it is thin.
Thin cylinders or shells are common place in engineering. Examples of thin walled cylinders are:
. Pressure pipes,
. Aircraft fuselages and
. Compressed gas containers
Thick walled cylinders are less common, an example being a gun barrel.
For a closed cylinder with an internal pressure there can be three direct stresses acting upon it.
. Longitudinal stress (𝜎 ): the cylinder’s resistance to stretching along its length (axis).
. Hoop or Circumferential stress (𝜎 ): the cylinder’s resistance to grow in diameter.
. Radial stress (𝜎 ): gas or fluid compressing the walls of the cylinder. It is equal to the pressure
on the inside and zero on the outside.

25 | B y : A s s t . P r o f . S u n i l A d h i k a r i
4. Apparatus, Equipment and Materials Required:
a. Thin walled cylinder apparatus with accessories:
i. Cylinder
ii. Mechanical pressure gauge
iii. Pump
iv. Pressure release valve
v. Strain gauges
vi. Direct hoop strain digital indicator
b. Hydraulic oil
c. Lab manuals and other stationaries (graph paper, ruler, pencil and eraser)
d. Other requirements: Electrical Power Supply : 240VAC/1-phase/50Hz

5. Theory:
The longitudinal stress and hoop stresses are directly proportional to the pressure and the ratio of
diameter to thickness of the cylinder. However the radial stress is related to the pressure alone.
Because of their relationship to the geometry, the longitudinal and hoop stresses are far greater
and more significant than the radial stress in a thin cylinder. It is reasonable and recognized to
assume that the radial stress is small enough for it to be ignored for basic calculations.
The individual direct stresses are given by:

×
𝜎 = (Nm ) ……………. (1)
×

×
𝜎 = (Nm ) ……………… (2)
×
Where:
P = Pressure in the cylinder (Nm-2)
d = Internal diameter of the cylinder (m)
t = Thickness of cylinder walls (m)

26 | B y : A s s t . P r o f . S u n i l A d h i k a r i
 Figure: Stresses in a thin walled cylinder

Nearly all applications of the thin cylinder will have closed ends with the biaxial stress system
described previously. However as outlined in the introduction; the equipment allows us to
examine the stresses in the cylinder with open ends i.e. with no direct longitudinal stress.
Although there is no practical application for a cylinder in this condition, the experiment yields
several useful relationships. We can use these relationships in the more complex closed ends
condition.

6. Description of the Apparatus:

Thin Cylinder with Open Ends:
A mechanical gauge is provided to measures the hydraulic pressure in the cylinder. The hoop
strain can be measured directly in digital value in the apparatus. The cylinder is held in a sturdy
frame in which it is free to move along its axis as shown in figure below.

27 | B y : A s s t . P r o f . S u n i l A d h i k a r i
"Open" ends is the condition where the axial loads are taken by the frame (not the cylinder),
therefore there is no development of direct longitudinal stress in the cylinder wall.
Specification:
a. Material of the thin wall cylinder : Aluminum alloy
b. Young’s modulus of the material (E) : 70 GNm-2
c. Poisson’s ratio of the material (µ) : 0.33
d. Internal diameter of the cylinder (d) : 72 mm
e. Thickness of the cylinder (t) : 3 mm
7. Precautions:
a. Do not exceed the cylinder pressure of 2 MN/m 2 (20 kg/cm2).
b. The apparatus should be placed always on a horizontal table.
c. Make sure that the pump contains sufficient hydraulic oil or not. If not, fill up.
d. Digital reading of the apparatus indicates hoop strain value thousand times magnified
and first 0 of the indicated strain value represent decimal (decimal dot) i.e. 019 means
.19*10-3.

28 | B y : A s s t . P r o f . S u n i l A d h i k a r i
 e. After the completion of experiment, loose the pressure release valve very slowly for a
while and again keep it tight for other time.
f. After the experiment is over, switch OFF the electrical supply.
8. Experimental Procedure:
a. First turn ON the main switch at the apparatus, LED on the front should illuminate.
b. Leave for 5 minutes to allow the gauges to warm up and reach a steady state.
c. Fully close the release valve on the pump if it is open.
d. Before any test being made, at zero pressure, the initial hoop stress readings should be
recorded.
e. Apply the pressure gradually by operating the lever of hydraulic pump observing the
pressure on the pressure gauge.
f. Take 4- 5 readings of hoop strain at different gauge pressure.
g. Open the release valve on the pump slowly; the pressure should fall to zero.
h. Remember again to full tight the pressure release valve before leaving out of the
experiment so as to prevent the leakage of oil.
i. After the experiment is over, switch OFF the electrical supply.

