100908/MA200A: VECTOR CALCULUS DIFFERENTIALEQUATIONS

AND TRANSFORMS
Course Handout
Module 4: Laplace Transforms

4 .1 Laplace Transforms
Introduction
Laplace transform techniques provide powerful tools in numerous fields of
technology where knowledge of the system transfer function is essential and where
the Laplace transform comes into its own.

4.1.1 Definition
The Laplace transform of an expression 𝑓(𝑡) is denoted by 𝐿{𝑓(𝑡)} and is defined
∞
as the semi-infinite integral 𝐿{𝑓(𝑡)} = ∫𝑡=0 𝑓(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡.

The parameter s is assumed to be positive and large enough to ensure that the integral
converges. In more advanced applications s may be complex and in such cases the
real part of s must be positive and large enough to ensure convergence.

In determining the transform of an expression, the limits of the integral are

substituted for t, so that the result will be an expression in s. Therefore
∞
𝐿{𝑓(𝑡)} = ∫𝑡=0 𝑓(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐹(𝑠).

4.1.2 Simple Transforms

Example: Find the Laplace transform of f (t ) = a , where a is a constant.
∞ 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑎 𝑎
Solution: 𝐿{𝑎} = ∫0 𝑎𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑎 [ ] = − [𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 ]∞
0 = − {0 − 1}
−𝑠 𝑠 𝑠

VECTOR CALCULUS DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS AND TRANSFORMS

Laplace Transforms
 𝑎
⇒ 𝐿{𝑎} = (𝑠 > 0)
𝑠

4.1.3 Example: Find the Laplace Transform of 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 ,where a is a constant.

Solution: As with all cases, we multiply 𝑓(𝑡) by 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 and integrate between
𝑡 = 0 and𝑡 = ∞.
∞
𝑎𝑡 } ∞ ∞ ∞ 𝑒 −𝑡(𝑠−𝑎)
𝐿{𝑒 = ∫0 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = ∫0 𝑒 𝑎𝑡−𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = ∫0 𝑒 −𝑡(𝑠−𝑎) 𝑑𝑡 =[
−(𝑠−𝑎) 0
]

1 ∞ 1
⇒ 𝐿{𝑒 𝑎𝑡 } = − [𝑒 −𝑡(𝑠−𝑎) ]0 = − {0 − 1}
(𝑠 − 𝑎) (𝑠 − 𝑎)
1
⇒ 𝐿{𝑒 𝑎𝑡 } = (𝑠 > 𝑎)
(𝑠−𝑎)

Find the Laplace transform 𝐿{𝑒 5𝑡 } for𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑒 5𝑡 .

So
𝑎
𝐿{𝑎} = (𝑠 > 0)
𝑠
1
𝐿{𝑒 𝑎𝑡 } = (𝑠 > 𝑎).
𝑠−𝑎

4.1.4 Table of Transforms

Function Transform Valid for
…
f (t ) F (s) s0
1 1 s0
𝑠
𝑎
a s0
𝑠

t 1 s0
𝑠2

𝑡𝑛 𝑛! n = positive
𝑠 𝑛+1
integer
𝑡2 2!
𝑠3

𝑒 𝑎𝑡 1
𝑠−𝑎

VECTOR CALCULUS DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS AND TRANSFORMS

Laplace Transforms
 𝑡𝑒 𝑎𝑡 1
(𝑠−𝑎)2
𝑎
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑡
𝑠 2 +𝑎2
𝑠
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑎 𝑡
𝑠 2 +𝑎2
𝑎
𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 𝑎 𝑡
𝑠 2 −𝑎2
𝑠
𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 𝑎 𝑡
𝑠 2 −𝑎2

4.2 Rules of Laplace transforms

The Laplace transform is a linear transform by which is meant that:
4.2.1 The transform of a sum of a sum (or difference) of expressions is the sum (or
difference) of the individual transforms. That is
𝐿{𝑓(𝑡) ± 𝑔(𝑡)} = 𝐿{𝑓(𝑡)} ± 𝐿{𝑔(𝑡)}.

4.2.2 The transform of an expression that is multiplied by a constant is the constant

multiplied by the transform of the expression. That is 𝐿{𝑘𝑓(𝑡)} = 𝑘𝐿{𝑓(𝑡)}.
1 𝑠
Change of scale property: If 𝐿(𝑓(𝑡)) = 𝐹(𝑠) then 𝐿(𝑓(𝑎𝑡)) = 𝐹( )
𝑎 𝑎

4.2.3 Example: Determine the Laplace transform of 2𝑒 −𝑡 + 𝑡.

Solution: 𝐿{2𝑒 −𝑡 + 𝑡} = 𝐿{2𝑒 −𝑡 } + 𝐿{𝑡}
= 2𝐿{𝑒 −𝑡 } + 𝐿{𝑡}
1 1
= 2[ ]+
𝑠+1 𝑠2
2 1
= + 2
𝑠+1 𝑠
2𝑠 2 + (𝑠 + 1)
=
𝑠 2 (𝑠 + 1)
2𝑠 2 +𝑠+1
⇒ 𝐿{2𝑒 −𝑡 + 𝑡} = (𝑠 3 +𝑠 2 )
.

4.2.4 Example: Determine the Laplace transform of 6𝑡𝑒 −3𝑡 .

VECTOR CALCULUS DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS AND TRANSFORMS

Laplace Transforms
Solution: We need to find 𝐿{6𝑡𝑒 −3𝑡 } = 6𝐿{𝑡𝑒 −3𝑡 }
1
We know that 𝐿{𝑡𝑒 𝑎𝑡 } =
(𝑠−𝑎)2
1 6
Therefore 𝐿{6𝑡𝑒 −3𝑡 } = 6𝐿{𝑡𝑒 −3𝑡 } = 6. =
(𝑠−(−3))2 (𝑠+3)2

where a = −3 .
4.2.5 Example: Determine the Laplace transform of 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3 𝑡 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝑡.
Solution:
𝐿{𝑠𝑖𝑛 3 𝑡 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝑡} = 𝐿{𝑠𝑖𝑛 3 𝑡} + 𝐿{𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝑡}
= 𝐿{𝑠𝑖𝑛 3 𝑡} + 𝐿{𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝑡}
3 𝑠
=[ 2 ] + [ ]
𝑠 + 32 𝑠 2 + 32
3 𝑠
=[ 2 ] + [ ]
𝑠 + 32 𝑠 2 + 32
3+𝑠
=[ 2 ]
𝑠 +9
4.2.6 Example: Determine the Laplace transform of 𝑡 7.
7! 7! 7×6×5×4×3×2×1 5040
Solution: 𝐿{𝑡 7 } = = = = .
𝑠 7+1 𝑠8 𝑠8 𝑠8

Example: Determine the Laplace transform of 3𝑡 3 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡.

𝑛!
Solution: We know that 𝐿{𝑡 𝑛 } =
𝑠 𝑛+1
𝑎
and 𝐿{𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑡} = .
𝑠 2 +𝑎2

Therefore we can say that

𝐿{3𝑡 3 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡} = 3𝐿{𝑡 3 } + 𝐿{𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡}
3! 1 3.3! 1
= 3. 3+1
+ = +
𝑠 𝑠 2 + 12 𝑠4 𝑠2 + 1
[Link] 1 18 1
= + = +
𝑠4 𝑠2 + 1 𝑠4 𝑠2 + 1
18(𝑠 2 + 1) + 1(𝑠 4 ) 18(𝑠 2 + 1) + 𝑠 4
= =
𝑠 4 (𝑠 2 + 1) 𝑠 4 (𝑠 2 + 1)

VECTOR CALCULUS DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS AND TRANSFORMS

Laplace Transforms
 3
18𝑠 2 + 18 + 𝑠 4
⇒ 𝐿{3𝑡 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡} =
𝑠 4 (𝑠 2 + 1)
4.2.7 Example: Determine the Laplace transform of 4𝑒 2𝑡 + 3 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 4 𝑡.
Solution:
𝐿{4𝑒 2𝑡 + 3 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 4 𝑡} = 𝐿{4𝑒 2𝑡 } + 𝐿{3 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 4 𝑡}
= 4𝐿{𝑒 2𝑡 } + 3𝐿{𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 4 𝑡}
1 𝑠
= 4[ ] + 3[ 2 ]
𝑠−2 𝑠 − 42
4 3𝑠
=[ ]+[ 2 ]
𝑠−2 𝑠 − 16

4.2.8 Exercise:
i) Find the Laplace transform 𝐿{𝑠𝑖𝑛 4 𝑡} for𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 4 𝑡.
ii) Find the Laplace transform 𝐿{𝑡 3 + 2𝑡 2 − 𝑡 + 4} for𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑡 3 + 2𝑡 2 − 𝑡 + 4.
iii) Find the Laplace transform 𝐿{𝑡 3 + 4𝑡 2 + 5} for𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑡 3 + 4𝑡 2 + 5.
iv) Find the Laplace transform 𝐿{𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝑡} for𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝑡.
v) Find the Laplace transform 𝐿{𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑡 + 𝑒 7𝑡 } for𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑡 + 𝑒 7𝑡 .
vi) Find the Laplace transform 𝐿{5𝑒 −𝑡 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝑡} for𝑓(𝑡) = 5𝑒 −𝑡 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝑡.
vii) Find the Laplace transform 𝐿{3𝑒 −4𝑡 − 5𝑒 4𝑡 } for𝑓(𝑡) = 3𝑒 −4𝑡 − 5𝑒 4𝑡 .
viii) Find the Laplace transform 𝐿{2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3 𝑡 − 4𝑒 −4𝑡 } for𝑓(𝑡) = 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3 𝑡 − 4𝑒 −4𝑡 .
ix) Find the Laplace transform 𝐿{9𝑡𝑒 −7𝑡 }for𝑓(𝑡) = 9𝑡𝑒 −7𝑡 .
x) Find the Laplace transform 𝐿{𝑠𝑖𝑛 4 𝑡 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝑡} for𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 4 𝑡 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝑡.

4.2.9 Existence theorem for Laplace Transforms

If 𝑓(𝑡) is defined and piecewise continuous on every finite interval on the semi-
axis 𝑡 ≥ 0 and satisfies |𝑓(𝑡)| ≤ 𝑀𝑒 𝑘𝑡 for all 𝑡 ≥ 0 and some constants 𝑀 and 𝑘,
then the Laplace Transform 𝐿(𝑓) exists for all 𝑠 > 𝑘.

