CIVIL ENGINEERING BOOK

Construction of Foundation –
Depth, Width, Layout and
Excavation
Procedure for construction of foundation starts with decision on its depth,
width and marking layout for excavation and centerline of foundation.
Foundation is the part of structure below plinth level  in direct contact of
soil and transmits load of super structure to soil. Generally it is below the
ground level. If some part of foundation is above ground level, it is also
covered with earth filling. This portion of structure is not in contact of air,
light etc., or to say that it is the hidden part of the structure.

Footing is a structure constructed in brickwork, masonry or concrete

under the base of a wall or column for distributing the load over a large
area.

Depth of Foundation
Depth of foundation depends on following factors:

1. Availability of adequate bearing capacity

2. Depth of shrinkage and swelling in case of clayey soils, due to seasonal changes which
may cause appreciable movements.

3. Depth of frost penetration in case of fine sand and silt.

4. Possibility of  excavation nearby

5. Depth of ground water table

6. Practical minimum depth of foundation should not be less than 50 cm. to allow removal
of top soil and variations in ground level.
 Hence the best recommended depth of foundation is from 1.00 meter to 1.5
meter from original ground level.

Width of Foundation / Footings

The width of footings should be laid according to structural design. For
light loaded buildings such as houses, flats, school buildings etc. having not
more than two storeys, the width of foundation is given below:

1. The width of footing should not be less than 75 cm for one brick thick wall.

2. The width of footing should not be less than 1 meter for one and half brick wall.

Processes involved in Construction of

Foundation
The processes executed in the foundation works are given below:

1. Excavation of earth work in trenches for foundation.

2. Laying out cement concrete.

3. Laying the footing in case of raft or column construction.

4. Laying Anti termite treatment.

5. Laying Brick work up to plinth level.

6. Laying Damp proof course on the walls.

7. Refilling of earth around the walls

8. Refilling of earth in the building portion up to the required height according to plinth
level.
 Fig.1: Excavation for Foundation of Wall

Fig.2: Concrete in foundation

Fig.3: Concrete and Brickwork in Foundation of Wall

 Fig.4: Concrete and Brickwork in Foundation Refilling

Precautions while designing a Foundation

1. A foundation should be designed to transmit combined dead load, imposed load and
wind load to the ground.

2. Net loading intensity of pressure coming on the soil should not exceed the safe bearing
capacity.

3. Foundation should be designed in such a way that settlement to the ground is limited
and uniform under whole of the building to avoid damage to the structure.

4. Whole design of the foundation, super structure and characteristics of the ground should
be studied to obtain economy in construction work.

Ratio of Cement Concrete and Mortar for

Foundation
1. The cement concrete 1:8:16 is generally used in the foundation of walls in construction
work.

2. In case of column raft cement concrete 1:4:8 is the best recommended ratio for it in the
foundation.
3. For brick masonry cement mortar 1:4 to 1:6 is used as loading condition.

In case of column and raft footings up to plinth level cement concrete 1:2:4
or 1:1.5:3 are used.

Soil having Safe Bearing Capacity

Dry coarse and well graded dense sand have maximum shear resistance
and maximum bearing capacity. In general submerged soil and clay have
less bearing capacity.

Precautions during Excavation for Foundation

The depth and width of foundation should be according to structural
design.

1. The depth of the foundation should not be less than 1 meter in case the design is not
available.

2. The length, width and depth of excavation should be checked with the help of center line
and level marked on the marking pillars.

3. The excavated material/ earth should be dumped at a distance of 1 meter from the edges.

4. Work should be done on dry soil.

5. Arrangement of water pump should be made for pumping out rain water.

6. The bottom layer of the foundation should be compacted.

7. There should be no soft places in foundation due to roots etc.

8. Any soft/ defective spots should be dug out and be filled with concrete/ hard material

Fig.5: Excavation for foundation where root of tree exists

 Fig.6: Excavation of wall in foundation root removed

Fig.7: Pit of root filled with hard material

Fig.8: Excavation of foundation of wall with a patch of soft soil

Fig.9: Excavation of wall foundation with soft soil removed

 Fig.10: Pit of soft soil filled with hard material
Demarcation / layout Procedure for foundation
The following procedure is recommended for demarcation of a building.
1. For layout of a building baseline is marked on the ground either from center line of the
road or from any permanent building nearby. This line helps to mark out the front of a
building. Side baseline is also marked with the help of side structure or road or it can be
marked with the help of first baseline or boundary of the plot.