9. Observation Table:

Reading No. Pressure (P) [[Link]-2] Hoop strain (ε) Hoop Stress (σH) [MN.m-2]
1
2
3
4
5

10. Calculation:
a. Open end condition:
In the case of a cylinder the maximum and minimum strains are always at right angles to each
other. These strains are called the principle strains. In the open ends condition, the thin cylinder
has principle strains of:

29 | B y : A s s t . P r o f . S u n i l A d h i k a r i
Hoop strains; 𝜀 = (direct from hoop stress)

Longitudinal strains; 𝜀 = −µ (indirectly due to Poisson effect)

b. Closed end condition:

In the case of a cylinder having closed end condition, longitudinal stress also acts on the cylinder
wall and σL will cause strains of:

Longitudinal strains; 𝜀 = (direct from longitudinal stress)

Hoop strains: 𝜀 = −µ (indirectly due to Poisson effect)

Where 𝜎 can be calculated using equations 1 and 2

So, in this case, the total principal strains are the combination of effects of both hoop and
longitudinal stresses and these values are:

Hoop strains: 𝜀 = −µ

Longitudinal strains; 𝜀 = − µ

11. Result analysis and Conclusion:

Plot a graph of hoop stress versus hoop strain for both open end and closed end condition. What
is the relationship between stress and strain? Compare between open end and closed end
condition.
Plot a graph of the longitudinal strain versus hoop strain for both open end and closed end
condition. What the magnitude of the gradient of your plot gives? Compare between open end
and closed end condition.

*** *** ***

30 | B y : A s s t . P r o f . S u n i l A d h i k a r i
 EXPERIMENT NO: 5

1. Title: The Thick-wall Cylinder

2. Objective:
a. To learn the effect of pressure on thick wall cylinders in developing principal stresses
for open end and closed end conditions.
b. To determine the circumferential (hoop) and longitudinal strains developed in the
wall of the cylinder for open end and closed end conditions.
3. Introduction:

In order to meet with several requirements, the fluids are stored under pressure in pressure
vessels or shells and transported from one place to the other through pipes. Both spherical and
cylindrical forms of vessels are used for storing fluid under pressure e.g. steam boilers, air
compressors, tanks etc.

In relation to stress analysis, cylinders are divided in two groups: thick and thin. The distinction
between the two relates to the ratio of internal diameter to wall thickness of a particular cylinder.
A cylinder with a diameter to thickness ratio of more than 20 is considered to be thin. A ratio of
less than 20 is considered to be thick. This distinction is made as the analysis of a cylinder can be
simplified by assuming it is thin.
Thin cylinders or shells are common place in engineering. Examples of thin walled cylinders are:
. Pressure pipes,
. Aircraft fuselages and
. Compressed gas containers
Thick walled cylinders are less common, an example being a gun barrel.
For a closed cylinder with an internal pressure there can be three direct stresses acting upon it.
. Longitudinal stress (𝜎 ): the cylinder’s resistance to stretching along its length (axis).
. Hoop or Circumferential stress (𝜎 ): the cylinder’s resistance to grow in diameter.
. Radial stress (𝜎 ): gas or fluid compressing the walls of the cylinder. It is equal to the pressure
on the inside and zero on the outside.

31 | B y : A s s t . P r o f . S u n i l A d h i k a r i
4. Apparatus, Equipment and Materials Required:
a. Thick walled cylinder apparatus with accessories:
i. Cylinder
ii. Mechanical pressure gauge
iii. Pump
iv. Pressure release valve
v. Strain gauges
vi. Direct hoop stress digital indicator
b. Hydraulic oil
c. Lab manual and other stationaries (graph paper, pencil, rural and eraser )
d. Other requirements: Electrical Power Supply : 240VAC/1-phase/50Hz

5. Theory:
The longitudinal stress and hoop stresses are directly proportional to the pressure and the ratio of
diameter to thickness of the cylinder. However the radial stress is related to the pressure alone.
Because of their relationship to the geometry, the longitudinal and hoop stresses are far greater
and more significant than the radial stress in a thin cylinder. It is reasonable and recognized to
assume that the radial stress is small enough for it to be ignored for basic calculations.
The individual direct stresses are given by:

×
𝜎 = (Nm ) ……………. (1)
×

×
𝜎 = (Nm ) ……………… (2)
×
Where:
P = Pressure in the cylinder (Nm-2)
d = Internal diameter of the cylinder (m)
t = Thickness of cylinder walls (m)

32 | B y : A s s t . P r o f . S u n i l A d h i k a r i
 Figure: Stresses in a thick walled cylinder

Nearly all applications of the thick cylinder will have closed ends with the biaxial stress system
described previously. However as outlined in the introduction; the equipment allows us to
examine the stresses in the cylinder with open ends i.e. with no direct longitudinal stress.
Although there is no practical application for a cylinder in this condition, the experiment yields
several useful relationships. We can use these relationships in the more complex closed ends
condition.