VECTOR CALCULUS DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS AND TRANSFORMS

Laplace Transforms
 4.3 Theorem 1: The first shifting theorem
The first shift theorem states that if 𝐿{𝑓(𝑡)} = 𝐹(𝑠) then 𝐿{𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑓(𝑡)} = 𝐹(𝑠 + 𝑎)

∞
𝐿{𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑓(𝑡)} = ∫𝑡=0 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑓(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
∞ ∞
= ∫𝑡=0 𝑓(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑎𝑡−𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = ∫𝑡=0 𝑓(𝑡)𝑒 −(𝑠+𝑎)𝑡 𝑑𝑡
⇒ 𝐿{𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑓(𝑡)} = 𝐹(𝑠 + 𝑎).
∞
as 𝐿{𝑓(𝑡)} = ∫𝑡=0 𝑓(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐹(𝑠)
Note: We know that 𝐿{𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑓(𝑡)} = 𝐹(𝑠 + 𝑎) and we know that 𝐿{𝑓(𝑡)} =
𝐹(𝑠) therefore the transform 𝐿{𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑓(𝑡)} is thus the same as L f (t ) with s
everywhere in the result replaced by(𝑠 + 𝑎).
2
4.3.1 Example: Given 𝐿{𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝑡} = , find𝐿{𝑒 −3𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝑡}.
𝑠 2 +4
1 2
Solution: We know that 𝐿{𝑒 𝑎𝑡 } = and 𝐿{𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝑡} = .
𝑠−𝑎 𝑠 2 +4

We have𝑎 = −3, therefore

2 2 2
𝐿{𝑒 −3𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝑡} = = =
(𝑠 − (−3))2 + 4 (𝑠 + 3)2 + 4 (𝑠 + 3)(𝑠 + 3) + 4
2 2
⇒ 𝐿{𝑒 −3𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝑡} = = ..
𝑠 2 +3𝑠+3𝑠+9+4 𝑠 2 +6𝑠+13

2
4.3.2 Example: Given 𝐿{𝑡 2 } = find𝐿{𝑡 2 𝑒 4𝑡 }.
𝑠3
1 2
Solution: We know that 𝐿{𝑒 𝑎𝑡 } = , 𝐿{𝑡 2 } = and𝑎 = 4.
𝑠−𝑎 𝑠3
2
Therefore 𝐿{𝑡 2 𝑒 4𝑡 } = .
(𝑠−4)3

4.3.3 Example: Determine the Laplace transform of𝑒 3𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝑡.

1 1
Solution: We know that 𝐿{𝑒 𝑎𝑡 } = ⇒ 𝐿{𝑒 3𝑡 } =
𝑠−𝑎 𝑠−3
𝑠 𝑠
and𝐿{𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝑡} = = .
𝑠 2 +4 2 𝑠 2 +16

VECTOR CALCULUS DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS AND TRANSFORMS

Laplace Transforms
 Therefore
(𝑠−3) (𝑠−3)
𝐿{𝑒 3𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝑡} = =
(𝑠−3)2 +16 (𝑠−3)(𝑠−3)+16
(𝑠−3) (𝑠−3)
⇒ 𝐿{𝑒 3𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝑡} = = ..
𝑠 2 −3𝑠−3𝑠+9+16 𝑠 2 −6𝑠+25

4.3.4 Example: Determine the Laplace transform of 𝑒 3𝑡 (𝑡 2 + 4).

Solution: We know that 𝐿{𝑡 2 + 4} = 𝐿{𝑡 2 } + 𝐿{4}
𝑛! 2! 2! 2×1 2
So we find 𝐿{𝑡 𝑛 } = ⇒ 𝐿{𝑡 2 } = = = =
𝑠 𝑛+1 𝑠 2+1 𝑠3 𝑠3 𝑠3
4
𝐿{4} =
𝑠
2 4
Therefore 𝐿{𝑡 2 + 4} = + .
𝑠3 𝑠
1 1
We also know that 𝐿{𝑒 𝑎𝑡 } = ⇒ 𝐿{𝑒 3𝑡 } = .
𝑠−𝑎 𝑠−3

Therefore
2 4 2+4(𝑠−3)2
𝐿{𝑒 3𝑡 (𝑡 2 + 4)} = (𝑠−3)3 + (𝑠−3) = (𝑠−3)3

2 + 4(𝑠 − 3)(𝑠 − 3) 2 + 4(𝑠 2 − 6𝑠 + 9) 2 + 4𝑠 2 − 24𝑠 + 36

= = =
(𝑠 − 3)3 (𝑠 − 3)3 (𝑠 − 3)3
4𝑠 2 −24𝑠+38
⇒ 𝐿{𝑒 3𝑡 (𝑡 2 + 4)} = (𝑠−3)3
.

4.3.5
i) Find the Laplace transform for𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑒 4𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑡.
ii) Find the Laplace transform for𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑒 −5𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠 7 𝑡.
iii) Find the Laplace transform for𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑒 −2𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠 5 𝑡.
iv) Find the Laplace transform for𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑒 𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛 5 𝑡.
4.4 Theorem 2: Multiplying by t and tn
If 𝐿{𝑓(𝑡)} = 𝐹(𝑠) then 𝐿{𝑡𝑓(𝑡)} = −𝐹 ′ (𝑠)
∞
𝐿{𝑡𝑓(𝑡)} = ∫ 𝑡𝑓(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑡=0

VECTOR CALCULUS DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS AND TRANSFORMS

Laplace Transforms
 ∞
= ∫ 𝑓(𝑡)𝑡𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑡=0
∞
𝑑𝑒 −𝑠𝑡
= ∫ 𝑓(𝑡) (− ) 𝑑𝑡
𝑡=0 𝑑𝑠
𝑑 ∞
= − ∫ 𝑓(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑠 𝑡=0
⇒ 𝐿{𝑡𝑓(𝑡)} = −𝐹 ′ (𝑠).

𝑑𝑛
4.4.1 In general if 𝐿{𝑓(𝑡)} = 𝐹(𝑠) then 𝐿{𝑡 𝑛 𝑓(𝑡)} = (−1)𝑛 {𝐹(𝑠)}.
𝑑𝑠 𝑛

2
4.4.2 Example: Given 𝐿{𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝑡} = , find 𝐿{𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝑡}.
𝑠 2 +4
𝑑 2
Solution: From 𝐿{𝑡𝑓(𝑡)} = −𝐹 ′ (𝑠) therefore𝐿{𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝑡} = − ( ).
𝑑𝑠 𝑠 2 +4
𝑑 2
NB: To find (
𝑑𝑠 𝑠 2 +4
) use quotient rule for differentiation:
2
𝑧=( )
𝑠 2 +4

𝑎 𝑑𝑎 𝑑𝑏
𝑧= , 𝑎 = 2, 𝑏 = 𝑠 2 + 4, = 0, = 2𝑠
𝑏 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠
𝑑𝑎 𝑑𝑏
𝑑𝑧 𝑏 𝑑𝑠 − 𝑎 𝑑𝑠 (𝑠 2 + 4)(0) − (2)(2𝑠) −4𝑠
= = =
𝑑𝑠 𝑏2 (𝑠 2 + 4)2 (𝑠 2 + 4)2
d  2 
Lt sin 2t = −
4s
Therefore  2 =
ds  s + 4  s + 4
2
( )
2

4.4.3 Find the Laplace transform for𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3 𝑡.

𝑠
4.4.4 Example: Given 𝐿{𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 3 𝑡} = , find 𝐿{𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 3 𝑡}.
𝑠 2 −9
𝑑 𝑠
Solution: We know that 𝐿{𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 3 𝑡} = − (
𝑑𝑠 𝑠 2 −9
) from𝐿{𝑡𝑓(𝑡)} = −𝐹 ′ (𝑠).

VECTOR CALCULUS DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS AND TRANSFORMS

Laplace Transforms
 𝑑 𝑠
First we need to find (
𝑑𝑠 𝑠 2 −9
) so we use the quotient rule for

differentiation:
𝑠
𝑧=( )
𝑠 2 −9

𝑎 𝑑𝑎 𝑑𝑏
𝑧= , 𝑎 = 𝑠, 𝑏 = 𝑠 2 − 9, = 1, = 2𝑠
𝑏 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠
𝑑𝑎 𝑑𝑏
𝑑𝑧 𝑏 𝑑𝑠 − 𝑎 𝑑𝑠 (𝑠 2 − 9)(1) − (𝑠)(2𝑠) (𝑠 2 − 9) − 2𝑠 2
= = =
𝑑𝑠 𝑏2 (𝑠 2 − 9)2 (𝑠 2 − 9)2
𝑑𝑧 −𝑠 2 − 9
⇒ =
𝑑𝑠 (𝑠 2 − 9)2
Therefore we know that
𝑑 𝑠 −𝑠 2 −9 𝑠 2 +9
𝐿{𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 3 𝑡} = − ( ) = − ((𝑠2−9)2) = (𝑠2 −9)2
𝑑𝑠 𝑠 2 −9

4.4.5 Example: Determine the Laplace transform of𝑡 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡,

1
Solution: We know that 𝐿{𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡} = , therefore we can work out from
𝑠 2 +1
𝑑𝑛
𝐿{𝑡 𝑛 𝑓(𝑡)} = (−1)𝑛 {𝐹(𝑠)} that
𝑑𝑠 𝑛
𝑑2
𝐿{𝑡 2 𝑓(𝑡)} = (−1)2 {𝐹(𝑠)}
𝑑𝑠 2

2
𝑑2 𝑑2 2
⇒ 𝐿{𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡} = (−1) {𝐹(𝑠)} = 2 {𝐹(𝑠)}
𝑑𝑠 2 𝑑𝑠
2
𝑑2 1
⇒ 𝐿{𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡} = 2 ( 2 )
𝑑𝑠 𝑠 + 1
1
as𝐿{𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡} = .
𝑠 2 +1

Find the first derivative:

1
𝑧=
𝑠 2 +1
𝑎 𝑑𝑎 𝑑𝑏
𝑧= , 𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 = 𝑠 2 + 1, = 0, = 2𝑠
𝑏 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠

VECTOR CALCULUS DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS AND TRANSFORMS

