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Hydraulic lab project report complete

Hydraulic and Mechanics of Materials (Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia)

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FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT

DEPARTMENT OF WATER & ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

HYDRAULICS LABORATORY REPORT

1) PELTON TURBINE
2) FRANCIS TURBINE
EXPERIMENT 3) OPEN CHANNEL
4) INFILTRATION RATE
5) BASIC HYDROLOGY

BFC 21201 HYDRAULICS AND MECHANIC OF MATERIAL

CODE / COURSE
LABORATORY

SECTION 11

GROUP NAME GROUP 5

GROUP MEMBERS

LECTURER /
INSTRUCTOR / DR. AZRA MUNIRAH BINTI MAT DAUD
TUTOR NAME

SUBMISSION DATE 20TH MAY 2020

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REPORT 35%

MARKS INTERVIEW 7.5%

OTHERS 7.5%

RECEIVED STAMP 50%

EXAMINER COMMENTS

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STUDENT’S ETHICAL CODE (SEC)

FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT

DEPARTMENT OF WATER & ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

UNIVERSITY TUN HUSSEIN ONN MALAYSIA

BATU PAHAT, JOHOR

"I declare that I have prepared this report with my own efforts. I also declare not receive or
give any assistance in preparing this report and make this affirmation in the belief that
nothing is in, it is true"

(STUDENT SIGNATURE)

NAME

MATRIC NO :

DATE : 20th MAY 2020

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STUDENT’S ETHICAL CODE (SEC)

FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT

DEPARTMENT OF WATER & ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

UNIVERSITY TUN HUSSEIN ONN MALAYSIA

BATU PAHAT, JOHOR

"I declare that I have prepared this report with my own efforts. I also declare not receive or
give any assistance in preparing this report and make this affirmation in the belief that
nothing is in, it is true"

(STUDENT SIGNATURE)

NAME :

MATRIC NO : 1

DATE : 20th May 2020

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STUDENT’S ETHICAL CODE (SEC)

FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT

DEPARTMENT OF WATER & ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

UNIVERSITY TUN HUSSEIN ONN MALAYSIA

BATU PAHAT, JOHOR

"I declare that I have prepared this report with my own efforts. I also declare not receive or
give any assistance in preparing this report and make this affirmation in the belief that
nothing is in, it is true"

(STUDENT SIGNATURE)

NAME :

MATRIC NO

DATE : 20th MAY 2020

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STUDENT’S ETHICAL CODE (SEC)

FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT

DEPARTMENT OF WATER & ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

UNIVERSITY TUN HUSSEIN ONN MALAYSIA

BATU PAHAT, JOHOR

"I declare that I have prepared this report with my own efforts. I also declare not receive or
give any assistance in preparing this report and make this affirmation in the belief that
nothing is in, it is true"

(STUDENT SIGNATURE)

NAME :

MATRIC NO :

DATE : 20th MAY 2020

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STUDENT’S ETHICAL CODE (SEC)

FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT

DEPARTMENT OF WATER & ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

UNIVERSITY TUN HUSSEIN ONN MALAYSIA

BATU PAHAT, JOHOR

"I declare that I have prepared this report with my own efforts. I also declare not receive or
give any assistance in preparing this report and make this affirmation in the belief that
nothing is in, it is true"

(STUDENT SIGNATURE)

NAME :

MATRIC NO :

DATE : 20th MAY 2020

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STUDENT’S ETHICAL CODE (SEC)

FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT

DEPARTMENT OF WATER & ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

UNIVERSITY TUN HUSSEIN ONN MALAYSIA

BATU PAHAT, JOHOR

"I declare that I have prepared this report with my own efforts. I also declare not receive or
give any assistance in preparing this report and make this affirmation in the belief that
nothing is in, it is true"

(STUDENT SIGNATURE)

NAME :

MATRIC NO :

DATE : 20th MAY 2020

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CONTENT

NO TITLE PAGE

1. PELTON TURBINE:

1.0) INTRODUCTION 1

2.0) OBJECTIVE 1

3.0) THEORY 1-4

4.0) EQUIPMENT & MATERIAL 5-6

5.0) PROCEDURE 7-8

6.0) RESULTS & CALCULATION 9-13

7.0) DISCUSSION 14

8.0) CONCLUSION 15

9.0) REFERENCE 15

2. FRANCIS TURBINE

1.0) INTRODUCTION 16-17

2.0) OBJECTIVE 17

3.0) THEORY 18

4.0) EQUIPMENT & MATERIAL 19-20

5.0) PROCEDURE 21-22

6.0) RESULTS & CALCULATION 23-30

7.0) DISCUSSION 31

8.0) CONCLUSION 32

9.0) REFERENCE 32

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NO TITLE PAGE

3. OPEN CHANNEL:

1.0) INTRODUCTION 33

2.0) OBJECTIVE 33

3.0) THEORY 34-36

4.0) EQUIPMENT & MATERIAL 36

5.0) PROCEDURE 37

6.0) RESULTS & CALCULATION 38-44

7.0) DISCUSSION 45

8.0) CONCLUSION 45

9.0) REFERENCE 46

4. INFILTRATION RATE:

1.0) INTRODUCTION 48

2.0) OBJECTIVE 48

3.0) THEORY 48-49

4.0) EQUIPMENT & MATERIAL 50-51

5.0) PROCEDURE 52

6.0) RESULTS & CALCULATION 53-54

7.0) DISCUSSION 55

8.0) CONCLUSION 56

9.0) REFERENCE 57

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NO TITLE PAGE

5. BASIC HYDROLOGY:

1.0) INTRODUCTION 59-60

2.0) OBJECTIVE 61

3.0) LEARNING OUTCOMES 61

4.0) THEORY 61

5.0) APPARATUS & FUNCTION 62-63

6.0) PROCEDURE 64

7.0) RESULT & CALCULATION 65-72

8.0) QUESTION 73-75

9.0) DISCUSSION 76

10.0) CONCLUSION 77

11.0) REFERENCE 78

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1.0) INTRODUCTION

Pelton Wheel Turbine is an impulse or a constant pressure water turbine. In this case
water head is very high. Pelton wheel consists of a wheel called rotor. The rotor of the turbine
consists of a circular disc with a few double spoon shaped buckets evenly distributed over the
periphery. The water is the supplied from the reservoir. This type of turbine available hydraulic
energy of the water is converted into the kinetic energy at atmospheric pressure by means of
the nozzle jet. Each nozzle directs the jet along a tangent to the circle through the centers of
the buckets. Each bucket consists of a splitter which divides the incoming jet in to two equal
portions and after flowing around the smooth inner surface of the bucket the water leaves with
a relative velocity almost opposite in direction to the original jet. The high-speed water jets
running the Pelton wheel turbine are obtained by expanding the high-pressure water through
nozzles to the atmospheric pressure. The high-pressure water can be obtained from any water
body situated at some height or streams of water flowing down the hills. The change in
momentum of the water jet in passing over the buckets exerts tangential force on the wheel
causing it to rotate. For that, change in momentum of the water stream should be maximum
possible thus converts the hydraulic energy into the mechanical energy by means of the shaft
rotation.

2.0) OBJECTIVE

To determine the operating characteristics of a Pelton turbine at various speeds

3.0) THEORY

In the impulse turbines, the total head available is first converted into the kinetic energy.
This is usually accomplished in one or more nozzles. The jets issuing from the nozzles strike
vanes attached to the periphery of a rotating wheel. Because of the rate of change of angular
momentum and the motion of the vanes, work is done on the runner (impeller) by the fluid and,
thus, energy is transferred. Since the fluid energy which is reduced on passing through the
runner is entirely kinetic, it follows that the absolute velocity at outlet is smaller than the
absolute velocity at inlet (jet velocity). Furthermore, the fluid pressure is atmospheric
throughout and the relative velocity is constant except for a slight reduction due to friction. The
Pelton wheel is an impulse turbine in which the vanes, sometimes called buckets, of elliptical

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shape are attached to the periphery of a rotating wheel, as shown in figure below. One or two
nozzles project a jet of water tangentially to the vane pitch circle.