2. Fix temporary pegs at the center line of walls/columns on both sides of walls and
columns in front and back side.
3. Fix peg at the center line of walls/columns on both sides of wall and columns in left and
right side of front of building.

4. Check diagonals of the square or rectangle formed after fixing pegs.

5. Construct marking pillars with pegs at a distance of 1.5 meter to 2 meters and their top
surface should be plastered.

6. Mark center line on the top of marking pillars with the help of thread (Soot) or with the
Theodolite in big projects and the diagonal and other dimension should be checked.

7. Level marking pillars on all corners of building and the top level is fixed at a proposed
plinth level.

8. Mark the foundation of walls/columns according to drawing on the ground with the help
of centerline marked on the marking pillars .

9. Mark foundation trenches on the ground with chalk powder.

10. Excavate the foundation of the walls /columns up to required level and the excavation
must be checked with the help of center line and level marking pillars to avoid any
complication later on.
 Fig.11: Excavation for foundation under wall
Advantages of Layout with the help of marking pillars
o It saves time for measuring and setting of point again and again at the time of
construction.

o It increases the efficiency of mason and foreman for doing their jobs.

o Accuracy can be checked at any time at any step.

o If any mistake is found, it can be easily be rectified at early stage. It is very difficult to
rectify the mistake in later.

o Cross check can be done by senior engineer in minimum time.

o A qualitative work is maintained.

Disadvantages for doing the work without layout

At some sites of work the contractor brings steel pieces, erects the same on
the ground and start the work of excavation. In due course these steel
pieces are just discarded. Thus no proper reference point is available while
doing further jobs.

o It involves extra time for measuring the offset again and again.
o Accuracy can not be checked at early stage and it will be very difficult to rectify the same
in later stage.

o It involves wastage of time and money while doing rectification. This also leads to bad
quality of work.

Materials used during Setting up of Layout

1. Leveling Instrument

2. Long Nails

3. Hammer

4. Right Angle

5. Steel Tape

6. Thin Cotton Thread

7. Bricks

8. Cement

9. Screen Sand

10. Lime Powder

11. Theodolite

[Link]
[Link]

A team of three undergraduate students of Bayero University, Kano (BUK) has made it onto
the 40 teams shortlisted for the $1 million Hult Prize, the world’s largest student competition.
The competition is about creating market ready solutions to the pressing needs of humanity,
while maintaining balance between profit and social impact. Its goals are in line with the
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of the United Nations. ADVERTISEMENT The
students, Ubaidurrahman Sulaiman, Mustapha Sani Abdullahi and Abdulhafeez Adebayo,
have won the contest at the campus level with their innovation and then at the regional level
in Abuja ADVERTISEMENT The team would be competing at the global stage in the UK
alongside 39 teams comprising of hundreds of students from many world class universities
around the world. The team invented a solar-powered device that allows for crop waste to
be utilized for job creation in rural communities, through the production of charcoal
briquettes. They are presently running the pilot project in Kura Local Government Area of
Kano State where they recycle the enormous crop waste from the massive agriculture in the
area and then produce charcoal from it. Speaking with our correspondent in Jos, the team’s
captain, Sulaiman, said their innovation has the potential of creating about 10,000 jobs in
the country in five years. He said the team, named Brycoal Nigeria, is utilizing crop waste to
produce charcoal briquettes for cooking and household use to improve livelihood. “Nigeria is
plagued with poor waste management systems. That is what drew our attention to our
project. With the increase in tree-felling/deforestation in the country for charcoal purposes,
we used our background in engineering to find the solution to the problem by using crop
waste to produce charcoal. “Sugarcane waste pollution, for instance is a problem many
Nigerians know too well. But we have successfully closed three sugarcane waste dumpsites
in Kano by processing the waste and converting it into charcoal briquettes. The charcoal
briquettes we produce are exactly what this country needs. “Our product would
tremendously decrease the dependency on wood charcoal. Our product also last longer
than firewood and wood charcoal and it is also healthier to use because of its smokeless
property,” the team captain said. He however said the team is facing funding problem which
led to the UK visa processing challenges it had. Sulaiman said the team single-handedly
funded the project and called on Nigerians to patronize their charcoal briquettes to enable
them raise funds not only to improve on the project but to also facilitate their participation in
the UK contest in September. It would be recalled that a team of Nigerian students,
ImpactRays, made it to the final six-team shortlist last year, making it the only African team
to achieve the feat.