Laplace Transforms
 𝑑𝑎 𝑑𝑏
𝑑𝑧 𝑏 𝑑𝑠 − 𝑎 𝑑𝑠 (𝑠 2 + 1)(0) − (1)(2𝑠)
= =
𝑑𝑠 𝑏2 (𝑠 2 + 1)2
𝑑𝑧 −2𝑠
⇒ = 2
𝑑𝑠 (𝑠 + 1)2
−2𝑠 𝑎
Differentiate again. 𝑧 = (𝑠2 ⇒𝑧= ,
+1)2 𝑏

𝑎 = −2𝑠, 𝑏 = (𝑠 2 + 1)2 = (𝑠 2 + 1)(𝑠 2 + 1) = 𝑠 4 + 2𝑠 2 + 2,

𝑑𝑎 𝑑𝑏
= −2, = 4𝑠 3 + 4𝑠,
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠
𝑑𝑎 𝑑𝑏
𝑑𝑧 𝑏 𝑑𝑠 − 𝑎 𝑑𝑠 (𝑠 2 + 1)2 (−2) − (−2𝑠)(4𝑠 3 + 4𝑠)
= =
𝑑𝑠 𝑏2 ((𝑠 2 + 1)2 )2
𝑑𝑧 −2((𝑠 2 + 1)2 ) + (8𝑠 4 + 8𝑠 2 ) −2((𝑠 2 + 1)(𝑠 2 + 1)) + (8𝑠 4 + 8𝑠 2 )
⇒ = =
𝑑𝑠 (𝑠 2 + 1)2 (𝑠 2 + 1)2 (𝑠 2 + 1)2 (𝑠 2 + 1)2
−2(𝑠 4 + 2𝑠 2 + 2) + (8𝑠 4 + 8𝑠 2 ) (−2𝑠 4 − 4𝑠 2 − 4) + (8𝑠 4 + 8𝑠 2 )
= =
(𝑠 2 + 1)2 (𝑠 2 + 1)2 (𝑠 2 + 1)2 (𝑠 2 + 1)2
𝑑𝑧 (6𝑠 4 + 4𝑠 2 − 4)
⇒ =
𝑑𝑠 (𝑠 2 + 1)2 (𝑠 2 + 1)2
𝑑2 1 (6𝑠 4 +4𝑠 2 −4)
Therefore 𝐿{𝑡 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡} = ( ) = (𝑠2+1)2(𝑠2 +1)2.
𝑑𝑠 2 𝑠 2 +1

4.4.5 Example: Determine the Laplace transform of 𝑡 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑡.

𝑠
Solution: We know that 𝐿{𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑡} = .
𝑠 2 +1
𝑑𝑛
Therefore we can work out from 𝐿{𝑡 𝑛 𝑓(𝑡)} = (−1)𝑛 {𝐹(𝑠)}
𝑑𝑠 𝑛
𝑑2 𝑠
as above that 𝐿{𝑡 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑡} = (𝑠2 +1).
𝑑𝑠 2

Find the first derivative

𝑠 𝑎 𝑑𝑎 𝑑𝑏
𝑧= 𝑧 = , 𝑎 = 𝑠, 𝑏 = 𝑠 2 + 1, = 1, = 2𝑠
𝑠 2 +1 𝑏 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠

VECTOR CALCULUS DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS AND TRANSFORMS

Laplace Transforms
 𝑑𝑎 𝑑𝑏
𝑑𝑧 𝑏 𝑑𝑠 − 𝑎 𝑑𝑠 (𝑠 2 + 1)(1) − (𝑠)(2𝑠)
= =
𝑑𝑠 𝑏2 (𝑠 2 + 1)2
𝑑𝑧 (𝑠 2 + 1) − (2𝑠 2 ) 1 − 𝑠2
⇒ = = 2
𝑑𝑠 (𝑠 2 + 1)2 (𝑠 + 1)2
Differentiate again.
1−𝑠 2
𝑧 = (𝑠2
+1)2

𝑎 𝑑𝑎 𝑑𝑏
𝑧= , 𝑎 = 1 − 𝑠 2 , 𝑏 = (𝑠 2 + 1)2 , = −2𝑠, = 4𝑠 3 + 4𝑠 = 4𝑠(𝑠 2 + 1)
𝑏 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠
𝑑𝑎 𝑑𝑏
𝑑𝑧 𝑏 𝑑𝑠 − 𝑎 𝑑𝑠 ((𝑠 2 + 1)2 )(−2𝑠) − (1 − 𝑠 2 )(4𝑠(𝑠 2 + 1))
= =
𝑑𝑠 𝑏2 ((𝑠 2 + 1)2 )2
𝑑𝑧 −2𝑠(𝑠 2 + 1)2 − 4𝑠(1 − 𝑠 2 )(𝑠 2 + 1) −2𝑠(𝑠 2 + 1)1 − 4𝑠(1 − 𝑠 2 )
⇒ = =
𝑑𝑠 (𝑠 2 + 1)4 (𝑠 2 + 1)3

−2𝑠 3 − 2𝑠 − 4𝑠 + 4𝑠 3 2𝑠 3 − 6𝑠
= = 2
(𝑠 2 + 1)3 (𝑠 + 1)3

4.5 Theorem 3: Division by t

𝑓(𝑡) ∞
If L { 𝐹(𝑡) } = 𝑓(𝑠) then L{ 𝑡 }= ∫𝑆 𝑓(𝑠)𝑑𝑠 provided integral exists.

 (1 − e t ) 
4.5.1. Example: Find L  t 
 
1 1
Solution: since L {1- et } = s − s − 1 = f (s)
 (1 − e t )   
1 1 
Now L  t  =  f ( s ) ds =   s − s − 1 ds = Log s − Log ( s − 1)S


  S S

  s 
=  Log  s − 1 
 S
 1 
Log  
=− 1− 1 
 s

VECTOR CALCULUS DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS AND TRANSFORMS

Laplace Transforms
  s −1
= Log  
 s 
 (1 − e t )   s −1
L  t  = Log  s  is required solution.
 

 (Cos at − Cos bt) 

4.5.2 : Find L  t


s s
Solution : since L { Cos at – Cos bt } = s 2 + a 2 − s 2 + b 2

 
 (Cos at − Cos bt)   s s 
L   =  f ( s ) ds =   2 − 2 2 
ds
t  S S  s + a 2
s + b 


1 1 
=  Log ( s 2 + a 2 ) − Log ( s 2 + a 2 ) 
2 2 S
1 (s 2 + a 2 ) (s 2 + a 2 )
=0− Log 2 = Log
2 (s + b 2 ) (s 2 + b 2 )

 (Cos at − Cos bt)  (s 2 + a 2 )

L   = Log is required solution.
 t  (s 2 + b 2 )


t e
−2 t
4.5.3: Find Sin t dt and evaluate at s = 2
0

t e
−2 t
Solution : Let Sin t dt
0

d  1   2s   4
=  e (t Sin t ) dt = - 1. ds  s 2 + 1  =  s 2 + 1  at s = 2
−2 t
t e
−2 t
Sin t dt =
0 0
25


 2s  4
  t e Sin t dt =  s 2 + 1  and s = 2 value is 25
−2 t
Is required solution.
0


Sin mt
4.5.4: Find 
0
t
dt

 m 
Solution: L { Sin mt } =  s 2 + m 2 

VECTOR CALCULUS DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS AND TRANSFORMS

Laplace Transforms
  
Sin mt  m 
   s
−1 
Now dt =  ds = [ tan ( s / m)] S
0
t S
2
+ m2 


Sin mt  s 
 
0
t
dt =  − tan −1 ( ) as s → 0
2 m 

= 2 if m > 0

=− 2 if m < 0

 e t Sin t 
4.5.5 Find L  dt 
0 t 


Sin t  ds  
Solution: since L { t } =   s
S
2 2 
+1 
= [ tan −1( s )] S = − Tan−1 s = Cot −1 s
2

Sin t
 L { et
t } =L { e Cot s} = Cot (s – 1) [ by shifting lemma ]
t -1 -1

 e t Sin t  1
 L  dt  = .Cot-1 (s − 1). Hence the solution.
0 t  s

4.6 Inverse Transforms

If 𝐿(𝑓(𝑡) = 𝐹(𝑠) then 𝐿−1 (𝐹 (𝑠)) = 𝑓(𝑡) is called the Inverse Laplace transform of
𝐹(𝑠).

4.6.1 Table of Inverse Laplace Transforms

F (s) f (t )
𝒂 𝒂
𝒔
𝟏 𝒆−𝒂𝒕
𝒔+𝒂

VECTOR CALCULUS DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS AND TRANSFORMS

Laplace Transforms
 𝒏! 𝒕𝒏
𝒔𝒏+𝟏
𝟏 𝒕𝒏−𝟏
𝒔𝒏 (𝒏 − 𝟏)!
𝒂 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒂 𝒕
𝒔𝟐 + 𝒂𝟐
𝒔 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒂 𝒕
𝒔𝟐 + 𝒂𝟐
𝒂 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉 𝒂 𝒕
𝒔𝟐 − 𝒂𝟐
𝒔 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉 𝒂 𝒕
𝒔𝟐 − 𝒂𝟐

1
4.6.2 Example: From the table find𝐿−1 { }?
𝑠−2

 1 
Solution: L−1  − at
=e .
s + a
1 1
where we have a = −2 therefore 𝐿−1 { } = 𝐿−1 { } = 𝑒 2𝑡
𝑠−2 𝑠+(−2)
𝑠
4.6.3 Example: From the table find𝐿−1 { }?
𝑠 2 +25
𝑠
Solution: 𝐿−1 { } = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑎 𝑡.
𝑠 2 +𝑎2

Here we have a = 5 therefore

𝑠 𝑠
𝐿−1 { } = 𝐿−1 { } = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 5 𝑡.
𝑠 2 +25 𝑠 2 +52
8
4.6.4 Example: From the table find𝐿−1 { }?
𝑠 2 +64
𝑎
Solution: 𝐿−1 { } = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑡.
𝑠 2 +𝑎2

Here we have a = 8 therefore

8 8
𝐿−1 { } = 𝐿−1 { } = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 8 𝑡.
𝑠 2 +64 𝑠 2 +82
12
4.6.5 Example: From the table find𝐿−1 { }?
𝑠 2 −9

