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Rural status in Tanzania

As of 2016, Tanzania has an estimated
population of 53 million people, with
about 70% of the population residing in
rural areas.
Poverty is more prevalent in rural areas:
over 84% of the country's poor and
extremely poor people live in rural areas.
 Urbanization
• What is Urbanization?
♦ The term urbanization has also been defined
in different ways:
 According to the United Nations (2019)
urbanization refers to a complex socio-
economic process that transforms the
formerly rural area into urban area that had
to be marked with changes in population,
occupation, lifestyles, culture and behaviour.
 Urbanization is the rural-to-urban
transition involving changes in population,
land use, economic activity as well as
culture (McGranahan and Satterrthwaite,
2014).
 Urbanization can also be defined as an
increase in the proportion of a population
residing in urban areas.
Urbanization is different from urban
growth as the latter refers
specifically to an increase in the
absolute number of people living in
urban settlements rather than the
proportion of people living in urban
settlements.
 Concepts related to Urban areas
1. Peri-Urban (Suburb) areas
 According to Marshall et al., (2009:3)
peri-urban areas are “the urban fringes
and geographical edges of cities”.
Dupont (2005) defines peri-urban areas
as those areas outside the existing urban
agglomeration whereby large changes
are taking place over space and time.
One can also define peri-urban areas as
those areas located at the outskirts of cities
or large towns. For example, Mkuranga,
Kibaha and Bagamoyo can serve as the
outskirts of the city of DSM.
Peri-Urban Areas

PERI-URBAN AREAS
CITY
 Concepts related to Urban areas
2. Urban Sprawl
 Urban sprawl refers to the horizontal
expansion of an urban area (town or
city).
 Urban sprawl is depicted by construction
of relatively simple houses/buildings as
opposed to highly-storeyed buildings
which are vertically erected.
Urban-Sprawl
 Urban sprawls are mainly found in
the cities and/or towns of the
developing countries whereby in the
most cases cities/towns are not well
planned; hence, majority of people
live in unplanned areas.
 Concepts related to Urban areas
3. Compact city
 Compact city reflects the vertical
development of cities or towns of which
are characterized by numerous
skyscrapers (high buildings with many
storeys).
 Compact city development usually
occurs in the well-planned areas
particularly in the developed countries.
Compact city
 Concepts related to Urban areas
4. Megacity
 Megacity refers to a large city with a
population of more than 10 million people.
Tokyo is currently the largest 'megacity' in
the world with more than 37 million
inhabitants.
Other megacities include:
a) New Delhi with 29 million
b) Shanghai with 26 million
c) Mexico City and São Paulo, each with
around 22 million inhabitants (United
Nations, 2018).
d) Cairo (20 million) and Lagos (19.4
million) are among the largest megacities
in Africa.
 Rural-Urban Linkage
• What is rural-urban linkage (inter-
relationship)?
• Rural-urban linkages can be defined as the
social, economic, cultural, and political
relationships maintained between individuals
and groups in the urban environment and
those in rural areas.
 Rural Development
• What is rural development?
Rural development refers to a strategy
designed to improve economic and social
life of a specific group of people- the
rural poor.
 Rural Development
Rural development involves extending
the benefits of development to the
poorest people living in rural areas.