3.1 Components of the Pelton turbine:

1. Runner with bucket: Runner (also named impeller) of Pelton turbine consists
of a circular disc on the periphery of which a few buckets are fixed.

2. Nozzle: The water coming from the reservoir through penstock is accelerated
to a certain velocity by means of a nozzle.

3. Spear: The spear is a conical needle which is operated either by a hand wheel
or automatically in an axial direction depending upon the size of the unit. The
amount of water striking the buckets of the runner is controlled the spear in the
nozzle.

4. Casing: Casing is used to prevent the splashing of the water and to discharge
water to tail race. It is made up of cast iron or steel plate.

5. Breaking jet: When the nozzle is completely closed by moving the spear in the
forward direction the amount of water striking the runner reduce to zero.

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However, due to inertia the runner goes on to revolves for a long time. To stop the
runner in a short time, a small nozzle is used to direct the jet of water on the back of buckets.
This jet of water is called breaking jet.

Governing mechanism: The speed of turbine runner is required to be maintained

constant so that electric generator can be coupled directly to turbine. Therefore, a device called
governor is used to measure and regulate the speed of turbine runner.

Power, Efficiency and Specific Speed Expressions:

From Newton’s second law applied to angular motion,

Angular velocity (ω) = 2𝜋𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠/𝑚𝑖𝑛(rad/s)

60𝑠𝑒𝑐/𝑚𝑖𝑛

Torque (τ, Nm) = Rate of change of angular momentum

Mechanical Power Pm (watt) = (Torque)*(Angular velocity)

Where, 1 revolution is equal to 2 radiuses,

*Drum brake radius on turbine (DBR) = 30 x 10-3 (m)

Meanwhile, Waterpower, 𝑃𝑤 (watt) = 𝜌𝑔𝐻𝑄 where,

Water density is (100 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3),

𝑔 is gravity constant (9.81 𝑚/𝑠2),

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𝐻 is head at inlet point (𝑚) and 𝑄 is flowrate (𝑚3/s).

Turbine efficiency, η% = 𝑃𝑚 𝑃𝑤 × 100

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4.0 EQUIPMENT AND MATERIAL

Figure 4.2: Tachometer (used to read turbine

Figure 4.1: Pelton Wheel speed)

Figure 4.3: Pressure gauge (used to read Figure 4.4: Spring balance (used to give load
pressure) at Pelton Turbine)

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Figure 4.5: Ball (used to block the drain) Figure 4.6: the volumetric reading

Figure 4.7: Stopwatch (used for recording time)

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5.0 PROCEDURE

1. Check that the valve at the pump discharge is closed.

2. The spring balances was adjusted at zero and make sure no load was applied.

Figure 5.1: Adjust the spring balances.

3. The pump is switched on.
4. The hydraulic benches were started, and the control valve is slowly open while
opening the spear valve until the bench flow is at maximum and the spear valve
is fully opened. This valve is to be kept opened throughout the test.

5. The tachometer is used to measure the maximum speed of the turbine and
recorded.

Figure 5.2: The tachometer used to measure speed.

6. The turbine pressure at the pressure gauge was taken and recorded.

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Figure 5.3: Turbine pressure was taken.

7. The reading on the spring balance were also recorded.
8. The ball is used to block the drain to allow the water to flow into the volumetric
reading.

Figure 5.4: The ball is used to block the drain.

9. The stopwatch is used to record the time when the water volume reach at 20litres
mark.

Figure 5.5: Water volume reached 20litres mark.

10. Step 2 to 9 was repeated and applied the load with different load by the spring
balances.

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6.0) RESULT AND CALCULATIONS

Formula used:

Mechanical Power: 𝑷𝒎 (watt) = Torque, 𝑟 (Nm) × 𝑚 (rad/s)

1. Torque, 𝑟 (Nm) = Force (N) × Radius (m)

𝟐 𝝅 𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒔/𝒎𝒊𝒏
2. 𝑚 = (rad/s)
𝟔𝟎 𝒔𝒆𝒄/𝒎𝒊𝒏

Waterpower: 𝑷𝒘 (watt) = 𝒑𝒈𝑯𝑸

𝑷𝒘 (Watt) = 𝒑𝒈𝑯𝑸
𝒑 = water density
𝒈 =gravity constant
𝑯= inlet point (m)
𝑸= flowrate

Turbine characteristic:
𝒎
𝒈 = 𝟗. 𝟖𝟏
𝒔𝟐

𝝅 = 3.142
𝒓 = 𝟑𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐 m
𝒑 = 100𝒌𝒈/𝒎𝟐

Load (N) Wheel Water

Pressure,
Speed, N Volume, Time, (s)
W1 W2 ∆W (H)
(RPM) (l)

0 0 0 20 9679.7 20 70.8

1.0 0 1.0 18 8769.1 20 70.2

2.0 0.4 1.6 16 1948.4 20 67.2

3.0 0.8 2.2 14 6615.3 20 64.2

4.0 1.0 3 12 5184.4 20 61.8

Table 6.1: Data recorded

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Volume
Angular Mechanical Turbine
Discharge, Flow Rate Torque, Waterpowe
Velocity, Power, 𝑃𝑚 Efficiency
Q (l/s) Q (10−4 𝑟 (Nm) r, 𝑃𝑤 (watt)
s1 (watt) n%
𝑚2/𝑠)

0.2825 2.825 0 1013.66 55.43 0 0

0.2849 2.849 0.03 918.3 50.31 27.459 54.75

0.2976 2.976 0.048 204.04 46.71 9.793 20.96

0.3115 3.115 0.066 692.76 42.78 45.7215 106.87

0.3236 3.236 0.09 542.91 38.09 48.862 128.28

Table 6.2: Result of Pelton Test

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6.1) Calculation

Torque, 𝑟 = Force × Brake radius

= ( ∆W) × Brake radius

= (1) x (30𝑥10−3)

=0.03 Nm

Angular velocity = (2π × wheel speed) ÷ 60

= [2π x (8769.1)] ÷ 60

= 918.3 s1

Mechanical Power, 𝑷𝒎 = Torque, 𝑟 × angular velocity

= 0.03 x 918.3

= 27.549 W

Waterpower, 𝑷𝒘 = ρgHQ

= 1000 × 9.81 × 18.0 × (2.849× 10−4)

= 50.31 W

Efficiency = (mechanical power ÷ waterpower) × 100

= (27.549 ÷ 50.31) × 100

= 54.75%

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GRAPH OF ROTATION POWER, (N) AGAINST WHEEL SPEED, N (RPM)

60

50 48.862
45.7215
ROTATION POWER, W

40

30
27.549

20

10 9.793

0 0
9679.7 8769.1 1948.4 6615.3 5184.4
ROTATION POWER, (WATT) 0 27.549 9.793 45.7215 48.862
WHEEL SPEED, N

Graph 1: Graph of rotation power, W versus motor speed, N.

GRAPH OF EFFICIENCY (%) AGAINST WHEEL SPEED, N (RPM)

140 128.8

120 106.8

100
EFFICIENCY, (%)

80
54.75
60

40
20.96
20
0
0
9679.7 8769.1 1948.4 6615.3 5184.4
EFFICIENCY (%) 0 54.75 20.96 106.8 128.8
WHEEL SPEED, N (RPM)

Graph 2: The graph turbine efficiency, (%) versus motor speed, N.

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DISCHARGE, Q
3.3 3.236

3.2
3.115
3.1
2.976
DISCHARGE, Q

2.9 2.849
2.825
2.8

2.7

2.6

2.5
9679.7 8769.1 1948.4 6615.3 5184.4
DISCHARGE, Q 2.825 2.849 2.976 3.115 3.236
WHEEL SPEED, N (RPM)

Graph 3: The graph discharge, Q versus motor speed, N.