VECTOR CALCULUS DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS AND TRANSFORMS

Laplace Transforms
 12 3
Solution: 𝐿−1 { } = 4𝐿−1 { }.
𝑠 2 −9 𝑠 2 −9
3 3
𝐿−1 { } = 𝐿−1 { }.
𝑠 2 −9 𝑠 2 −32
𝑎
With a = 3 we know that 𝐿−1 { } = 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 𝑎 𝑡
𝑠 2 −𝑎2
12 3
therefore 𝐿−1 { } = 4𝐿−1 { } = 4 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 3 𝑡.
𝑠 2 −9 𝑠 2 −32
4
4.6.6 Example: From the table find𝐿−1 { }?
𝑠
𝑎 4
Solution: 𝐿−1 { } = 𝑎where we have 𝑎 = 4 therefore 𝐿−1 { } = 4.
𝑠 𝑠
2
4.6.7 Example: Find the inverse Laplace transform for𝐹(𝑠) = − .
3𝑠−4
2 2 1 2 1
Solution: 𝐿−1 {− } = 𝐿−1 {− ( 4 )} = − 𝐿−1 { 4 }
3𝑠−4 3 𝑠− 3 𝑠− ⁄3 ⁄3

1
We know that 𝐿−1 { } = 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡
𝑠+𝑎

1 1 4⁄ )𝑡 4⁄ 𝑡
therefore𝐿−1 { } = 𝐿−1 { } = 𝑒 −(− 3 =𝑒 3 .
𝑠−4⁄3 𝑠+(−4⁄3)

2 2 4⁄ 𝑡
Hence𝐿−1 {− }=− 𝑒 3
3𝑠−4 3

4.6.8
3
i) Find the inverse Laplace transform for𝐹(𝑠) = .
𝑠 2 +9
5𝑠
ii) Find the inverse Laplace transform for𝐹(𝑠) = .
𝑠 2 +16
27
iii) Find the inverse Laplace transform for𝐹(𝑠) = .
𝑠 2 +81

3𝑠+1
4.6.9 Example: Determine 𝐿−1 { }.
𝑠 2 −𝑠−6
3𝑠+1
Solution: Write as the sum of two simpler functions,
𝑠 2 −𝑠−6
3𝑠+1 1 2
i.e. = +
𝑠 2 −𝑠−6 𝑠+2 𝑠−3
3𝑠+1 1 2
𝐿−1 { } = 𝐿−1 { + }
𝑠 2 −𝑠−6 𝑠+2 𝑠−3

VECTOR CALCULUS DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS AND TRANSFORMS

Laplace Transforms
 1 1
We know that 𝐿−1 { } = 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 so we have a = 2 thus giving 𝐿−1 { } = 𝑒 −2𝑡
𝑠+𝑎 𝑠+2
2 1
and 𝐿−1 { } = 2𝐿−1 { }
𝑠−3 𝑠−3
1 1
so we have 𝑎 = −3thus giving 2𝐿−1 { } = 2𝐿−1 { } = 2𝑒 3𝑡
𝑠−3 𝑠+(−3)
1 2
Put the two terms together to give 𝐿−1 { + } = 𝑒 −2𝑡 + 2𝑒 3𝑡
𝑠+2 𝑠−3

4.7 Inverse Laplace Transforms Using Partial Fractions

5𝑠+1
4.7.1 Example: Determine 𝐿−1 { }.
𝑠 2 −𝑠−12
5𝑠+1 5𝑠+1
Solution: Factorise the denominator: = .
𝑠 2 −𝑠−12 (𝑠−4)(𝑠+3)
5𝑠+1
To find 𝐿−1 { }.
(𝑠−4)(𝑠+3)

Remember from partial fractions we have the form:

5𝑠+1 𝐴 𝐵 𝐴(𝑠+3)+𝐵(𝑠−4)
(𝑠−4)(𝑠+3)
= (𝑠−4) + (𝑠+3) = (𝑠−4)(𝑠+3)

5𝑠 + 1 = 𝐴(𝑠 + 3) + 𝐵(𝑠 − 4) = 𝐴𝑠 + 3𝐴 + 𝐵𝑠 − 4𝐵
5𝑠 = 𝐴𝑠 + 𝐵𝑠 ⇒ 5 = 𝐴 + 𝐵
1 = 3𝐴 − 4𝐵
We have 2 equations and 2 unknowns therefore find A and B:
20 = 4𝐴 + 4𝐵 , 1 = 3𝐴 − 4𝐵
by adding these two together we get:
21 = 7𝐴 ⇒ 𝐴 = 3
1 = 3𝐴 − 4𝐵 ⇒ 1 = 3(3) − 4𝐵 ⇒ 𝐵 = 2
This gives us
5𝑠+1 3 2
= +
(𝑠−4)(𝑠+3) (𝑠−4) (𝑠+3)

So we now have to find

5𝑠+1 3 2 1 1
𝐿−1 { } = 𝐿−1 { + } = 3𝐿−1 { } + 2𝐿−1 { }
(𝑠−4)(𝑠+3) (𝑠−4) (𝑠+3) (𝑠−4) (𝑠+3)

VECTOR CALCULUS DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS AND TRANSFORMS

Laplace Transforms
 1 1
= 3𝐿−1 { } + 2𝐿−1 { }
(𝑠 + (−4)) (𝑠 + 3)
1
We know that 𝐿−1 { } = 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡
𝑠+𝑎

and have a = −4 and a = 3 respectively which gives:

5𝑠+1
𝐿−1 { } = 3𝑒 −(−4)𝑡 + 2𝑒 −(3)𝑡 = 3𝑒 4𝑡 + 2𝑒 −3𝑡 .
𝑠 2 −𝑠−12
9𝑠−8
4.7.2 Example: Determine𝐿−1 { }.
𝑠 2 −2𝑠
9𝑠−8 9𝑠−8
Solution: Simplify: 𝐿−1 { } = 𝐿−1 { }
𝑠 2 −2𝑠 𝑠(𝑠−2)

Remember from partial fractions we have the form:

9𝑠−8 𝐴 𝐵 𝐴(𝑠−2)+𝐵𝑠
= + =
𝑠(𝑠−2) 𝑠 (𝑠−2) 𝑠(𝑠−2)

9𝑠 − 8 = 𝐴(𝑠 − 2) + 𝐵𝑠 = 𝐴𝑠 − 2𝐴 + 𝐵𝑠
9𝑠 = 𝐴𝑠 + 𝐵𝑠 ⇒ 9 = 𝐴 + 𝐵
−8 = −2𝐴 ⇒ 𝐴 = 4
9=𝐴+𝐵 ⇒𝐵 =9−4=5
9𝑠−8 4 5
This gives us = + .
𝑠(𝑠−2) 𝑠 (𝑠−2)

So we now have to find

9𝑠−8 4 5 4 1
𝐿−1 { } = 𝐿−1 { + (𝑠−2)} = 𝐿−1 { } + 5𝐿−1 { }
𝑠(𝑠−2) 𝑠 𝑠 (𝑠−2)

4 1
= 𝐿−1 { } + 5𝐿−1 { }.
𝑠 (𝑠 + (−2))
𝑎 1
We know that 𝐿−1 { } = 𝑎 and 𝐿−1 { } = 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 and have 𝑎 = 4 and 𝑎 = −2
𝑠 𝑠+𝑎
9𝑠−8
respectively which gives: 𝐿−1 { } = 4 + 5𝑒 −(−2)𝑡 = 4 + 5𝑒 2𝑡 .
𝑠 2 −2𝑠
8𝑠−4
4.7.3 Example: Determine𝐿−1 { }.
(𝑠−3)(𝑠+7)

Solution: Remember from partial fractions we have the form:

8𝑠−4 𝐴 𝐵 𝐴(𝑠+7)+𝐵(𝑠−3)
= + =
(𝑠−3)(𝑠+7) (𝑠−3) (𝑠+7) (𝑠−3)(𝑠+7)

VECTOR CALCULUS DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS AND TRANSFORMS

Laplace Transforms
 8𝑠 − 4 = 𝐴(𝑠 + 7) + 𝐵(𝑠 − 3) = 𝐴𝑠 + 7𝐴 + 𝐵𝑠 − 3𝐵
8𝑠 = 𝐴𝑠 + 𝐵𝑠 ⇒ 8 = 𝐴 + 𝐵
−4 = 7𝐴 − 3𝐵
We have 2 equations and 2 unknowns therefore find A and B:
24 = 3𝐴 + 3𝐵
−4 = 7𝐴 − 3𝐵
by adding these two together we get:
20 = 10𝐴 ⇒ 𝐴 = 2
−4 = 7𝐴 − 3𝐵 ⇒ −4 = 7(2) − 3𝐵 ⇒ 𝐵 = 6
8𝑠−4 2 6
This gives us = + .
(𝑠−3)(𝑠+7) (𝑠−3) (𝑠+7)

So we now have to find

8𝑠−4 2 6
𝐿−1 { } = 𝐿−1 { + }
(𝑠−3)(𝑠+7) (𝑠−3) (𝑠+7)

1 1
= 2𝐿−1 { } + 6𝐿−1 { }
(𝑠 − 3) (𝑠 + 7)
1 1
= 2𝐿−1 { } + 6𝐿−1 { }.
(𝑠 + (−3)) (𝑠 + (7))
1
We know that 𝐿−1 { } = 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡
𝑠+𝑎

and have 𝑎 = −3and 𝑎 = 7 respectively which gives:

8𝑠−4
𝐿−1 { } = 2𝑒 −(−3)𝑡 + 6𝑒 −(7)𝑡 = 2𝑒 3𝑡 + 6𝑒 −7𝑡 .
(𝑠−3)(𝑠+7)
13𝑠+11
4.7.4 Example: Determine𝐿−1 { }.
(𝑠−1)(𝑠+3)

Solution: Remember from partial fractions we have the form:

13𝑠+11 𝐴 𝐵 𝐴(𝑠+3)+𝐵(𝑠−1)
(𝑠−1)(𝑠+3)
= (𝑠−1) + (𝑠+3) = (𝑠−1)(𝑠+3)