The group includes small-scale farmers,

tenants and landless.
 Rural Development
Rural development is a process of social and
economic change in rural areas for the
purpose of raising the standard of living of
the majority of people residing in rural
areas.
 Rural development refers to all programmes
concerned with the improvement of the
living standard of the low-income people
who live in rural areas.
 Models based on Rural Development
 From 1940s i.e. after the second world war,
attention was paid to rural development
than urban development.
 Why such orientation?
The focus on rural development rather than
urban development among other things
was influenced by Marxist Centre-Periphery
theory and Dependency theory all of which
regarded urban areas (cities and towns) as
the administrative and political centers for
resources exploitation rather than serving
as the centers for rural development.
 Marxist Centre-Periphery and Dependency
theorists inclined on the empirical evidence
that: there was a wide gap in terms of
development between rural and urban
areas.
 Predominance of agriculture in rural
development was supported by the
following factors:
i. Majority of people in developing countries
mainly live in rural areas than in urban
areas.
ii. Large part of the population in developing
countries are employed in agricultural
sector. For instance, 68 % of labour force in
Africa had been employed in agricultural
sector.
iii. Agriculture was the main contributor to
GDP. For instance, until 2005 the
contribution of agricultural sector to GDP
was more than 50%.
iv. Foreign exchange was generated mainly by
agricultural sector.
♦ Apart from that agriculture and rural sector
in general was supposed to stimulate
development in both rural and urban areas
through the following ways:
i. Employment creation in both rural and
urban areas.
ii. Development of manufacturing
industries some of which could use the
produced agricultural raw materials e.g.
textile industries
iii. Improvement of social services in both
rural and urban areas.
iii. Infrastructure development connecting
both rural and urban areas.
iv. Reduce rural-urban migration.
v. Maximum utilization of natural resources
including land and water bodies for crop
cultivation and animal keeping etc.
 The Green Revolution Strategy
• Introduced in 1960s and 1970s.
• Aim: improve the productivity of
smallholder farmers in developing
countries through:
(1) Introduction of new high-yielding crop
varieties (HYVs).
• (2) Use of irrigation
• (3) Use of artificial fertilizers
• (4) Weed and pest control methods
• (5) Agricultural mechanization i.e use of
improved tools.
• Outcomes:
1. HYVs were widely introduced in the
developing world.
2. Impressive increases in crop yield,
inspiring the nickname, the green
revolution.
3. Africa did not benefit much due to
failure to adopt green revolution
technologies.
Currently, African countries continue to direct
their efforts towards achieving the green
revolution.

Home work question

Explain seven major challenges for achieving the green
revolution in African countries and suggest five possible
solutions for addressing those challenges.
Integrated Rural Development (IRD)
Approach/Strategy
 Due to low contribution of agriculture that
was observed during the implementation
of sectoral approach, it led to a shift to
Integrated Rural Development (IRD)
approach which focused on a variety of
sectors (multi-sectors); and that is why
sometimes is called a multi-sectoral
approach.
 According to Hahlani (2012) integrated
rural development is a multi-sectoral and
inter-disciplinary approach to development
management.
It entails a holistic and comprehensive
consideration of all aspects in the
course of rural development planning.
 Many countries adopted IRD after
political independence.
For instance in Tanzania, IRD was
adopted during the implementation of
the third 5-year development plan (1976-
1981) onwards (Hahlani, 2012).
Conceptually, Integrated Rural Development
(IRD) emphasized the need to make rural
population as an integral part of the
mainstream of the national development.
 IRD sought to incorporate rural people in
the efforts to increase production thereby
enhancing development in general.
IRD specifically emphasized that:
i. All people in a society must have the
opportunity to participate in nation-
building activities.
ii. All people must share the fruits of
development.
iii. Organization of people for development
activities should be promoted.
iv. The rural population that may have been
by-passed in the process of development so
far, must figure among the main beneficiaries
of future development efforts.
v. Integration and harmonization of
development activities within a common
framework must be promoted in rural areas
by paying particular attention to:
(a) Inter-sectoral linkages
(b) Inter-project linkages
(c) Spatial allocation of projects
(d) Institutional organization for execution
of the programs.
(e) Social-political factors and
(f) Technologies to be used.
 In Tanzania IRD was implemented at the
level of region and district.
At the level of region it was known as
Regional Integrated Rural Development
(RIDEP)
At district level it was termed as District
Integrated Development Plans (DIDEPs).
 Procedures for RIDEP Preparation
 RIDEP preparation typically consisted of
three main stages:
i. Pre-feasibility study
 This includes the identification of the
overall and sectoral resource-base,
including an assessment of the region’s
development constraints and potentials
(potentialities)
ii. Feasibility study
 Programme formulation consisting of
detailed feasibility studies of the projects
ready for presentation to funding and
implementation.
 Procedures for RIDEP Preparation

iii. Appraisal, Implementation, Monitoring

and Evaluation
 Mobilization of resources and review of
all matters related to the implementation
of the formulated programs including
monitoring and evaluation.
 Limitations of IRD programs
 Planning and implementation process were
driven/influenced by the donor countries
and foreign experts. Hence, local people
could not effectively participate.
 IRD programs were mainly financed by
donor countries. Thus they shortly
collapsed after such external funds were
close to non-existence.
 In practice it based on top-down
approach.
 It was expensive since it involved the
foreign experts who were highly paid.
 IRD programs lacked proper coordination.
 Limitations of IRD programs

 IRD programs also suffered from

duplication of some of activities thereby
weakening efficiency and increasing
administrative and production cost.
 IRD programs could not develop strong
base in capacity development among the
local communities.
 Basic needs approach
• Emerged in 1970s as a critique to economic
growth strategies to rural development.
• Emphasis on policies that focus directly on
poverty in order to meet the basic needs of
poor people.
Urged governments and other actors to
design mechanisms that would directly
reduce poverty and meet the basic needs
of the people.
 Shifting to the 2nd model

The 1st model has been challenged for its

failure to contribute to sustainable
development as it overemphasized on
Rural sector
Following the failure of the 1st model the
thinking shifted to urban development with
less emphasis to transformation of rural
areas.
48
 Model Based on Urban Development

In this model: urban areas are afflicted

by many problems which hinder rural
development e.g. rural-urban migration.
The fact is that urban and rural areas are
interrelated.