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7.0) DISCUSSION

From this result obtained, we can see how Pelton Turbine reacts to different kind of
input. Base on the table 1.1, this experiment was carried out with the different load, (N) and
the load that was applied is increase from 0 to 4.0 KN. The increase in load affected the rotation
power and workability of the Pelton Turbine. When load was applied to the turbine, it also
makes the speed of the wheel dropped from 70s to 61s. We were also able to identify the
mechanical power, 𝑃𝑚 and the turbine efficiency, n% with the use of formula that have been
given. From the data obtained, the graph of rotation power, turbine efficiency and discharge
versus motor speed had been plotted. From the graph it shows that the rotation power and
turbine efficiency increased directly proportional to the time. However, the discharge of
volumetric flow rate increased from 2.825*10−4 𝑚2/𝑠 to 3.236*10−4 𝑚2/𝑠 against the motor
speed when the water head decreases. That shows the momentum water was being transferred
to the turbine. For maximum power efficiency, the turbine system is designed such that the
water-jet velocity is twice the velocity of the bucket. A very small percentage of the water
original kinetic energy will remain in the water. However, this allows the bucket to be emptied
at the same rate it is filled.

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8.0) CONCLUSION

From this experiment, we can conclude that the different of load N, flow rate, Q and
the rotational speed will influence the performance of the Pelton turbine. Different load will
also either increase or decrease the speed of wheel. When there is too much weight being
dropped, the speed will decrease until it stopped suddenly as the weight is too much for it to
go against. The combination of flow rate and jet velocity also manipulates the power or work
input. The bigger the diameter nozzle results in a faster flow rate but lower in velocity jet.

9.0) REFERENCES

1. [Link]

2. [Link]

3. [Link]

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1.0 INTRODUCTION

Turbines are subdivided into impulse and reaction machines. In the impulse turbines,
the total head available is converted into the kinetic energy. In the reaction turbines, only some
part of the available total head of the fluid is converted into kinetic energy so that the fluid
entering the runner has pressure energy as well as kinetic energy. The pressure energy is then
converted into kinetic energy in the runner. The Francis turbine is an inward flow reaction
turbine that was developed by James B. Francis. Francis turbines are the most common water
turbine in use today. They operate in a water head from 40 to 600 m and are primarily used for
electrical power production. The electric generators which most often use this type of turbine
have a power output which generally ranges just a few kilowatts up to 800 MW.

A Francis turbine consists of the following main parts:

Spiral casing: The spiral casing around the runner of the turbine is known as the volute casing
or scroll case. Throughout its length, it has numerous openings at regular intervals to allow the
working fluid to impinge on the blades of the runner. These openings convert the pressure
energy of the fluid into momentum energy just before the fluid impinges on the blades. This
maintains a constant velocity despite the fact that numerous openings have been provided for
the fluid to enter the blades, as the cross-sectional area of this casing decreases uniformly along
the circumference.

Guide and stay vanes: The primary function of the guide and stay vanes is to convert the
pressure energy of the fluid into the momentum energy. It also serves to direct the flow at
design angles to the runner blades.

Runner blades: Runner blades are the heart of any turbine. These are the centers where the
fluid strikes and the tangential force of the impact causes the shaft of the turbine to rotate,
producing torque. Close attention in design of blade angles at inlet and outlet is necessary, as
these are major parameters affecting power production.

Draft tube: The draft tube is a conduit that connects the runner exit to the tail race where the
water is discharged from the turbine. Its primary function is to reduce the velocity of discharged

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water to minimize the loss of kinetic energy at the outlet. This permits the turbine to be set
above the tail water without appreciable drop of available head.

Figure 1: Component of Francis Turbine Figure 2: Francis turbine at Grand

Coulee dam, U.S.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

1) To determine the relationship between the head, flow rate, velocity, power and
efficiency

of Francis turbine.

2) To study about the basic operating system of Francis turbine

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3.0 THEORY

The Francis turbine is a type of reaction turbine, a category of turbine in which the
working fluid comes to the turbine under immense pressure and the energy is extracted by the
turbine blades from the working fluid. A part of the energy is given up by the fluid because of
pressure changes occurring in the blades of the turbine, quantified by the expression of degree
of reaction, while the remaining part of the energy is extracted by the volute casing of the
turbine. At the exit, water acts on the spinning cup-shaped runner features, leaving at low
velocity and low swirl with very little kinetic or potential energy left. The turbine's exit tube is
shaped to help decelerate the water flow and recover the pressure.

Degree of reaction can be defined as the ratio of pressure energy change in the blades
to total energy change of the fluid. This means that it is a ratio indicating the fraction of total
change in fluid pressure energy occurring in the blades of the turbine. Rest of the changes occur
in the stator blades of the turbines and the volute casing as it has a varying cross-sectional area.
For example, if the degree of reaction is given to be 50%, that means that half of the total
energy change of the fluid is taking place in the rotor blades and the other half is occurring in
the stator blades. If the degree of reaction is zero it means that the energy changes due to the
rotor blades is zero, leading to a different turbine design called Pelton Turbine.

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4.0 APPARATUS

Apparatus Function

 To give the information on where

the total energy change.

Figure 3: Degree of reaction

hh

 To give the reading of water

pressure

Figure 4: Pressure Gauge

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Apparatus Function

 To control the flow of water

Figure 5: By-pass valve

hh

 n = speed

 V = Voltage

 I = Ampere
 Q = Flow rate

Figure 6:

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5.0 PROCEDURE

1. The apparatus is set up with every part is in the initial state.

Figure 7: The Francis Turbine apparatus is set up.

2. For the first experiment, the degree of reaction is set up to 50%.

Figure 8: the degree of reaction is set up to 50%

3. To make the water flow easy for rotating the turbine, the nozzle jet is set to fully open.
4. The pump is switched on and the water start to flow into the nozzle.
5. The by-pass valve is adjusted slowly until the maximum rotating is reached which is
when the pressure gauge is in static move.

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Figure 9: the by –pass valve rotating slowly.

6. The reading of pressure (m), speed ( n ), flow rate (Q) and voltage (V) is recorded
for further action.

Figure 10: All the readings given is recorded.

7. Step 1 until step 6 is repeated for each loads such 25, 50, 75 and 100 respectively.
8. Step 1 to step 7 also is repeated for degree of reaction in 100%.
9. The reading is recorded in a table and the output and efficiency turbine is calculated.

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6.0 RESULT AND CALCULATION

6.1 Results from Francis Turbine Experiment

Current Average Average Average Average

Pressure, Flow Rate, Speed, n Voltage, V Average
Z (%) Reading, I Load Pressure, Flow Voltage, Current
P (bar) Q (l/h) (RPM) (volt) Speed, n
(ampere) P Rate, Q V Reading, I

0.94 16.1 4971 24.2 0 0

0.86 16.6 5724 20.3 0.73 25

50 0.80 17.1 4597 15.7 1.43 50 0.812 16.96 4345.6 16.08 1.312

0.76 17.4 3755 12.3 1.86 75

0.70 17.6 2681 7.9 2.54 100

1 15.5 5262 23.7 0 0

0.90 15.8 4567 19.3 0.70 25

100 0.84 16.3 4480 15.1 1.42 50 0.868 16.4 3337.8 15.62 1.272

0.82 16.9 3775 12.4 1.83 75

0.78 17.5 2626 7.6 2.41 100

(Note: The yellow highlight values been used for example calculations.