13𝑠 + 11 = 𝐴(𝑠 + 3) + 𝐵(𝑠 − 1) = 𝐴𝑠 + 3𝐴 + 𝐵𝑠 − 𝐵

13𝑠 = 𝐴𝑠 + 𝐵𝑠 ⇒ 13 = 𝐴 + 𝐵
11 = 3𝐴 − 𝐵

VECTOR CALCULUS DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS AND TRANSFORMS

Laplace Transforms
We have 2 equations and 2 unknowns therefore find A and B:
13 = 𝐴 + 𝐵
11 = 3𝐴 − 𝐵
by adding these two together we get:
24 = 4𝐴 ⇒ 𝐴 = 6
11 = 3𝐴 − 𝐵 ⇒ 11 = 3(6) − 𝐵 ⇒ 𝐵 = −(11 − 18) = −(−7) = 7
13𝑠+11 6 7
This gives us = + .
(𝑠−1)(𝑠+3) (𝑠−1) (𝑠+3)

So we now have to find

13𝑠+11 6 7
𝐿−1 { } = 𝐿−1 { + }
(𝑠−1)(𝑠+3) (𝑠−1) (𝑠+3)

1 1
= 6𝐿−1 { } + 7𝐿−1 { }
(𝑠 − 1) (𝑠 + 3)
1 1
= 6𝐿−1 { } + 7𝐿−1 { }.
(𝑠 + (−1)) (𝑠 + (3))

1
We know that 𝐿−1 { } = 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡
𝑠+𝑎

and have 𝑎 = −1and 𝑎 = 3 respectively which gives:

13𝑠+11
𝐿−1 { } = 6𝑒 −(−1)𝑡 + 7𝑒 −(3)𝑡 = 6𝑒 𝑡 + 7𝑒 −3𝑡 .
(𝑠−1)(𝑠+3)
−𝑠−26
4.7.5 Example: Determine𝐿−1 { }.
(𝑠+5)(𝑠−2)

Solution: Remember from partial fractions we have the form:

−𝑠−26 𝐴 𝐵 𝐴(𝑠−2)+𝐵(𝑠+5)
= + =
(𝑠+5)(𝑠−2) (𝑠+5) (𝑠−2) (𝑠+5)(𝑠−2)

−𝑠 − 26 = 𝐴(𝑠 − 2) + 𝐵(𝑠 + 5) = 𝐴𝑠 − 2𝐴 + 𝐵𝑠 + 5𝐵
−𝑠 = 𝐴𝑠 + 𝐵𝑠 ⇒ −1 = 𝐴 + 𝐵
−26 = −2𝐴 + 5𝐵
We have 2 equations and 2 unknowns therefore find A and B:
−2 = 2𝐴 + 2𝐵

VECTOR CALCULUS DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS AND TRANSFORMS

Laplace Transforms
 −26 = −2𝐴 + 5𝐵
by adding these two together we get:
−28 = 7𝐵 ⇒ 𝐵 = −4
−1 = 𝐴 + 𝐵 ⇒ −1 = 𝐴 − 4 ⇒ 𝐴 = −1 + 4 = 3
−𝑠−26 3 4
This gives us = − .
(𝑠+5)(𝑠−2) (𝑠+5) (𝑠−2)

So we now have to find

−𝑠−26 3 4
𝐿−1 { } = 𝐿−1 { − }
(𝑠+5)(𝑠−2) (𝑠+5) (𝑠−2)

1 1
= 3𝐿−1 { } − 4𝐿−1 { }
(𝑠 + 5) (𝑠 − 2)
1 1
= 3𝐿−1 { } − 4𝐿−1 { }.
(𝑠 + (5)) (𝑠 + (−2))

1
We know that 𝐿−1 { } = 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡
𝑠+𝑎

and have 𝑎 = 5and 𝑎 = −2 respectively which gives:

−𝑠−26
𝐿−1 { } = 3𝑒 −(5)𝑡 − 4𝑒 −(−2)𝑡 = 3𝑒 −5𝑡 − 4𝑒 2𝑡 .
(𝑠+5)(𝑠−2)

4.7.8
2𝑠−6
i) Find the inverse Laplace transform for .
(𝑠−2)(𝑠−4)
5𝑠−8
ii) Find the inverse Laplace transform for .
𝑠(𝑠−4)
5𝑠+1
iii) Find the inverse Laplace transform for .
𝑠 2 −𝑠−12

 s2 + s − 2 
4.7.7 Evaluate L-1  s ( s + 3)( s − 2) 
 

 s2 + s − 2 
Solution: To find L-1  s ( s + 3)( s − 2) 
 

 s2 + s − 2   A  B   C 
By partial fractions, L-1  s ( s + 3)( s − 2)  = L-1   + L-1   + L-1  
  s  (s + 3)   (s − 2) 

VECTOR CALCULUS DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS AND TRANSFORMS

Laplace Transforms
 1 4 2
We get A = 3 ; B = 15 ; C = 5

 s2 + s − 2  1  4   2 
L-1  s ( s + 3)( s − 2)  = L-1  3s  + L-1 15( s + 3)  + L-1  5( s − 2) 
     

1 1  4  1  2  1 
= 3 L-1  s  + 15 L-1  ( s + 3)  + 5 L-1  ( s − 2) 
   

1 4 2
= 3 + 15 e-3t + 5 e2t

 s2 + s − 2  1 4 2
 L-1  s ( s + 3)( s − 2)  = 3 + 15 e-3t + 5 e2t is required solution.
 

 s 2 − 10 s + 13 
4.7.8: Evaluate L-1  ( s − 7)( s 2 − 5s + 6 
 

 s 2 − 10 s + 13   ( s − 7)( s − 3) − 8 
Solution: L-1  ( s − 7)( s 2 − 5s + 6  = L-1  ( s − 7)( s − 3)( s − 2) 
   

( s − 7)( s − 3) − 8 A B C
By partial fractions ( s − 7)( s − 3)( s − 2) = (s − 7) + ( s − 3) + (s − 2)

2 3
We get, A = − 5 ; B = 2 ; C = − 5

 ( s − 7)( s − 3) − 8   −2   1  3  1 
L-1  ( s − 7)( s − 3)( s − 2)  = L-1  5( s − 7)  + 2 L-1  ( s − 3)  − 5 L-1  ( s − 2) 
       

 ( s − 7)( s − 3) − 8  2  1   1  3  1 
L-1  ( s − 7)( s − 3)( s − 2)  = − 5 L-1  ( s − 7)  + 2 L-1  ( s − 3)  − 5 L-1  ( s − 2) 
       

2 3
= − 5 e7t + 2 e3t − 5 e2t

VECTOR CALCULUS DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS AND TRANSFORMS

Laplace Transforms
  s 2 − 10 s + 13  2 3
 L-1  ( s − 7)( s 2 − 5s + 6  == − 5 e7t + 2 e3t − 5 e2t is required solution.
 

4.8 Laplace Transforms of integral

𝑡 𝐹(𝑠) 𝑡 𝐹(𝑠)
If 𝐿(𝑓(𝑡)) = 𝐹(𝑆) then 𝐿{∫0 𝑓(𝜏)𝑑𝜏} = 𝑠
and ∫0 𝑓(𝜏)𝑑𝜏 = 𝐿−1 [ 𝑠
]

 1 
4.8.1: Evaluate L-1  2 2 
 s(s + a ) 

 1  sin at
Solution: Since, L-1  2 2 =
 (s + a )  a

  t
dt = 2 (− Cos at )0 = 2 (1 − Cos at )
1 sin at 1 1

t
L-1  2 2 =
 s(s + a )  0
a a a

 1   1 − Cos at 
 L-1  s ( s 2 + a 2 )  =   is required solution.
  a2 

 1 
4.8.2: Evaluate L-1  3
 s( s + a) 

 1   1   1 
Solution: L-1  3  = L-1  3  = e-at L-1  3
 s( s + a)  [( s + a ) − a ]( s + a )   ( s − a) s 

 1  t
e at 1
0 = t −a ;
at
Here we have, L  s ( s − a )  =
-1 e dt
 

  1
− 1) dt = 2 (e at − at − 1) and
t
1 1
 (e
at
-1 
L s ( s − a)  = a
2
  0 a

 1  1
t
1  at a 2 t 2 
0 (e − at − 1) dt = a 3  e − − at − 1
at
L s ( s − a)  = a 2
-1  3
   2 

 1  e − at  at a 2 t 2  1  a 2t 2 
 L-1  3 =
 e − − at − 1 = 3 1 − e − at − e − at − at.e − at 
 s( s + a)  a3  2  a  2 

VECTOR CALCULUS DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS AND TRANSFORMS

Laplace Transforms
  1  1  a 2t 2 
 L-1  3 = 3
1 − e − at − e − at − at.e − at  is required solution.
 s( s + a)  a  2 

Special type of problems

 s 
4.8.3: Evaluate L-1  s 2 + a 2 ) 2 
 

 s 
Solution: Let F (t) = L-1  s 2 + a 2 ) 2 
 
 
 F (t )  s 1 1  1 1 
Hence, L  t  =  s 2 + a 2 ) 2 ds = − 2  s 2 + a 2 )  = 2  s 2 + a 2  since, after
 
0  s

 F (t )  1 −1  1  1
applying limits. So,  t  = 2 L  s 2 + a 2 =
 2a
t sin at

 s  1
 L-1  s 2 + a 2 ) 2  = 2a t sin at is required solution.
 