6. Description of the Apparatus:

Thick Cylinder with Open Ends:
A mechanical gauge is provided to measures the hydraulic pressure in the cylinder. The hoop
stress can be measured directly in digital value in the apparatus. The cylinder is held in a sturdy
frame in which it is free to move along its axis as shown in figure below.

33 | B y : A s s t . P r o f . S u n i l A d h i k a r i
"Open" ends is the condition where the axial loads are taken by the frame (not the cylinder),
therefore there is no development of direct longitudinal stress in the cylinder wall.
Specification:
f. Material of the thick wall cylinder : Aluminum alloy
g. Young’s modulus of the material (E) : 70 GNm-2
h. Poisson’s ratio of the material (µ) : 0.33
i. Internal diameter of the cylinder (d) : 90 mm
j. Wall thickness of the cylinder (t) : 50 mm
7. Precautions:
a. Do not exceed the cylinder pressure of 4 MN/m 2 (40 kg/cm2).
b. The apparatus should be placed always on a horizontal table.
c. Make sure that the pump contains sufficient hydraulic oil or not. If not, fill up.
d. Digital reading of the apparatus indicates hoop strain value thousand times magnified
and first 0 of the indicated strain value represent decimal (decimal dot) i.e. 019 means
.19*10-3.

34 | B y : A s s t . P r o f . S u n i l A d h i k a r i
 e. After the completion of experiment, loose the pressure release valve very slowly for a
while and again keep it tight for other time.
f. After the experiment is over, switch OFF the electrical supply.

8. Experimental Procedure:
a. First turn ON the main switch at the apparatus, LED on the front should illuminate.
b. Leave for 5 minutes to allow the gauges to warm up and reach a steady state.
c. Fully close the release valve on the pump if it is open.
d. Before any test being made, at zero pressure, the initial hoop stress readings should be
recorded.
e. Apply the pressure gradually by operating the lever of hydraulic pump observing the
pressure on the pressure gauge.
f. Take 4- 5 readings of hoop strain at different gauge pressure.
g. Open the release valve on the pump slowly; the pressure should fall to zero.
h. Remember again to full tight the pressure release valve before leaving out of the
experiment so as to prevent the leakage of oil.
i. After the experiment is over, switch OFF main switch and the electrical supply.

9. Observation Table:

Reading No. Pressure (P) [[Link]-2] Hoop strain (ε) Hoop Stress (σH) [MN.m-2]
1
2
3
4
5

10. Calculation:
a. Open end condition:
In the case of a cylinder the maximum and minimum strains are always at right angles to each
other. These strains are called the principle strains. In the open ends condition, the thick cylinder
has principle strains of:

35 | B y : A s s t . P r o f . S u n i l A d h i k a r i
Hoop strains; 𝜀 = (direct from hoop stress)

Longitudinal strains; 𝜀 = −µ (indirectly due to Poisson effect)

b. Closed end condition:

In the case of a cylinder having closed end condition, longitudinal stress also acts on the cylinder
wall and σL will cause strains of:

Longitudinal strains; 𝜀 = (direct from longitudinal stress)

Hoop strains: 𝜀 = −µ (indirectly due to Poisson effect)

Where 𝜎 can be calculated using equations 1 and 2

So, in this case, the total principal strains are the combination of effects of both hoop and
longitudinal stresses and these values are:

Hoop strains: 𝜀 = −µ

Longitudinal strains; 𝜀 = − µ

11. Result analysis:

a. Plot a graph of hoop stress versus hoop strain for both open end and closed end condition.
b. Plot a graph of the longitudinal strain versus hoop strain for both open end and closed end
condition.
c. What is the relationship between stress and strain? What is the gradient of the curve
obtained?
12. Conclusion:
a. What is the difference between open end and closed end cylinder?
b. What the magnitude of the gradient of your plot gives?
c. Compare between open end and closed end condition.
d. What are the possible causes of error during the experiment and calculate the error in %.

*** *** ***

36 | B y : A s s t . P r o f . S u n i l A d h i k a r i