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6.2 Calculation
Calculation for Pmech
Pmech = Pel/0.75

Pel = V x I
= 15.7 x 1.43
= 22.451 watt

Hence,
Pmech = Pel/0.75
Pmech = 22.451/0.75

= 29.935 watt

Calculation for Phyd

𝐏𝐡𝐲𝐝 = 𝗒𝐇𝐭𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥𝐐

𝐇𝐭𝐨𝐭 = 𝐇𝐦𝐚𝐧𝐇𝐤𝐢𝐧𝐇𝐏𝐫𝐞𝐬
Hman = 0.35 m (constant)
𝑉2
𝑚
Hkin =
2 (𝑔)

Vm = Q/𝑠𝑚
(Given that Sm = 1962.5 mm2)
Vm = 0.00476 m3/s / 0.0019265 m2

Vm = 2.420 m/s

Hkin = 2.4202/ (2 x 9.81)

Hkin = 0.2985 m

ρm
Hpress = 𝛾

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(Given that 𝛾 = 9820)

Hpress = 0.8x105 / 9820

Hpress = 8.147 m

Hence,
𝐇𝐭𝐨𝐭 = 𝐇𝐦𝐚𝐧+𝐇𝐤𝐢𝐧+𝐇𝐏𝐫𝐞𝐬

Htot = 0.35 + 0.2985 + 8.147

Htot = 8.796

To conclude,
𝐏𝐡𝐲𝐝 = 𝗒𝐇𝐭𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥𝐐

Phyd = 9820 x 8.796 x 0.00475

Phyd = 410.289 watt

Calculation for efficiency (n%)

𝑷𝒎𝒆𝒄𝒉
𝐧= 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒅
𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟎

n = (29.935/410.289) x 100

n = 7.296 %

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6.3 Data Analysis

6.3.1 Data for Z = 50%

Flow
Current Pmech
Rate, Q Speed, n Voltage, Pel (VxI)
Z (%) ρm x10⁵ Reading, I Load (Pel/0.75)
(m³/s) x (RPM) V (volt) Watt
(ampere) Watt
10⁻³

0.94 4.472 4971 24.2 0 0 0 0

0.86 4.611 5724 20.3 0.73 25 14.819 19.759

50 0.8 4.75 4597 15.7 1.43 50 22.451 29.935

0.76 4.823 3755 12.3 1.86 75 22.878 30.504

0.7 4.889 2681 7.9 2.54 100 20.066 26.755

(Table above shows the calculation for Pmech, Z=50%)

Hpres Vm Hkin
Hman Vm²
(ρm/Y) Sm (m²) (Q/Sm) V²/(2*9.81) Htotal (m) Phyd (watt) n%
(m) (m/s)
(m) (m/s) (m)

0.35 9.572 0.0019625 2.279 5.194 0.2647 10.187 447.363 0

0.35 8.758 0.0019625 2.350 5.523 0.2815 9.390 425.179 4.647

0.35 8.147 0.0019625 2.420 5.856 0.2985 8.796 410.289 7.296

0.35 7.759 0.0019625 2.458 6.042 0.3079 8.417 398.645 7.652

0.35 7.128 0.0019625 2.491 6.205 0.3163 7.794 374.190 7.693

(Table above shows the calculation for Phyd and n%, Z=50%)

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6.3.2 Data for Z = 100%

Flow Current
Speed, Pmech
Z ρm Rate, Q Voltage, Reading, Pel (VxI)
n Load (Pel/0.75)
(%) x10⁵ (m³/s) x V (volt) I Watt
(RPM) Watt
10⁻³ (ampere)
1 4.506 5262 23.7 0 0 0 0

0.90 4.389 5467 19.3 0.70 25 13.510 18.013

100 0.84 4.528 4480 15.1 1.42 50 21.442 28.589

0.82 4.694 3775 12.4 1.83 75 22.692 30.256

0.78 4.861 2626 7.6 2.41 100 18.316 24.421

(Table above shows the calculation for Pmech, Z=100%)

Hpres Vm Hkin
Hman Vm² Htotal Phyd
(ρm/Y) Sm (m²) (Q/Sm) V²/(2*9.81) n%
(m) (m/s) (m) (watt)
(m) (m/s) (m)

0.35 9.572 0.0019625 2.296 5.272 0.2687 10.191 450.941 0

0.35 9.165 0.0019625 2.236 5.000 0.2548 9.770 421.087 4.278

0.35 8.656 0.0019625 2.307 5.322 0.2713 9.277 412.501 6.931

0.35 8.350 0.0019625 2.392 5.723 0.2916 8.992 414.487 7.300

0.35 7.739 0.0019625 2.477 6.136 0.3127 8.402 401.070 6.089

(Table above shows the calculation for Phyd and n%, Z=50%)

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GRAPH:

For Z = 50%

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For Z = 100%

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7.0) DISCUSSSION

From this experiment, we can see the relationship between the head (m), flow rate (Q),
velocity (v), speed (n), power efficiency of a Francis Turbine. In Francis Turbine, water flow
is radial into the turbine and exits the Turbine axially. Water pressure decreases as it passes
through the turbine imparting reaction on the turbine blades making the turbine rotate. The
function of turbines is to get electricity converted from natural hydraulic power. Francis turbine
may also be used for pumped storage, where a reservoir is filled by the turbine (acting as a
pump) during low power demand and then reserved and used to generate power during peak
demand.
Francis Turbines are generally installed with their axis vertical. Water with high head
(pressure) enters the turbine through the spiral casing surrounding the guide vanes. The water
loses a part of its pressure in the volute (spiral casing) to maintain its speed. Then water passes
through guide vanes where it is directed to strike the blades on the runner at optimum angles.
As the water flows through the runner its pressure and angular momentum reduces. This
reduction imparts reaction on the runner and power is transferred to the turbine shaft.
If the turbine is operating at the design conditions the water leaves the runner in axial direction.
Water exits the turbine through the draft tube, which acts as a diffuser and reduces the exit
velocity of the flow to recover maximum energy from the flowing water.

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8.0) CONCLUSION

The experiment objective is achieved. In producing the highest power through turbines,
all factors must be taken. The same flow rate produces a different velocity. While the velocity
of water will produce a different power and efficiency according to the different capabilities of
the turbine. Factor such as the flow rate, velocity, power and efficiency of this interaction and
should be taken into account. Results of experiment showed the relationship between head,
flow rate, velocity, power and efficiency were producing the desired energy. Aperture-opening
in these experiments show differences and advantages between an aperture so that we can to
reflect the actual operating situation of a Francis Turbine

9.0) REFERENCE

1. [Link]
francis%20t%C3%BCrbini%20deney%20f%C3%B6y%C3%[Link]

2. [Link]

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1.0 INTRODUCTION

An open channel is a waterway, canal or conduit in which the liquid flows with a free
surface. Open channel flow refers to the fluid motion in an open channel where the water was
flow in artificial channel or natural channel. In most of the applications, the liquid is the water
and the air above the flow is usually at rest or at standard atmospheric pressure.

In open channels the transition from a rapid flow to a slow flow is known as hydraulic
jump. Hydraulic jump occurs when the depth of flow changes rapidly from supercritical flow
to subcritical flow within a short distance. It happens when the slope of open channel decreases
from steep to mild, the depth of flow of water increases towards the critical depth and a flow
instability occurs at some point. The flow becomes turbulent until the new normal depth is
attained in the downstream. In hydraulic jump, the water flow had a sudden change in water
depth from the less than critical to the greater critical depth. The different of flow velocity form
the supercritical as a result for the jump. This transition was taking place over a relatively short
distance, usually less than 5 times the depth flow after the jump where the height increase
rapidly and incurring considerable of loss energy. There are 5 types of hydraulic jump such as
undular jump, weak jump, oscillating jump, steady jump and strong jump.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

To investigate the characteristic a standing wave (the hydraulic jump) produced when waters
beneath an undershot weir and to observe the flow patterns obtained.

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3.0 THEORY

Figure 3.1: Hydraulic Jump

When water flow rapidly changes to slower tranquil flow a hydraulic jump or
standing wave is produced. This phenomenon can be seen where water shooting under a
sluice gate mixes with deeper water downstream. It occurs when a depth less than critical
changes to a depth which is greater than critical and must be accompanied by loss of
energy. An undular jump occurs when the change in depth is small. The surface of the
water undulates in a series of oscillations, which gradually decay to region of smooth
tranquil flow. A direct jump occurs when the change in depth is great. The large amount
of energy loss produces a zone of extremely turbulent water before it settles to smooth
tranquil flow.