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 The 3rd Model of Development
Model based on Rural-Urban Inter-relationships

 Interrelating rural and urban so as to

promote sustainable development.
 The model holds that the two have ‘forward
and backward linkages’ in all dimensions:

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A. Economic Interdependence
─ Flows of agricultural and other rural based
commodities need markets in urban areas
─ Flows of manufactured goods from the
cities and towns need markets in the rural
areas
─ Financial services from the banks and
other institutions developed in urban
areas are demanded in the rural areas
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B. Social Services Interdependence
─ Education is the basic need in both urban
& rural areas
─ Water is essential for the live of the people
living in urban & rural areas.

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C. Information and communication
facilities
D. Infrastructures: road networks
developed in cities and towns link
the rural areas
E. People: Migrants are moving from
rural to urban areas and vice versa
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In order to realize sustainable
development there is a need to put in
place and implement integrated strategy
of development

4/27/2022 54
 Readings
UNDP (2000) Rural-urban linkages: An
emerging policy priority. New York: Bureau for
Development Policy
Lynch, Kenneth (2004) Rural-urban interaction
in the developing world. London: Routledge

4/27/2022 55
 Readings
Hodge, I & Midmore, P. (2019). Models of
Rural Development and Approaches to
Analysis, Evaluation and Decision Making

Hahlani, C.D. (2012). Bottlenecks to Integrated

Rural Development Planning in Zimbabwe: A
Focus on the Midlands Province

4/27/2022 56
 Readings
Marshall, F., Waldaman, L., MacGregor., Mehta,
L., & Randhawa, P. (2009). On the Edge of
Sustainability: Perspectives on Peri-Urban
Dynamics

JICA (2002). Effective Approaches for Rural

Development

4/27/2022 57
 Readings
Du Plessi, V., Beshiri, R., & Bollman, R. D. (2002).
Agriculture and Rural, Working Paper No. 61

Lipton, M. (1977).Why Poor People Stay Poor. A

study of urban bias in world development,
Harvard University Press.

4/27/2022 58
Key Argument on the role of Agriculture
to Industrial Development
 A sustainable transformation of
agricultural sector is a key factor in
supporting industrial development
and promoting a rapid growth rate
for the national economy.
 Justifications/Reasons for the Role of
Agriculture to Industrial Development
(i) Agriculture supplies foodstuffs and
raw materials required in urban areas.
(ii) agriculture is responsible for producing
cash and food crops for exports to earn
foreign exchange which could be used to
buy technology and other items for
urban, rural and industrial development.
Justifications/Reasons for the Role of
Agriculture to Industrial Development
(iii) agriculture plays the role of releasing
labour force for the industrial and other
urban sectors.
(iv)Agriculture is responsible for expanding
the domestic market for industrial
products.
(v) Agriculture has the importance of
increasing domestic savings for financing
industrial expansion.
 Urban Development: Population
 The UN projections predict that urban
populations in developing countries will be
growing by more than 65 million people per
year between 2000 and 2030 (UN, 2006).