 1 
4.8.4: Evaluate L-1  2 2 2 
 (s − a ) 

 1 
Solution: L-1  2 2 2 
 (s − a ) 

 s 
= L-1  s ( s 2 − a 2 ) 2 
 
t

=  F (t ) dt
0

t
t Sin at
=
0

2a
dt

1  − cos at   − cos at  

t

t

= 2a 

 t .  −  1. dt 
 
 a 0 0  a 
1  − cos at Sin at 
= 2a t. + 2 
a a 

= 2a 3 Sin at − Cos at 
1

VECTOR CALCULUS DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS AND TRANSFORMS

Laplace Transforms
  1 
 L-1  ( s 2 − a 2 ) 2  = 2a 3 Sin at − Cos at  is required solution.
1
 

 s +1 
4.8.5: Evaluate L-1  Log ( s − 1) 
 

 s +1 
Solution: Let F (t) = L-1  Log ( s − 1) 
 

d  s + 1 
So, t. F(t) = - L-1  ds  Log ( s − 1)  
  

d  s + 1 
= - L-1  ds  Log ( s − 1)  
  

d  1 
= - L-1  ds  Log (s + 1) − Log ( s − 1)  
  

d  d  1 
= - L-1  ds Log (s + 1) + L-1  ds  Log ( s − 1)  
  

 1   1 
= - L-1  s +1 + L-1  s −1

= - e-t + et

 t. F(t) = - e-t + et

 s +1  Sinht
 F(t) = L-1  Log  =2 is required solution.
 ( s − 1)  t

 s2 +1 
4.8.6: Evaluate L-1  Log 
 s ( s + 1) 

 d  s 2 + 1 
Solution: t. F(t) = L-1 −  Log 
 ds  s( s + 1)  

d
 
= − L-1  ds Log ( s + 1) − Log s − Log ( s + 1) 
2


VECTOR CALCULUS DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS AND TRANSFORMS

Laplace Transforms
 d  d   d 
= − L-1  ds Log ( s + 1) + L-1  ds Log s  + L-1  Log (s + 1)
2

 ds 

 2s  1   1 
= − L-1  s 2 + 1 + L-1  s  + L-1  s +1

t. F(t) = − 2 Cos t + 1 + t e-t

−2 1
F(t) = Cos t + e-t +
t t

 F(t) =
1
t
(
t e −t + 1 − 2 Cos t ) is required solution.

 −1  2 
4.8.7: Evaluate L-1 Tan  2 
 s 

𝒅−𝟏 𝟐 −𝟏 𝒅 𝟐
Solution: t F(t) = L-1 {− 𝒅𝒔 [𝑻𝒂𝒏 (𝒔𝟐 )]} = − L-1 {𝒅𝒔 [𝑻𝒂𝒏 (𝒔𝟐 )]}

 
 
 1 − 22   4s 
= − L-1 
 
. 3  = L-1  (s 4 + 2 2 )
 
2
 1 +  s 
2
  s 4  
 

 4s   ( s 2 + 2 + 2s) − ( s 2 + 2 − 2s) 
 2 2 = L-1  
= L-1 (
 s + 2) − ( 2 s ) 
2
)  (
s 2 + 2) 2 − (2s ) 2 ) 

 ( s 2 + 2 + 2s) − ( s 2 + 2 − 2s) 
 2 
= L-1 (
 s + 2 + 2s )( s + 2 − 2s) 
2
)
 ( s 2 + 2 + 2s) (s 2 + 2 − 2s) 
 2 − 
= L-1 (
 s + 2 + 2s )( s + 2 − 2s)
2
) (
s + 2 + 2s )( s + 2 − 2s ) 
2 2
)
 ( s 2 + 2 + 2s)   ( s 2 + 2 − 2s) 
 2  − L-1  2 
= L-1 (
 s + 2 + 2s )( s + 2 − 2 s ) 
2
) (
 s + 2 + 2s )( s + 2 − 2s ) 
2
)
 1   1   1   1 
= L-1  s 2 + 2 − 2 s  − L-1  s 2 + 2 + 2s  = L-1  ( s − 1) 2 + 1 − L-1  ( s + 1) 2 + 1
   

VECTOR CALCULUS DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS AND TRANSFORMS

Laplace Transforms
  e t − e −t 
= et Sin t − e- t Sin t = 2  2  Sin t = 2 sinh t sin t
 

t F(t) = 2 Sinh t sin t

 2 Sinht Sin t 
 F(t) =  t
 is required solution.


4.9 Laplace Transform of Derivatives

If 𝐿(𝑓(𝑡) = 𝐹(𝑠) 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐿(𝑓 ′ ) = 𝑠𝐹(𝑠) − 𝑓(0),
𝐿(𝑓 ′′ ) = 𝑠 2 𝐹(𝑠) − 𝑠𝑓(0) − 𝑓′(0)
𝐿(𝑓 ′′′ ) = 𝑠 3 𝐹(𝑠) − 𝑠 2 𝑓(0) − 𝑠𝑓 ′ (0) − 𝑓′′(0)
𝐿(𝑓 (𝑛) ) = 𝑠 𝑛 𝐹(𝑠) − 𝑠 𝑛−1 𝑓(0) − ⋯ … . 𝑓 (𝑛−1) (0)

4.9.1 Inverse Laplace Transforms and Application to the Solution of Differential

Equations with constant coefficients.
Laplace transform is especially suitable to obtain the solution of linear non-
homogeneous ordinary differential equations with constant coefficients, when all
the boundary conditions are specified for the unknown function and its derivatives
at a single point.
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
Consider the initial value problem + 𝑎 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑏𝑦 = 𝑟(𝑡) ………………………….. (1)
𝑑𝑡 2

𝑦(𝑡 = 0) = 𝑘0 , 𝑦1 (𝑡 = 0) = 𝑘1
………………………………………………………………… (2)
Where 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑘0 , 𝑘1 are all constants and 𝑟(𝑡) is a function of 𝑡.

Method of Solution to differential equation (D.E) by Laplace Transform

(L.T.):

VECTOR CALCULUS DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS AND TRANSFORMS

Laplace Transforms
1. Apply Laplace transform on both sides of the given differential equation (1),
resulting in a subsidiary equation as

[𝑠 2 𝑌(𝑠)– 𝑠 𝑦(0) − 𝑦′(0)] + 𝑎[𝑠𝑌(𝑠) − 𝑦(0)] + 𝑏𝑌(𝑠) = 𝑅(𝑠)

………………………………………. (3)
where 𝑌(𝑠) = 𝐿{𝑦(𝑡)} and 𝑅(𝑠) = 𝐿{𝑟(𝑡)}.
Replace 𝑦(0), 𝑦(0) using given initial conditions (2).

2. Solve (3) algebraically for 𝑌(𝑠), usually to a sum of partial fractions.

3. Apply inverse Laplace transform to 𝑌(𝑠) obtained in 2. This yields the solution
of O.D.E. (1) satisfying the initial conditions (2) as 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝐿−1 [𝑌(𝑠)].

4.9.1 Solve the differential equation by using Laplace transformation 𝑦 − 2𝑦 −

8𝑦 = 0, 𝑦(0) = 3, 𝑦(0) = 6.

Solution: On applying Laplace transform (𝑠 2 𝑌(𝑠) − 3𝑠 − 6) – 2( 𝑠𝑌(𝑠) – 3 ) −

8𝑌(𝑠) = 0
3𝑠 3𝑠
On solving, 𝑌(𝑠) = 𝑠2 −2𝑠−8= (𝑠−4)(𝑠+2)
2 1
By using partial fractions, 𝑌(𝑠) = +
(𝑠−4) (𝑠+2)
1 1
Applying 1 L.T. y(t) = L-1(Y(s)) = 2 L-1 {(𝑠−4)}+L-1{(𝑠+2)} = 2 𝑒 4𝑡 + 𝑒 −2𝑡 .
y(t) = 2 e4t + e-2t is required solution.

4.9.2 Solve the differential equation by using Laplace transformation y+2y+5y

= e-t Sin t, y(0) = 0, y(0) = 1.

Solution: Using L.T. On applying Laplace transform we get the given differential
1
equation as, (s2Y - 0 - 1) + 2( sY – 0 ) = L{ e-t Sin t } = (𝑠+1)2 +12
𝑠2 +2𝑠+3
On solving Y = (𝑠2 +2𝑠+5)(𝑠2 +2𝑠+2)
𝑠2 +2𝑠+3 𝐴𝑠+𝐵 𝐶𝑠+𝐷
By partial fractions, = +
(𝑠2 +2𝑠+5)(𝑠2 +2𝑠+2) (𝑠2 +2𝑠+5) (𝑠2 +2𝑠+2)

𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 + 3= (As + B) (𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 + 2)+ (Cs + D ) (𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 + 5)

𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 + 3= s3(A + C) + s2 (2A + 2C + B + D ) + s (2A + 5C + 2B + 2D )+ 2B + 5D

Equating coefficients of s on either side,

VECTOR CALCULUS DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS AND TRANSFORMS

Laplace Transforms
A + C = 0 ; 2A + 2C + B + D = 1; 2A + 5C + 2B + 2D = 2; 2B + 5D = 3
1 2
 A = 0, B = , C = 0, D =
3 3
𝐴𝑠+𝐵 𝐶𝑠+𝐷 1 1 2 1
Y(s)= (𝑠2 +2𝑠+5)+(𝑠2 +2𝑠+2)= (𝑠+1)2+22 )+ (𝑠+1)2+12)
3 3
1 1 2 1
Applying I.T. y(t) = L-1{Y}= L-1{(𝑠+1)2+22 )}+ L-1{(𝑠+1)2+12)}
3 3
1 1 2 1
using first shifting theorem, y(t)= e-t L-1{𝑠2 +1)}+ e-t L-1{𝑠2 +22}
3 3
𝑒 −𝑡
y(t)= [𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑡 + 𝑆𝑖𝑛2𝑡] is required solution.
3

4.9.3 Solve the differential equation by using Laplace transformation y+n2y

= 𝑎 𝑆𝑖𝑛 (𝑛𝑡 + 2), 𝑦(0) = 0, 𝑦(0) = 0.

Solution: y+n2y = 𝑎 𝑆𝑖𝑛 (𝑛𝑡 + 2)

= 𝑎 [𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 + 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝑡 𝑆𝑖𝑛 2]

Applying L.T. L{ y} + n2 L { y } = 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2. 𝐿{𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝑡} + 𝑎 𝑆𝑖𝑛 2 𝐿{𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝑡}

Using L.T. On applying Laplace transform we get the given differential equation
as,
𝑛 𝑛
[s2Y – sy(0) - y(0)] + n2Y = .𝑎. 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 + . 𝑎. 𝑆𝑖𝑛 2
𝑠2 +𝑛2 𝑠2 +𝑛2

𝑛 𝑛
Solving Y, 𝑌(𝑠) = . 𝑎. 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 + . 𝑎. 𝑆𝑖𝑛 2
(𝑠2 +𝑛2 )2 (𝑠2 +𝑛2 )2

Applying I.T. we get

1 1
y(t) = n. a. Cos 2. L-1 {(𝑠2 +𝑛2)2}+ a. Sin 2. L-1 {(𝑠2 +𝑛2)2}…… (1) From I.L.T. tables,

we know that 2nd term in R.H.S.