By considering the forces acting within the fluid on either side of a hydraulic jump of unit
width it can be shown that (Equation. 1):

2 
H  d  va  d  vb 
2
(Equation. 1)
2g  b 2g 
a

Where, ∆H is the total head loss across jump (energy dissipated) (m), va is the mean
velocity before jump (m/s), da is the depth of flow before hydraulic jump (m). Because of
the working section is short, da ≈ d1 and db ≈ d3. Therefore, simplifying the above equation,

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d d 3
H  3 1
(Equation. 2)
4d1d3

Figure 3.2 The hydraulic Jump

This illustration of the hydraulic jump shown in Figure. The water flow through the gate
with high velocity and a depth less than the critical depth causing the rapid flow of water.
Assuming the channel is horizontal, since the hydraulic jump takes place in a limited length
of channel, and gravitational energies will not be important. Let the water enter the jump
with velocity V1 and height y1 and leave with velocity V2 and height y2. In one second, the
momentum lost by the fluid in passing through the jump is ρQ (V 2 - V1), and this must be
equal to the difference in pressure forces on the two cross sections. This difference is
ρgh1A1 - ρgh2A2, where h is the distance from the surface to the centroid of area, A. This
is one place where the pressure plays an explicit role. Equating the rate of momentum
change with the net force acting, we find that the combination hA + QV/g is conserved.
For a rectangular channel, A = by and h = y/2m so a conserved quantity is f = q2/yg + y2/2.

We can write this in dimensionless form by setting x = y/yc, as we did for the specific
energy above. Then, f/yc = 1/x + x2/2. We shall call a plot of f/yc vs y/yc the hydraulic jump
curve. Curiously, it is just the specific energy curve with 1/x in place of x. The hydraulic
jump curve for a wide rectangular channel is shown at the right.

When the slope changes from steep to mild, a hydraulic jump occurs at a point such
that y2 is the normal depth on the downstream end. Depending on the corresponding value
of y1, the jump may occur either after or before the break in slope, wherever the required

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value of y1 can be found. If y1 is greater than the depth on the steep slope, then the jump
will occur on the mild slope when the height of the rapid flow reaches y1. If it is not, then
the jump will occur on the steep slope to a depth that becomes the normal depth on the
mild slope.

4.0 EQUIPMENT AND MATERIAL

Figure 4.1: Self-contained Glass Sided

Figure4.2: Adjustable Undershot Weir
Tilting Flume

Figure 4.3: Instrument Carrier Figure 4.4: Hook and Point Gauge

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5.0 PROCEDURE

1. The flume was ensured its level same with the downstream tilting overshot weir, at the
bottom of its travel. The actual breadth (m) of the undershot weir were measured and recorded.
Then the undershot weir was installed towards the inlet end of the flume and its securely
clamped in position were ensured.

2. The undershot weir was adjusted to position the sharp edge of the weir 20 mm above
the bed of the channel. The height of the tilting overshot weir was increased until the
downstream level just starts to rise.

3. The flow control valve then gradually opened, and the flow was adjusted until an
undular jump is created with small ripple decaying towards the discharge end of the working
section. Then the flow pattern was observed and sketched.

4. The height of water upstream of the undershot weir was increased by increasing the
flow rate and the height of the tilting overshot weir were increased to create a hydraulic jump
in the centre of the working section. The flow pattern was observed and sketched.

5. The values of 𝑦1, 𝑦3, 𝑦𝑔 and 𝑄 was measured and recorded. Then it was repeating for
other flow rates (upstream head) and heights of the gate.

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6.0 RESULT AND CALCULATION

Channel width = 0.3 m

Table 6.1: The Hydraulic Jumps

Flow Flow
Upstream
Weir Depth Depth Flow
Flow
Opening Above Below Rate Q ∆H v₁ ∆H/y₁ y₃/y₁
Depth y₀
yg (m) Jump y₁ Jump y₃ (m³/s)
(m)
(m) (m)

0.020 0.1801 0.0128 0.0728 0.0064 0.0579 0.1185 0.0579 5.6875

0.020 0.2215 0.0128 0.0627 0.0076 0.0387 0.1144 0.0387 4.8984
0.025 0.2079 0.0191 0.0808 0.0086 0.0380 0.1379 0.0380 4.2304

0.030 0.1875 0.0281 0.0876 0.0092 0.0214 0.1636 0.0214 3.1174

0.038 0.1897 0.029 0.0936 0.0108 0.0248 0.1898 0.0348 3.2276

6.1 Data Analysis

1. Equation for the total head loss, ∆𝐻:

(𝑦3 − 𝑦1)3
∆𝐻 =
4𝑦1𝑦3

When yo = 0.1801, When yo = 0.2215,

(0.0728 − 0.0128)3 (0.0627 − 0.0128)3

∆𝐻 = ∆𝐻 =
4(0.0128)(0.0728) 4(0.0128)(0.0627)

= 0.0579 = 0.0387

When yo = 0.2079, When yo = 0.1875,

(0.0808 − 0.0191)3 (0.0876 − 0.0281)3

∆𝐻 = ∆𝐻 =
4(0.0191)(0.0808) 4(0.0281)(0.0876)

= 0.0380 = 0.0214

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When yo = 0.1897,

(0.0936 − 0.029)3
∆𝐻 =
4(0.029)(0.0936)

= 0.0248

2. Formula for velocity, 𝑣1:

𝑄
𝑣1 =
𝐴

When yo = 0.1801, When yo = 0.2215,

0.0064 0.0076
𝑣1 = 𝑣1 =
0.3 𝑋 0.1801 0.3 𝑋 0.2215

= 0.1185 = 0.1144

When yo = 0.2079, When yo = 0.1875,

0.086 0.0092
𝑣1 = 𝑣1 =
0.3 𝑋 0.2079 0.3 𝑋 0.1875

= 0.1379 = 0.1636

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When yo = 0.1897,

0.0108
𝑣1 =
0.3 𝑋 0.1897

= 0.1898

Graph of y g against v1
0.07
0.06
0.05
0.04
YG

0.03
0.02
0.01
0
5.6875 4.8984 4.2304 3.1174 3.2276

V1

Graph1: yg against v1

3. Calculation for: ∆H/y₁

When yo = 0.1801, When yo = 0.2215,

0.0579 0.0387
= =
0.0128 0.0128

= 4.5234 = 3.0234

When yo = 0.2079, When yo = 0.1875,

0.0380 0.0214
= =
0.0191 0.0281

= 1.9895 = 0.7616

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When yo = 0.1897,

0.0248
=
0.029

= 0.8552

4. Calculation for: y₃/y₁

When yo = 0.1801, When yo = 0.2215,

0.0728 0.0627
= =
0.0128 0.0128

= 5.6875 = 4.8984

When yo = 0.2079, When yo = 0.1875,

0.0808 0.0876
= =
0.0191 0.0281

= 4.2304 = 3.1174

When yo = 0.1897,

0.0936
=
0.029

= 3.2276

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GRAPH OF ∆H/Y₁ AGAINST Y₃/Y₁

0.07

0.06

0.05

0.04
∆H/y₁

0.03

0.02

0.01

0
5 . 6875 4 . 8984 4 . 2304 3 . 1174 3 . 2276
y₃/y₁

Graph 2: ∆H/y₁ against y3/y1

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5. Calculation for critical depth, 𝑦𝑐 (only applies to rectangular channel):

3 𝑞2
𝑦𝑐 = √
𝑔

When yo = 0.1801, When yo = 0.2215,

0.02132
3 0.02532
3
𝑦𝑐 = √ 𝑦𝑐 = √
9.81 9.81

= 0.0359 = 0.0403

When yo = 0.2079, When yo = 0.1875,

3 0.02872 3 0.03072
𝑦𝑐 = √ 𝑦𝑐 = √
9.81 9.81

= 0.0438 = 0.0458

When yo = 0.1897,

0.03602
3
𝑦𝑐 = √
9.81

= 0.0509

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6.3 Verify y1 < yc < y3

yo y₁ < yc < y₃

0.1801 0.0128 < 0.0359 < 0.0728

0.2215 0.0128 < 0.0403 < 0.0627

0.2079 0.0191 < 0.0438 < 0.0808

0.1875 0.0281 < 0.0458 < 0.0876

0.1897 0.029 <0.0509 <0.0936

7.0) QUESTION

1. Verify the force of the stream on either side of the jump is the same and that the
specific
energy curve predicts a loss equal to ΔH/yc.