 By 2050 seven out of ten people in the

world will be living in urban areas (UNICEF,
2012).
In Tanzania, urban population increased
from 5.7 percent to 22.6 percent from
1967 to 2002 (Muzzini and Lindeboom,
2008).
Urban Development: Advantages/ Prospects
 Urbanization has various positive trickle-
down effects/prospects/contributions:
 Urban areas largely contribute to the
economic development
 High circulation of money
 Provide a variety of trade opportunities or
income generating activities
 They are sources of remittances
directed to rural population
 Urban areas are centres for
administration and host headquarters
of various organizations-local and
international organizations.
 High purchasing power which on the other
hand provide reliable markets.
 Urban centres offer more avenues for jobs
(employment opportunities)
 Promotes economies of scale which is
essential for growth
 High concentration of people in urban
areas can also smooth the provision of
social services such as hospitals, health
centres, dispensaries, schools, water,
electricity etc.
 They are centres for various innovations
Urban Problems in Developing Countries
 Large number of unemployed and
underemployed people.
 Frequent outbreak of eruptive diseases
such as cholera.
 Abuse and damage/destruction of
physical infrastructures such as bridges,
road signs, etc.
 Overwhelmed provision of some social
services such as water and sanitation
services.
 Relative high house rents for residence
 Slum development
 Environmental degradation
 Crimes and immoralities
Assets and Their Implications on Rural
and Urban Development in Africa
 UNDERSTANDING OF ASSETS
They are referred to as resources or
capital which is a prerequisite for
production and wealth creation.
 They are important for both rural and
urban development
 Forms of Assets
 There are five key assets for rural
and urban development namely:
Financial capital
Human capital
Natural capital
Physical capital
Social capital
 Financial capital
“Financial capital” denotes the financial
resources that people use to achieve
their livelihood objectives.
 It comprises the important availability
of cash or equivalent that enables
people to adopt different livelihood
strategies.
 Two main types of financial capital can
be identified:
Available stocks comprising cash, bank
deposits or liquid assets such as livestock
and jewellery.
Regular inflows of money comprising
labour income, pensions, or other
transfers from the state, and remittances.
 Human capital
• It refers to the skills, knowledge and ability
to work.
• Human capital is highly dependent on
adequate nutrition, health care, safe
environmental conditions, and education.
 Natural capital

• It refers to environmental assets such as

land, water bodies, forests and air.
 Physical capital

Physical capital includes assets such as

housing, tools and equipments that
people own, rent or use and public
infrastructure such as (transport and
telecommunication networks) that they
have access to.
 Social capital
Social capital refers to networks of mutual
support that exist within and between
individuals, households, extended families,
and communities.
Social capital also include the wider
networks of social relations between poor
and non-poor, poor and poor as well as
between non-poor and non-poor.
These networks can be used to mobilise
access, for example, to loans, childcare,
food, accommodation and information
about employment and other opportunities.
Food Security and Its Implications on
Rural and Urban Development
 Definition of Food Security
• Food security exists when all people, at
all times, have physical and economic
access to sufficient safe and nutritious
food that meets their dietary needs and
food preferences for an active and
healthy life.
Four Dimensions of Food Security
1. Physical AVAILABILITY of food

2. Economic and physical ACCESS to food

3. Food UTILIZATION

4. STABILITY of the other three

dimensions over time
 Food availability
Food availability addresses the “supply
side” of food security and is determined
by the level of food production, stock
levels and net trade.
It entails the availability of sufficient
quantities of food of appropriate quality,
supplied through domestic production or
imports (including food aid).
 Food access
Entails access by individuals to adequate
resources (entitlements) for acquiring
appropriate foods for a nutritious diet.
WFP (2009:170) defines food access as
“A household’s ability to acquire
adequate amount of food regularly
through a combination of purchases,
barter, borrowings, food assistance or
gifts”.
 Three Elements/Aspects of Food Access

1. Physical Access: Location of food

2. Financial Access: Households have the
financial ability to regularly acquire
adequate amounts of food to meet their
requirements.
3. Socio-cultural Access: The traditions
and customs such as gender issues
 Food Utilization
1. The selection of food commodities
2. Food conservation
3. Food Preparation
4. Absorption of nutrients: the way the
body makes the most of various
nutrients in the food. This food security
dimension is determined primarily by
people’s health status.
 Food Stability
 Looks at sustainability of three dimensions
of food security i.e. availability, access and
utilization.
Food security is “a situation” that does not
have to occur a moment, a day or a season
only but on a permanent basis with
sustainability.
 For food security objectives to be
realized, all four dimensions must be
fulfilled simultaneously.
For example, even if people have money
(access), if there’s no food available in the
market (availability), people are at risk of
food insecurity.
Furthermore, food security is also about
quality, and that your body must be
healthy to enable the nutrients to be
absorbed (utilization).
 Food Insecurity
• Chronic Food Insecurity: Chronic food
insecurity is taken as long-term or
persistent.

• Transitory Food Insecurity: Transitory

food insecurity is short-term and
temporary.
 Status of Food Insecurity

According to State of Food Insecurity {SOFI}

(2019) More than 820 million people in the
world were still hungry in 2018, underscoring
the immense challenge of achieving the Zero
Hunger target by 2030.
Food Insecurity is on the rise in almost all
African sub regions (20%), making Africa the
region with the highest prevalence of
undernourishment.
Hunger is also slowly rising in Latin America
and the Caribbean.