Read more: [Link]
[Link]

This article is about  how to calculate quantity of cement , sand and aggregate
in concrete column. after reading this article you will be able to find out the
materials in slab, beam and also for Concrete road. We used here the same
formula for find out the quantity of beam and slab etc. But there just change
the shape and dimension, otherwise it the same thing.

Given Data for Square column:

this is the top and front section of column.

Size of column = 300 mm x 300 mm

Height of column = 3 meter.

In this column we will use the M20 grade of concrete (which Ratio is 1:1.5:3)
sum of ratio become = 5.5

where : 1 is Cement , 1.3 is Sand and 3 is aggregate. ( M20 grade of concrete

compressive strength is 20N/mm2 after 28 day).

Now we have to find out Volume of Column = V = L x L x H = 300 x 300 x

3000 = 0.27m3

Remember the above volume of column is Wet volume now we will convert it
to dry volume which can be obtain with multiplying 1.54.

Dry volume = wet volume x 1.54 =  0.4158 m3

Now from this dry volume we can find out the volume of cement , Sand and
aggregate in concrete column.

1- Volume of cement = V = 1/5.5 x dry volume

= V = 1/5.5  x 0.4158

= V = 0.0756 m3

Now convert the cment volume to bags.

Volume of cement / Volume of one cement bag in m3

Note : Volume of Cement bag = 0.0347

0.0756 / 0.0347 =  2.17 bags of cement are required for above column.

2- Volume of Sand = V = 1.5/5.5 x dry volume

= V = 1.5/5.5  x 0.4158

= V =  0.1134 m3

3- Volume of Aggregate  = V =  3/5.5 x dry volume

= V = 3/5.5  x 0.4158

= V =  0.2268 m3
Note: If you want to find out he quantity of materials in circular column so in
circular column we have different formula to find out the volume of column
for  materials  suppose: if we take the Dia of circular column 1ft than we can
use the given formula to find out column volume. so first we need to fine the
area of circular column and than volume of column.

[Link] ml
Why Bars Are Bent In Slabs
Near At Support
Bent up bars: Are the main reinforcements bent at a suitable angle to act as
shear reinforcements. Reinforcements are bent up to the supports/ends where
greater compressive force  occurs.
Bars Are Bend Near At Support To
1- To resist shear force.
2-To resist (NBM) adjacent at supports.
3- To increment the strenth of RCC in  slab.
4- Bent Up bar can abate the amount of steel.
5- Bent up bars in slab is more strong form normal slab.
6- Bent up bars sufficiently increase the deformation capacity of slabs as
compared to those not having bars bent.
7- By extending bars up to supports, we can also lower the risk of brittle
failure due to higher compressive stresses causing the structure to collapse.

There are two patterns to bend the bars

1- Single lattice system
2- Double lattice system
Bent up bars (any type) are always provided with vertical or inclined stirrups.
Bent up bars are used for the economization of material. Normally, for fixed
ended Slabs positive moments are present at the mid span and negative
moments at the supports.

Notes
1- Bent Bars are provided at the top portion of the supports
2- As per the IS code the bend up bars should not be designed to take more
than 50% shear force i.e. The bent up bars can be deaigned to a maximum of
50% of shear force and the remaining should be taken by the
shear stirrups either inclined or vertical stirrups.
Information On Steel
Construction That You Should
Know
Here in this article all the information are about the steel structure for
construction works, and also there are different type of steel structures. You
as an engineer, architect, designer and contractor should know at least about
steel as we brought you information on Steel Construction That Your Should
Know.