Fbefore = Fafter

2. Suggest application where the loss of energy in hydraulic jump would be desirable. How is
the energy dissipated?

The application where hydraulic jump would be desirable are the drop spillways. Drop
spillways which also known as drop structures where they are abrupt decrease in channel bed
elevation with a downstream stilling basin which use to dissipate hydraulic energy in the open
channels. Drop spillways often combine both hydraulic jump and impact features. The energy
dissipation may occur via the flow blocks, end sill of the basin, turbulence in the tail water and
hydraulic jump for some cases. The incorrectly dimensioned may worsen an erosion problem
for the downstream channel. Others than that, hydraulic jump also applied in the design of
dams in the upstream where the river has a high-water velocity. The energy is dissipated when
the water flow into the turbine of the dam or the floodgate. When the water at a high velocity
discharge into a area with a lower velocity which cause a rather abrupt rise occurs on the water
surface.

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8.0) DISCUSSION

Based on the experiment, it is known that fluid depth changes abruptly over a short length of
channel without any change in the channel configuration. Such depth changes can be
approximated as a discontinuity in the free-surface elevation. This discontinuity is known as
hydraulic jump. The increasing discharge flowrate affects the decreasing on upstream flow
depth y0, and the initial flow velocity before jump, v1. The chain reaction made the flow depth
above jump y1, and flow depth below jump y3 increase.

The flow depth in between the critical changes flow allowed the loss of flow energy. The
recorded water depth before the hydraulic jump y1 is less than the critical depth yc but the depth
of water with hydraulic jump is higher than y3.

Based on the result has been collected from the experiment in laboratory, we can state that even
the weir opening we took different height for five times reading, the open channel experience
hydraulic jump. The hydraulic jump occurs when the water flow from supercritical flow to
subcritical flow. By using all the information from the experiment, two graphs are made. The
first graph is plotted of yg against velocity, v₁ and the second graph plotted ∆H/y₁ against y₃/y₁.
The first graph shows that when the value of yg is 0.020 the velocity decreases from 0.1185 to
0.1144 and velocity started increasing when the value of yg is 0.025 to 0.038. For the second
graph ∆H/y₁ against y₃/y₁, when ∆H/y value is 0.0579 to 0.0348 the values of y₃/y₁ decreases
from 5.6875 to 3.2276 as shown in the graph.

9.0) CONCLUSION

In the experiment, the concept and the characteristics of hydraulic jump were
understood. Hydraulic jumps occur at abrupt transitions from supercritical flow in the flow
direction. Based on the experiment, it is shown that the factors which influence the hydraulic
jump are change in discharge flowrate of the flow Q, depth of upstream flow y0, flow depth
above jump y1, and velocity before jump v1. The greater the flowrate, the greater the upstream
flow depth, the greater the hydraulic jump over a constant weir opening. The rapidly varied
hydraulic jump occurs if the depth changes abruptly over a comparatively short distance. In
terms of engineering the objective of hydraulic jump is to perform energy-dissipating device
to reduce the excess energy of water flows.

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10.0) REFERENCE
1. [Link]
d=rja&uact=8&sqi=2&ved=0ahUKEwjwkK7On_nSAhVSPrwKHYhPCtgQFggbMAE&url=
http%3A%2F%[Link]%2F~thsu%2Fcourse%2FChap_5_HJ.pdf&usg=AF
QjCNGw3sxHEGqiZlMrm3AJQaA_GsPZNQ&bvm=bv.150729734,[Link]
2. [Link]
3. [Link]

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11.0 APPENDIX

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INFILTRATION RATE

1.0 Introduction

Infiltration is the proses of water soaking into the soil and the infiltration rate is the velocity
at which water can seep into the soil. Some of the precipitation that falls on land infiltrate into
the ground where it is stored in aquifers and is transported to streams and lakes by subsurface
flow. The amount of infiltration is influenced by the permeability and moisture content of the
soil, the presence of vegetation and the volume and intensity of precipitation. Besides, the
amount of water in an aquifer is indicated by the height of the water table. This the effect of
soil permeability (large particles have large spaces between them and let more water in) and
precipitation volume (large rain events can lead to more infiltration) on the amount of water in
the aquifer.

2.0 Objective

To identify the characteristics of the infiltration rate of water into soils in the field.

3.0 Theory

The double ring infiltrometer is a simple instrument that is used to determine the rate of
infiltration of water into the soil. A double ring infiltrometer requires two rings: an inner and
outer ring. The purposes are to create a one-dimensional flow of water from the inner ring, as
the analysis of data is simplified. If water is flowing in one-dimension at steady state condition,
and a unit gradient is present in the underlying soil, the infiltration rate is approximately equal
to the saturated hydraulic conductivity.

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An inner ring is driven into the ground, and a second bigger ring around that to help control
the flow of water through the first ring. Water is supplied either with a constant or falling head
condition, and the operator records how much water infiltrates from the inner ring into the soil
over a given time.

The volume of water used during each measured time interval is converted into an
incremental infiltration velocity for both the inner ring and annular space using the following
equations; where, is the inner ring incremental infiltration velocity (cm/hr) is the volume of
water used during time interval to maintain constant head in the inner ring (mL), is the internal
area of inner ring (cm2) and is the time interval (hour). For the annular space between rings,
calculate as follows; where is the annular space incremental infiltration velocity (cm/hr), is the
volume of water used during time interval to maintain constant head in the annular space
between the rings (mL), is the area of annular space (cm2) and is the time interval (hour). The
infiltration rate calculated with the inner ring should be the value used for results if the rates
for the inner ring and annular space differ. The different in rates is due to divergent flow.

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4.0 Equipment and Material

Equipment Function

Two stainless steels ring measures 12’’

and 24’’ diameter x 20’’ high and driving
plate

Figure 1

Rubber hammer
- Use hammer to drive infiltrometer into
the soil

Figure 2

Water
- Poured in between inner and outer ring

Figure 3

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Stopwatch
- Record the time when water experience
drops

Figure 4

Ruler
- Measure the initial height of water

Figure 5

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5.0 Procedure

1. All the equipment is ready to set up on the soil that has been selected.
2. A driving plate is put on the inner ring.
3. The inner ring of infiltrometer is inserted about 5 cm vertically into the soil and used
hammer to drive infiltrometer into the soil.
4. Driving plate is removed then the outer ring is placed around the inner ring. The outer ring
is inserted a same way as the inner ring.
5. The shape of driving plate will ensure the depth identical to the inner ring.
6. When water in between the inner and outer ring is drop, water is poured into the inner ring
about 5 cm
7. The water drop in the inner ring is recorded by using stopwatch at interval of 60 seconds
for each value. Recorded until it reached constant value.