𝑠 𝑡.𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑡
L-1 {(𝑠2 +𝑛2 )2 }= ……………………………………………………………… (2) to find
2𝑛
first term in R.H.S.

1 1 𝑠 1 𝑡 1
L-1{(𝑠2 +𝑛2 )2 }=L-1{𝑠 . (𝑠2 +𝑛2)2}=2𝑛 . ∫0 𝑡. 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑡. 𝑛𝑡𝑑𝑡 =2𝑛3 . [−𝑛𝑡𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑛𝑡 + 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑡] ….(3)

Thus substituting (2) and (3) in (1), we get

1 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑡
𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑎. 𝑛. 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2. 2𝑛3 . [−𝑛𝑡𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑛𝑡 + 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑡] + 𝑎 𝑆𝑖𝑛 2 2𝑛

VECTOR CALCULUS DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS AND TRANSFORMS

Laplace Transforms
 a
= [−𝑛𝑡. 𝐶𝑜𝑠2. 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑛𝑡 + 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2. 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝑡 + 𝑛𝑡. 𝑆𝑖𝑛 2 . 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝑡]
2n 2
a
= [𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑡. 𝐶𝑜𝑠2. −𝑛𝑡(𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑛𝑡. 𝐶𝑜𝑠2 − 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑡. 𝑆𝑖𝑛2)]
2n 2
a
= [𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑡. 𝐶𝑜𝑠2. −𝑛𝑡𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝑛𝑡 + 2)]
2n 2
a
 𝑦(𝑡) = [𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑡. 𝐶𝑜𝑠2. −𝑛𝑡𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝑛𝑡 + 2)] 𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.
2n 2

4.10 Convolution theorem If L-1{𝑓(𝑠) } = F(t) and L-1{𝑔(𝑠) } = G(t) then L-

𝑡
1{𝑓(𝑠)𝑔(𝑠) } = ∫0 𝑓(𝑢). 𝑔(𝑡 − 𝑢). 𝑑𝑢= F * G is called the convolution or falting of F

and G.

𝑠
4.10.1 Evaluate L-1 {(𝑠2 +𝑎2)2}

𝑠 𝑠 1
Solution: L-1 {(𝑠2 +𝑎2)2}= L-1 {(𝑠2 +𝑎2) . (𝑠2 +𝑎2)}

𝑠 1 1
[Since, L-1 {(𝑠2 +𝑎2) . } = 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑎𝑡and L-1 {(𝑠2 +𝑎2) . } = 𝑎 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡]

By convolution theorem,
𝑠 1 𝑡 1 1 𝑡
L-1 { . (𝑠2 +𝑎2)}= ∫0 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑎(𝑡 − 𝑢) 𝑎 . 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑢. 𝑑𝑢= ∫ [𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡 − 𝑆𝑖𝑛(2𝑎𝑢 − 𝑎𝑡)𝑑𝑢
(𝑠2 +𝑎2 ) 2a 0
1 1 𝑡
= 2a [[𝑢𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡 − 2𝑎 𝐶𝑜𝑠(2𝑎𝑢 − 𝑎𝑡)]0
𝑠 1 1 𝑡 1
L-1 {(𝑠2 +𝑎2)2}= 2a [[𝑢𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡 − 2𝑎 𝐶𝑜𝑠(2𝑎𝑢 − 𝑎𝑡)]0 = 2a t Sin at
𝑠 1
 L-1 {(𝑠2 +𝑎2)2 }= 2a t Sin at is required solution

𝑠2
4.10.2 Evaluate L-1 { }
(𝑠2 +𝑎2 )(𝑠2 +𝑏2 )
𝑠2
Solution: To find L-1 {(𝑠2 +𝑎2)(𝑠2 +𝑏2)}

𝑠 1
Since, L-1 {(𝑠2 +𝑎2) . } = 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑎𝑡and L-1 {(𝑠2 +𝑏2) . } = 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑏𝑡

by convolution theorem,

VECTOR CALCULUS DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS AND TRANSFORMS

Laplace Transforms
 𝑠2 𝑠 𝑠
L-1 { }= L-1 { 2 2 . 2 2 }
(𝑠2 +𝑎2 )(𝑠2 +𝑏 2 ) (𝑠 +𝑎 ) (𝑠 +𝑏 )

𝑡 1 𝑡
=∫0 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑎(𝑡 − 𝑢)𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑏𝑢. 𝑑𝑢= 2 ∫0 [𝐶𝑜𝑠[𝑎(𝑡 − 𝑢) + 𝑏𝑢] + 𝐶𝑜𝑠[𝑎(𝑡 − 𝑢) − 𝑏𝑢]]𝑑𝑢
1 [𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡+(𝑏−𝑎)𝑡]−𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡 𝑆𝑖𝑛[𝑎𝑡−(𝑏+𝑎)𝑡]−𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡
= 2{ 𝑏−𝑎
}−{
𝑏+𝑎
}
1
= 2(𝑏2−𝑎2) (2𝑏𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑏𝑡 − 2𝑎𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡)
1
= (𝑏𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑏𝑡 − 𝑎𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡)
(𝑏 2 −𝑎2 )

𝑠2 1
 L-1 {(𝑠2 +𝑎2)(𝑠2 +𝑏2)}= (𝑏𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑏𝑡 − 𝑎𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡) is required solution.
(𝑏 2 −𝑎2 )

4.11 Unit Step Function (Heaviside Function) 𝒖(𝒕 − 𝒂)

Definition:
0 𝑖𝑓 𝑡 < 𝑎
𝑢(𝑡 − 𝑎) = {
1 𝑖𝑓 𝑡 > 𝑎

Thus, the function

𝑓(𝑡 − 𝑎) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 > 𝑎
𝑔(𝑡) = {
0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 < 𝑎
can be written as
𝑔(𝑡) = 𝑓(𝑡 − 𝑎) 𝑢(𝑡 − 𝑎)

The Laplace transform of 𝑔(𝑡) can be calculated as


𝐿{ 𝑓(𝑡 − 𝑎) 𝑢(𝑡 − 𝑎) } = 
 𝑒
−𝑠𝑡
𝑓(𝑡 − 𝑎) 𝑢(𝑡 − 𝑎) 𝑑𝑡
0

 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑓(𝑡 − 𝑎) 𝑑𝑡 ( 𝑏𝑦 𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑡 − 𝑎 )
= 
a

= 
 𝑒
−𝑠(𝑥+𝑎)
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑x
0

-
= 𝑒 −𝑠𝑎 
 𝑒
−𝑠𝑥
𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 −𝑠𝑎 𝐿{ 𝑓(𝑡)} = 𝑒 −𝑠𝑎 . f(s)
0

VECTOR CALCULUS DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS AND TRANSFORMS

Laplace Transforms
 4.11.1 Second shifting theorem
-
𝐿{ 𝑓(𝑡 − 𝑎) 𝑢(𝑡 − 𝑎) } = 𝑒 −𝑠𝑎 𝐿{ 𝑓(𝑡) } = 𝑒 −𝑠𝑎 f(s)
-
and 𝐿−1 { 𝑒 −𝑎𝑠 f(s) } = 𝑓(𝑡 − 𝑎) 𝑢(𝑡 − 𝑎)

a e-bs
4.11.2 𝐿{ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑎(𝑡 − 𝑏) 𝑢(𝑡 − 𝑏) } = 𝑒 −𝑏𝑠 𝐿{ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑡 } = s2 + a2

4.11.3 Calculate 𝐿{ 𝑓(𝑡) }

 et 0  t  2
where 𝑓(𝑡) = 
 et + cost t  2
Since the function
 0 t  2
𝑢(𝑡 − −2𝜋) 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑡 − 2𝜋) = 
 cos(t−2) ( = cost) t  2
 the function f(t) can be written as
𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑒𝑡 + 𝑢(𝑡 − 2𝜋) 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑡 − 2𝜋)

 𝐿{ 𝑓(𝑡) } = 𝐿{ 𝑒 𝑡 } + 𝐿{ 𝑢(𝑡 − 2𝜋) 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑡 − 2𝜋) }

1 s e-2s
= + 1 + s2
s−1

1 − e-s/2 
−1 

−1  1  −1  e
-s/2

4.11.4 𝐿  2  = 𝐿  2  −𝐿  2 
 1+s  
s + 1   s +1 
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡 − 𝑢( 𝑡 − 𝜋/2) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( 𝑡 − 𝜋/2)

= 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡 + 𝑢( 𝑡 − 𝜋/2) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑡

4.11.5 Rectangular Pulse

𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑢(𝑡 − 𝑎) − 𝑢(𝑡 − 𝑏)
e-as e-bs
𝐿{ 𝑓(𝑡)} = 𝐿{ 𝑢(𝑡 − 𝑎)} − 𝐿{ 𝑢(𝑡 − 𝑏) } = s − s

4.11.6 Staircase
𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑢(𝑡 − 𝑎) + 𝑢(𝑡 − 2𝑎) + 𝑢(𝑡 − 3𝑎) + . ..
𝐿{ 𝑓(𝑡) } = 𝐿{ 𝑢(𝑡 − 𝑎) } + 𝐿{ 𝑢(𝑡 − 2𝑎) } + 𝐿{ 𝑢(𝑡 − 3𝑎)} +. ...