How To Calculate Quantity Of Cement, Sand And  Aggregate In

Column
This article is about  how to calculate quantity of cement , sand and aggregate
in concrete column. after reading this article you will be able to find out the
materials in slab, beam and also for Concrete road. We used here the same
formula for find out the quantity of beam and slab etc. But there just change
the shape and dimension, otherwise it the same thing.

Given Data for Square column:

this is the top and front section of column.

Size of column = 300 mm x 300 mm

Height of column = 3 meter.

In this column we will use the M20 grade of concrete (which Ratio is 1:1.5:3)
sum of ratio become = 5.5

where : 1 is Cement , 1.3 is Sand and 3 is aggregate. ( M20 grade of concrete

compressive strength is 20N/mm2 after 28 day).

Now we have to find out Volume of Column = V = L x L x H = 300 x 300 x

3000 = 0.27m3

Remember the above volume of column is Wet volume now we will convert it
to dry volume which can be obtain with multiplying 1.54.

Dry volume = wet volume x 1.54 =  0.4158 m3

Now from this dry volume we can find out the volume of cement , Sand and
aggregate in concrete column.

1- Volume of cement = V = 1/5.5 x dry volume

= V = 1/5.5  x 0.4158

= V = 0.0756 m3

Now convert the cment volume to bags.

Volume of cement / Volume of one cement bag in m3

Note : Volume of Cement bag = 0.0347

0.0756 / 0.0347 =  2.17 bags of cement are required for above column.

2- Volume of Sand = V = 1.5/5.5 x dry volume

= V = 1.5/5.5  x 0.4158

= V =  0.1134 m3

3- Volume of Aggregate  = V =  3/5.5 x dry volume

= V = 3/5.5  x 0.4158

= V =  0.2268 m3
Note: If you want to find out he quantity of materials in circular column so in
circular column we have different formula to find out the volume of column
for  materials  suppose: if we take the Dia of circular column 1ft than we can
use the given formula to find out column volume. so first we need to fine the
area of circular column and than volume of column.

Area formula for circular column. A = π r²          or      A = (π/4) × D2

Volume formulas for circular column:

V = A x h      where   A for Area of column  and  h for height of column. After
to find the volume we can use the same for formula like in square column to
find the materials in RRC column

How to Calculate Quantity of

Bricks in Building
How to Calculate Quantity of Bricks in Building
Length of long wall = 3.5+3.5+0.30+0.30×2 = 15.2m
Length of short wall = 3×4.30 = 12.9m
Total length of wall = 28.1m
Now we have calculated deduction of Windows, Doors and Ventilators:

Doors = 2.1×1.05×0.30(2) = 1.32 cum

Windows = 1.2×1.2×0.30(2) = 0.86 cum
D.V = 1.5×0.45×0.30(2) = 0.28 cum
W.V = 1.20×0.45×0.30(2) = 0.32 cum
Total deduction = 2.78 cum
Go through the following video tutorial to learn the complete process
Good construction practices and techniques should be followed to prevent
occurrence of structural damages that may occur during occupancy and
with age of the structure. A structure has to go through different stages in
construction process.

Each and every stage of construction is important to make sure that the
structure being constructed will not experience damage under any general
circumstances. Development of cracks in structure is the first sign of
damage. Structural damage does not only reduces strength of the structure
but it may also make it unfit for use to the extent that the structure
collapses
 It is very important for the civil engineers to ensure good construction
practices are followed at every stage of construction to prevent structural
damage and failure of the structure.

Good Construction Practices and

Techniques to Prevent Structural
Damage
Following are the good construction practices and techniques that shall be
followed for good quality and durable construction of structure:
1. Masonry work:
o Masonry work in a structure should be carried out in uniform levels at all parts of the
structure to prevent differential settlement of foundation due to differential loading. This
will prevent the cracking of masonry walls and also other structural elements. Difference
in the height of masonry in different parts of a building should normally not exceed 1m
any time during construction.

o Masonry work should be properly cured for a minimum period of 7 to 10 days.

o Masonry works on any RCC elements such as RCC Slab and beams should not be started
till minimum of 2 weeks after striking off the shuttering.