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6.0 Result

Time taken (second) Inner (mm) Infiltration Rate (mm/s)

60 90 1.5
120 90 0.75
180 90 0.5
240 89 0.37
300 89 0.30
360 89 0.25
420 88 0.21
480 88 0.18
540 88 0.16
600 88 0.15
660 88 0.13
720 87 0.12
780 87 0.11
840 87 0.10
900 87 0.10
960 87 0.09
1020 87 0.09
1080 86 0.08
1140 86 0.08
1200 86 0.07
1260 86 0.07
1320 86 0.07
1380 86 0.06
1440 85 0.06
1500 85 0.06
1560 85 0.05
1620 85 0.05
1680 85 0.05
1740 85 0.05

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6.1 Graph of infiltration rate versus time

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7.0 Discussion

Infiltration is the process of water that enters into a soil from rainfall or irrigation. From
this experiment, we can see that the types of soil influence the infiltration rates. For dry soil
which the moisture content is lower causes infiltration occur faster than wet and saturated soil
due to higher void exist in it. For wet soil, infiltration occur in modest time between dry soil
because wet soil contains higher moisture content which allow infiltration rate getting slower.
From the experiment, we consider that the soil a wet, after plot a graph of infiltration rate versus
time. The process of infiltration is not too fast because they already have water inside the soil.
So, the water was slowly to absorb inside the soil during the experiment was carried out.

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8.0 Conclusion

Infiltration rate may be defined as the millimetres per unit time of water entering into soil
regardless of types or values of forces or gradients. From the experiment, the result showed
that the infiltration rate is from 1.5 mm/s for the first 60 second, 0.75mm/s for the 120 second
and decreasing then until the end of the experiment. Therefore, the result above shows that the
infiltration rate will decrease after a period and then finally stop. There are many factors that
will influence the results which are the type of soils, the initial condition of soil humidity, soil
compaction and the flow supply. Therefore, the infiltration capacity was affected by the
porosity of the soil and moisture content of the soil.

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9.0 Reference

1. Lab sheet Open Ended Laboratory Instruction, Hydraulic Laboratory, Department of

Water Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Built Engineering
University Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia.
2. [Link]
3. [Link]
4. [Link]
[Link]

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APPENDIX

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1.0 INTRODUCTION

Figure 1.1: The Hydrological Cycle

The hydrological cycle can be described as the continuous movement of water above,
on and below the surface of the earth. The mass of water remains constant over time. During
the hydrological cycle, the water moves from the river to the ocean and from the ocean to the
atmosphere by the physical processes of evaporation, condensation, precipitation, infiltration,
surface runoff and subsurface flow.

Besides, the hydrological cycle involves the exchange of energy which will cause the
temperature changes. When the water evaporates, it takes up energy from the surroundings and
cools the environment whereas it releases energy and warms the environment when it
condenses. The heat exchanges will affect the climate. The figure 1.1 illustrates the
hydrological cycle in which the water falls to the earth as precipitation where it enters water
surface or percolates into the water table and groundwater, and is eventually taken back into
the atmosphere by process of transpiration and evaporation to begin the hydrological cycle
again.

During the hydrological cycle, it involves several processes that are evaporation,
transpiration, condensation, precipitation, and surface runoff. When the water is heated by the
sun, surface molecules will be sufficiently energized to break free of the attractive force binding
them together, and then evaporate as invisible vapor to the atmosphere. This process is called
as evaporation. Transpiration can be defined as the process in which the water vapor is emitted

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from plant leaves. When the water vapor rises, it cools and condenses on tiny particles of dust
in the air. As the water vapor condenses, it becomes a liquid again or turns into a solid such as
snow and hail. Then, the water particles will be collected and form clouds. This process is
called as condensation.

Precipitation can be the form of rain, snow and hail which comes from the clouds.
When the clouds rise over mountain ranges, they cool and become saturated with water, so that
the water begins to fall as rain, snow, or hail by depending on the temperature of the
surrounding air. Runoff is the water flow in rivers, creeks and lakes as the water stored in the
basin drains out. Hydrological cycle also involves the process of percolation. Some of the
precipitations move downwards, percolate and infiltrate through cracks, joints and pores in soil
and rocks until they reach the water table where they become groundwater. The rainfall
intensity is defined as the ratio of the total amount of the rain falling during a given period to
the duration of the period. It can be expressed in depth per unit time. (mm/h)

The hydrological cycle plays an essential role to maintain the lives and ecosystems in
the earth. Therefore, we carried the experiment of basic hydrology to further understand the
concept of watershed area, the factors which influence the runoff and the basic terms in
hydrology.

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2.0 OBJECTIVES

- To identifies the relationship between rainfall and runoff

3.0 LEARNING OUTCOMES

- Understand the basic terms in hydrology

- Understand the concept of watershed area including time of concentration (𝑡𝑐), and
outlet or concentration point.

- Understand the factors which influence the runoff.

4.0 THEORY

Runoff is generated by rainstorms and it occurrence and quantity are dependent on the
characteristic of the rainfall event i.e. intensity, duration and distribution. There are, in
addition, other important factors which influence the runoff generating process like
natural surface detention, soil infiltration characteristics and the drainage pattern
formed by natural flow paths. The soil type, vegetative cover and topography play as
important roles. Rainfall and runoff are very important hydrologic component because
of their direct relation with water resources quantity, flood, streamflow and design of
dam and hydraulic structure

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5.0 APPARATUS AND FUNCTION

Apparatus Function

 To investigate the relationship

between the rainfall and runoff
towards the slope.

Figure 1: Basic Hydrology Tank

 To adjust the slope

Figure 2: Slope adjuster

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Apparatus Function

 To collect the rainfall volume

Figure 3: Cylinder tube

 To adjust the slope to see is there

any relation with the slope.

hh

Figure 4: Slope adjuster

mmm

 Infiltrate water level to record the

water level of water diffuse into
the soil.

Figure 5: Infiltrate water level

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6.0 PROCEDURES

Case 1: Flat and sandy soil surface profile (without slope)

Case 2: Flat and sandy soil surface with 1: 8 slope profile

1. Adjust the rail at side of the catchment area to justify according the requirement for
case 1.
2. And then move the profile board to obtain the cross section at the upstream as in case
of flat and sandy soils surface from upstream to downstream.
3. Switch on the pump and start the stopwatch at the same time.
4. Record the discharge every 30 seconds (during the rainfall). Also record the reading
from the rain gauge (mm).
5. When the peak discharge achieved (after 5 discharge readings with same values
obtained), switch off the pump to stop the rainfall. Record the time while stop of
rainfall.
6. At the same time, the discharge readings must be recorded for each 30 seconds until the
values reach nearly zero. Open the valve to allow the water flowing out of the catchment
area before carrying out the next experiment.
7. Repeat the above procedures for case 2.

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7.0 RESULTS AND CALCULATION

Case 1
Time, (s) Water level Water level Discharge Discharge Cylinder
Reading
(cm) (mm) (litre/min) (m³/s)
(mm)
(x 10-5)
30 0 0 0 0 0
60 0.2 2 0 0 4
90 0.8 8 0.3 0.5 7
120 1.7 17 2.5 4.2 14
150 2.3 23 7.1 11.8 21
180 2.7 27 11 18.3 25
210 3.1 31 15 25.0 25
240 3.1 31 15 25.0 35
270 3.1 31 15 25.0 42
300 3.1 31 15 25.0 49
330 3.1 31 15 25.0 56
360 2.7 27 11 18.3
390 2.4 24 7.8 13.0
420 2.1 21 5.5 9.2
450 2.0 20 5.0 8.3
480 1.9 19 4.5 7.5
510 1.9 19 4.5 7.5
540 1.8 18 4.3 7.2
570 1.7 17 3.4 5.7
600 1.7 17 3.4 5.7
630 1.6 16 3.0 5.0
660 1.6 16 3.0 5.0
690 1.6 16 3.0 5.0
720 1.6 16 3.0 5.0

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750 1.6 16 3.0 5.0

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TOTAL FLOW, BASE FLOW AND DIRECT FLOW

Case 1

TIME, t Total flow, Q Base flow Direct flow (m³/s)