VECTOR CALCULUS DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS AND TRANSFORMS

Laplace Transforms
 1
= s ( e-as + e-2as + e-3as + ... )
𝐼𝑓 𝑎𝑠 > 0, 𝑒 −𝑎𝑠 < 1 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡

1
1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + . .. =  𝑥 𝑛 = , |𝑥|< 1
1−𝑥
n=0
then, for 𝑠 > 0,
1 e-as
𝐿{ 𝑓(𝑡) } = s
1 − e-as

4.12 Unit Impulse Function (Dirac Delta Function ) 𝜹(𝒕 − 𝒂)

Definition:
1 
𝑖𝑓 𝑎 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑎 + 𝑘
Let 𝑓𝑘 (𝑡) = {𝑘 and 𝐼𝑘 = 
 𝑓𝑘 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 = 1
0 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 0
Define:𝛿(𝑡 − 𝑎) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑘→0 𝑓𝑘 (𝑡)

From the definition,

 
∞ 𝑖𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑎
𝛿(𝑡 − 𝑎) = { and 
 𝛿(𝑡 − 𝑎)𝑑𝑡 = 1, 
 𝛿(𝑡 − 𝑎)𝑑𝑡 = 1
0 𝑖𝑓 𝑡 ≠ 𝑎
0 −
Note that


 𝛿(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 = 1
0

 𝛿(𝑡) 𝑔(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑔(0) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑔(𝑡)

0


 𝛿(𝑡 − 𝑎) 𝑔(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑔(𝑎)
0


The Laplace transform of 𝐿{ 𝛿(𝑡 − 𝑎) } =  −𝑠𝑡
 𝑒 𝛿(𝑡 − 𝑎) 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑒
−𝑎𝑠

VECTOR CALCULUS DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS AND TRANSFORMS

Laplace Transforms
4.12.1 Find the solution of y for y'' + 2 y' + y = (t−1), y(0) = 2, y'(0) = 3

The Laplace transform of the above equation is

− − −
( s2 y − 2 s − 3 ) + 2 ( s y − 2 ) + y = e-s

− 2 s + 7 + e-s 2 (s+1) 5 e-s

or y = s2 + 2 s + 1 = (s+1)2 + (s+1)2 + (s+1)2
2 5 e-s
= s + 1 + (s + 1)2 + (s + 1)2
Since
1
𝐿{ t e-t } = (s + 1)2 ( Recall 𝐿{ t } = s12 )
-s
 e
−1 

 2 = (𝑡− 1)𝑒
−(𝑡−1)
𝐿 𝑢(𝑡 − 1)
 (s + 1) 

 𝑦 = 2 𝑒 −𝑡 + 5 𝑡 𝑒 −𝑡 + ( 𝑡 − 1 ) 𝑒 −(𝑡−1) 𝑢(𝑡 − 1)

= 𝑒 −𝑡 [2 + 5 𝑡 + 𝑒 ( 𝑡 − 1 ) 𝑢(𝑡 − 1) ]

4.12.2. Find the solution of y to the differential equation 𝑦 ′′ + 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑡), 𝑦(0) = 0,

1 0t1
𝑦′(0) = 1 and 𝑓(𝑡) = 
0 t1
The function 𝑓(𝑡) can be written in terms of unit step functions:

𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑢(𝑡). 𝑢(𝑡 − 1)

Now take the Laplace transforms on both sides of the differential equation, we have
− − 1 − e-s
s2 y − 1 + y = s
− 1 + s − e-e 1 s−1 e-s 1
or y = s ( s2 + 1 ) = s - s2 + 1 − s s2 + 1

 𝑦 = 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑡 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡 − [𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡 ∗ 𝑢(𝑡 − 1) ]

t
But the convolution 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡 ∗ 𝑢(𝑡 − 1) = 
 sin (𝑡 − 𝜏) 𝑢(𝜏 − 1) 𝑑𝜏
0
For 𝑡 < 1, 𝑢(𝑡 − 1) = 0, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡 ∗ 𝑢(𝑡 − 1) = 0
and for 𝑡 > 1, 𝑢(𝑡 − 1) = 1,
t t
 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑡 − 𝜏) 𝑢(𝜏 − 1) 𝑑𝜏 = 
  𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑡 − 𝜏) 𝑑𝜏
0 1

VECTOR CALCULUS DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS AND TRANSFORMS

Laplace Transforms
 t
 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑡 − 𝜏) 𝑑𝜏
Thus, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡 ∗ 𝑢(𝑡 − 1) = 𝑢(𝑡 − 1) 
1
= 𝑢(𝑡 − 1) 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑡 − 𝜏)|𝑡1 = 𝑢(𝑡 − 1) [1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑡 − 1) ]

 𝑦 = 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡 − 𝑢(𝑡 − 1) [1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑡 − 1) ]

--------------------------------------------

TUTORIAL QUESTIONS

1. Find the Laplace transform of the following functions:

i) 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡. 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑏𝑡 ii) f(t) = 𝒆−𝟐𝒕 cos 4t iii) 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 3𝑡 iv) 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑡 3 𝑒 −2𝑡
v) 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑡 2 vi) (𝑎 − 𝑏𝑡)2
𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 −𝑒 −𝑏𝑡
2. Find the Laplace transform of i) ii) 𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠4𝑡
𝑡
1
3. Find the Laplace transform of i) 𝑡 2 + 𝑡𝑒 𝑡 + sin 2𝑡 ii) 𝑡 − 3, 𝑡 > 3 iii) 𝑡 2 , 1 < 𝑡 < 2
𝑡
iv) sin ℎ𝑡, 0 < 𝑡 < 2 v) sin 𝜋𝑡, (2 < 𝑡 < 4)
4. Find the Laplace transform of 𝑡𝑓(𝑡), where 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑒 2𝑡 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑡
𝑠+2 𝑠+1 𝑒 −2𝑠
5. Find the Inverse Laplace transform of i) ii) 𝑠2 +2𝑠 iii) (𝑠−1)3
𝑠2 −4𝑠+13

ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS

1. Find the Laplace transform of i) 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡 ii) cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃)

cos 𝑎𝑡−cos 𝑏𝑡
2. Find the Laplace transform of i) 𝑓(𝑡) = ii) 𝑘𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 cos 𝜔𝑡
𝑡
3. Find the Laplace transform of i) 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 2𝑡 ii) 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑡 2 𝑒 −3𝑡 sin 2𝑡
𝑎𝑡
4. Find the Laplace transform of i) 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑡𝑒 sin 𝑏𝑡 ii) 𝑒 −𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ4𝑡
5. In an electric circuit with emf 𝐸(𝑡), resistance 𝑅 and inductance 𝐿,the current 𝑖 builds up at
𝑑𝑖
the rate given by 𝐿 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑖𝑅 = 𝐸(𝑡). If the switch is connected at 𝑡 = 0 and disconnected at
𝑡 = 𝑎, then find the current 𝑖 at any instant.
1−𝑒 𝑡
6. Find the Laplace transform of i) 𝑓(𝑡) = ii) 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑡 2 sin 𝑎𝑡 iii) cos 2𝑡, (0 < 𝑡 < 𝜋)
𝑡
s+2 4s+12 2s+3
7. Find the Inverse Laplace transform of i) ii) iii)
s2 (s+1)(s+3) s2 +8s+16 (𝑠 2 +2𝑠+5)(𝑠−1)
4 𝑒 −2𝑠 2(𝑒 −𝑠 −𝑒 −3𝑠 )
iv) v) vi)
s2 −2s−3 𝑠6 (𝑠 2 −4)

VECTOR CALCULUS DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS AND TRANSFORMS

Laplace Transforms
8. Solve the differential equations (𝐷2 + 𝜔2 )𝑥 = cos 𝜔𝑡, 𝑡 ≥ 0, 𝑥(0) = 0, 𝑥 ′ (0) = 0.
9. Solve the differential equations i) 𝑦 ′′ − 3𝑦 ′ + 2𝑦 = 4𝑡 + 𝑒 3𝑡 ; 𝑦(0) = 1, 𝑦 ′ (0) = −1.
19
ii) 𝑦 ′′ + 10𝑦 ′ + 24𝑦 = 144𝑡 2 ; 𝑦(0) = 12 , 𝑦 ′ (0) = −5.
iii) 𝑦 ′′ + 4𝑦 = 𝛿(𝑡 − 𝜋) − 𝛿(𝑡 − 2𝜋), 𝑦(0) = 1, 𝑦 ′ (0) = 1
𝑠
10. Apply convolution theorem to evaluate 𝐿−1 ((𝑠2 +𝑎2)2 )

UNITWISE QUESTION BANK

1. Find the Laplace transform of i) 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜋𝑡 ii) 𝑓(𝑡) = 2𝑡 + 8

𝜋
2. Find the Laplace transform of i) 𝑓(𝑡) = 1.5 sin (3𝑡 − 2 ) ii) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜔𝑡
3. Find the Laplace transform of i) 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 2𝑡 ii) 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑡𝑒 −4𝑡 cos 2𝑡
4. Find the Laplace transform of i) 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑡𝑒 5𝑡 sin 7𝑡 ii) 𝑒 −3𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ6𝑡
5s+1 s 𝑠+1
5. Find the Inverse Laplace transform of i) ii) 1 iii) 𝑙𝑜𝑔
s2 −25 𝐿2 s2 + 𝜋2 𝑠−1
4
−s+11 1
6. Find the Inverse Laplace transform of i) ii)
s2 −2s−3 (𝑠+√2)(𝑠−√3)
90 6s+7
7. Find the Inverse Laplace transform of i) ii)
(s+√3)6 2s2 +4s+10
𝑘0 𝑘1 a(s+k)+bπ
8. Find the Inverse Laplace transform of i) + ii)
s (𝑠−𝑎)2 (s+k)2 +𝜋2
9. Solve the differential equations i) 𝑦 + 𝑦 − 6𝑦 = 0; 𝑦(0) = 1, 𝑦 ′ (0) = 1.
′′ ′

ii) 𝑦 ′′ + 9𝑦 = 10𝑒 −𝑡 ; 𝑦(0) = 0, 𝑦 ′ (0) = 0.

[Link] the differential equations i) 𝑦 ′′ − 3𝑦 ′ + 2𝑦 = 4𝑡 − 8; 𝑦(0) = 0, 𝑦 ′ (0) = 3.
ii) 𝑦 ′ − 6𝑦 = 0 ; 𝑦(−1) = 4.
iii) 𝑦 ′′ + 4𝑦 ′ + 5𝑦 = 𝛿(𝑡 − 1); 𝑦(0) = 2, 𝑦 ′ (0) = 7.
2 1
11. Find the Inverse Laplace transform of i) 𝑠 ii) 𝜔2
s2 + s(s2 + )
3 4
1 3s+4
12. Find the Inverse Laplace transform of i) ii)
s3 +𝑎𝑠 2 s4 +𝑘 2 𝑠 2
4(1−𝑒 −𝜋𝑠 )
13. Find the Inverse Laplace transform of
s3 +4
−1 9
14. Apply convolution theorem to evaluate 𝐿 (𝑠(𝑠+3))
𝑒 −𝑎𝑠
15. Apply convolution theorem to evaluate 𝐿−1 (𝑠(𝑠−2))

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VECTOR CALCULUS DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS AND TRANSFORMS

Laplace Transforms