(Total flow – Base flow)
(m³/s) (x 10-5) (m³/s) (x 10-5) (x 10-5)
30 0 0 0

60 0 0 0

90 0.5 0 0

120 4.2 0 0

150 11.8 11.8 0

180 18.3 11.8 6.5

210 25.0 11.8 13.2

240 25.0 11.8 13.2

270 25.0 11.8 13.2

300 25.0 11.8 13.2

330 25.0 11.8 13.2

360 18.3 11.8 6.5

390 13.0 11.8 1.2

420 9.2 0 0

450 8.3 0 0

480 7.5 0 0

510 7.5 0 0

540 7.2 0 0

570 5.7 0 0

600 5.7 0 0

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630 5.0 0 0

660 5.0 0 0

690 5.0 0 0

720 5.0 0 0

750 5.0 0 0

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Case 2
Time, t Water level Water level Discharge Discharge Cylinder
Reading
(s) (cm) (mm) (litre/min) (m³/s)
(mm)
(x 10-5)
30 0 0 0 0 0
60 0.1 1 0 0 2
90 0.4 4 0.1 0.2 8
120 1.2 12 2.0 3.3 15
150 1.8 18 4.3 7.2 17
180 2.3 23 7.1 11.8 20
210 2.8 28 11.2 18.7 25
240 3.1 31 15.0 25.0 25
270 3.2 32 17.0 28.3 35
300 3.2 32 17.0 28.3 42
330 3.2 32 17.0 28.3 50
360 3.2 32 17.0 28.3 56
390 3.2 32 17.0 28.3 60
420 2.6 26 10.5 17.5
450 2.3 23 7.1 11.8
480 2.1 21 6.0 10
510 2.0 20 5.6 9.3
540 2.0 20 5.6 9.3
570 1.9 19 4.5 7.5
600 1.8 18 4.3 7.2
630 1.8 18 4.3 7.2
660 1.8 18 4.3 7.2
690 1.7 17 3.4 5.7
720 1.6 16 3.0 5.0
750 1.6 16 3.0 5.0

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780 1.5 15 2.5 4.2

810 1.5 15 2.5 4.2
840 1.5 15 2.5 4.2
870 1.5 15 2.5 4.2
900 1.4 14 2.3 3.8
930 1.4 14 2.3 3.8
960 1.3 13 1.5 2.5
990 1.3 13 1.5 2.5
1020 1.3 13 1.5 2.5
1050 1.3 13 1.5 2.5
1080 1.3 13 1.5 2.5

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TOTAL FLOW, BASE FLOW AND DIRECT FLOW

Case 2

TIME, t Total flow, Q Base flow Direct flow (m³/s)

(Total flow – Base
(m³/s) (x 10-5) (m³/s) (x 10-5) flow) (x 10-5)

30 0 0 0

60 0 0 0

90 0.2 0 0

120 3.3 0 0

150 7.2 7.2 0

180 11.8 7.2 4.6

210 18.7 7.2 11.5

240 25.0 7.2 17.8

270 28.3 7.2 21.1

300 28.3 7.2 21.1

330 28.3 7.2 21.1

360 28.3 7.2 21.1

390 28.3 7.2 21.1

420 17.5 7.2 10.3

450 11.8 7.2 4.6

480 10 7.2 2.8

510 9.3 7.2 2.1

540 9.3 7.2 2.1

570 7.5 7.2 0.3

600 7.2 7.2 0

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630 7.2 7.2 0

660 7.2 7.2 0

690 5.7 0 0

720 5.0 0 0

750 5.0 0 0

780 4.2 0 0

810 4.2 0 0

840 4.2 0 0

870 4.2 0 0

900 3.8 0 0

930 3.8 0 0

960 2.5 0 0

990 2.5 0 0

1020 2.5 0 0

1050 2.5 0 0

1080 2.5 0 0

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8.0 QUESTIONS

1. Plot the discharge (unit m3/s) versus time (s) graph separately from the above values for
each case (case 1 to case 2).

2. From the graph plotted, determine:

(a) Time concentration

Case 1: 210s < tc < 330s.

Case 2: 270s < tc < 390s;

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(b) Rainfall duration

Case 1: 330 s
Case 2: 390 s

(c) Peak discharge

Case 1: when 330s, the discharge will be 25.0 x 10-5 m³/s

Case 2: when 390s, the discharge will be 28.3 x 10-5 m³/s

(d) Runoff volume

Case 1: = (80.2 x 10-5 m3/s) x 3600s

= 2.89 m3

Case 2: = (161.6 x 10-5 m3/s) x 3600s

= 5.82 m3

(e) Rainfall intensity

Case 1: 56 𝑚𝑚 = 0.170 𝑚𝑚/𝑠

330𝑠

Case 2: = 0.154 𝑚𝑚/𝑠

60𝑚𝑚
390 𝑠

(f) Storage volume

Case 1: Vs1 = 106.2 x 10-5 m3/s / 3600s

= 2.95 x 10-7 m3

Case 2: Vs2 = 129.6 x 10-5 m3/s / 3600s

= 3.6 x 10-7 m3

3. Provide a table for all the results obtained from (2) and make comparisons with case 1
and case 2.
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Comparison of results among Case 1 and 2

Case 1 Case 2
Time concentration, tc 210s< tc1 < 330s 270s< tc2 < 390s

Rainfall duration 330 seconds 390 seconds

t1 = 330 s, t2 = 390 s,
Peak discharge
discharge = 25.0 x 10-5 m³/s discharge = 28.3 x 10-5 m³/s

Runoff volume, Vr 2.89 m3 5.82 m3

Rainfall intensity 0.170 𝑚𝑚/𝑠 0.154 𝑚𝑚/𝑠

Storage volume, Vs 2.95 x 10-7 m3 3.6 x 10-7 m3

We can conclude that, all the deferent values in table between case 1 and case 2 because
of slope. Case 1 without slope and case 2 is with slope. We also observed that the quantity
of runoff decreases with the increasing of slope length.

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9.0 DISCUSSION

Based on the experiment, its shows that the volume of discharge surface runoff is
influenced by the degree chamfer of a slope. As the slope degradation increases, the water
discharging outflow to water shed is increasing. Therefore, it is important to design an
efficient degradation of surface runoff in real construction to avoid any flash flood occur
and water discharge smoothly to water shed. Other than that, there are serval factor that
also affecting surface runoff such as vegetation and soil type.

For vegetation, it will affect the flow discharge of surface runoff. As vegetation
getting high and growth, it will slower the flow of water discharge on a surface of runoff
and effecting the time interval of a flow water to reach water shed. Soil type also influence
the volume of water flow. by comparing a soil type such as sandy and clay, sandy soil
absorbs more water compare to clay soil. Therefore, a surface runoff with sandy soil
properties, the volume discharge is lower compare to clay soil, as the pore of sandy soil
greater than clay soil causing water to easily absorb.

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10.0 CONCLUSION
As a conclusion, through this experiment, we can identify the relationship between
rainfall and runoff. Then, we also can learn and identify its process. Besides that, we also can
verify that when the rainfall increased, the runoff will also increase until it reached the time
of maximum discharge. The slope area has the shorter time of concentration than the flat area.
Runoff is one of the most important hydrology components because of its connection with the
water source quantity, flood, design of dam and others hydraulic control structure. Using the
rain gauge, we can record the discharge and it’s time for each area which is slope or flat. From
this experiment, we can conclude that, the applications of the basic hydrology system were
very important, and it can control the flood. Then, in my opinion, we also can use this
application to avoid the high cost for construction of the dam or drain. Then, we also have
determined all factors that effected runoff such as rain fall intensity, type of surfaces and
rainfall duration.

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11.0 REFERENCES

1. Ayob, K. and Kawi, B. (2003) Nota Kuliah Hidrologi Kejuruteraan, Universiti

Teknologi Malaysia.

2. [Link]

3. "Hydrologic Research Center". Hydrologic Research Center. Retrieved 8 March 2013

4. [Link]

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