2. Concrete work:
o In reinforced concrete members such as cantilever beams and slabs which are liable to
deflect appreciably under load, removal of centering and imposition of load should be
deferred at least one month so that concrete gains sufficient strengths before it bears the
load.

o Curing of any concrete member should be done for a minimum period of 7 to 10 days
and terminated gradually so as to avoid quick drying.

o Concrete work in very hot and windy climate should be avoided, and in case it is not
avoidable then precautions shall be taken to keep the temperature of fresh concrete
 down and to prevent quick drying of concrete. Following steps should be taken to keep
the temperature of freshly prepared concrete down:

– Aggregate and mixing water should be shaded from direct sun.

– Part of mixing water may be replaced by pounded ice.

– As far as possible concreting should be done in early hours of the day.

o Re-trowelling the concrete surface slightly, before its initial setting to mitigate plastic
shrinkage cracks

3. RCC frame work:

o As far as possible frame work should be completed before starting work of panel walls
for cladding and partitioning.

o Work of construction of panel walls and partition should be deferred as much as possible
and should proceed from top to down ward.

o When partition walls are to be supported on floor beam or slab upward camber should
be provided in floor slab/beam to counter act deflection.

o Horizontal movement joint should be provided between top of panel wall and soffit of
beam and when structurally required little support to the wall should be provided at the
top by using telescopic anchorage or similar arrangement. Horizontal movement joint
between top of wall and soffit of beam/slab shall be filled which some compressible
jointing material.

o If door opening is to be provided in partition wall a center opening is more preferable

than off center opening.

o Light re-vibration of concrete shall be done, before it has set, for the member and section
prone for plastic settlement cracks i.e. narrow column and walls, at change of depth in
section.

4. Plastering:
o When plastering is to be done on masonry, mortar joints in masonry should be raked out
to 10 mm depth while the mortar is green. Plastering should be done after masonry has
been properly cured and allowed to dry so as to undergo initial shrinkage before plaster.
o For plastering on concrete background, it should be done as soon as feasible after
removal of shuttering by roughing of concrete surface where necessary by hacking, and
applying neat cement slurry on the concrete surface to improve the bond.

o When RCC and brick work occurs in combination and to be plastered, then sufficient
time (at least 1 month) shall be allowed for RCC and brickwork to undergo initial
shrinkage and creep before taking up plaster work. In such case either groove shall be
provided in the plaster at the junction or 10cm wide strip of metal mesh or lathing shall
also be provided over the junction to act as reinforcement.

5. Concrete and terrazzo floor:

o Control joint should be provided in the concrete and terrazzo floor either by laying floors
in alternate panels or by introducing strips of glass, aluminium or some plastic material
at close interval in grid pattern.

o When flooring is to be laid on RCC slab, either a base course of lime concrete should be
provided between the RCC slab and the flooring or surface of slab should be well
roughened, cleaned and primed with cement slurry before laying of floor.

5. RCC Lintels:
Bearing for RCC lintels should be on the liberal side when spans are large
so as to avoid concentration of stress at the jambs.

6. RCC roof slab:

o The top of the slab should be provided with adequate insulation or protective cover
together with some high reflectivity finish cover to check the thermal movement of the
slab and consequent cracking in supporting wall and panel/partition wall.

o In load bearing structure, slip joint should be introduced between the slab and
supporting/cross walls. Further either the slab should project for some length from the
supporting wall or the slab should rest only on part width of the wall as shown in figure
below:
 Fig.1: Constructional detail of bearing of RCC roof slab over a masonry wall
On the inside, wall plaster and ceiling plaster should be made
discontinuous by a groove of about 10 mm.

For introducing the slip joint, the bearing portion of supporting wall is
rendered smooth with plaster (preferably with neat cement finish), which
is then allowed to set and partly dry. Thereafter either it is given thick coat
of whitewash, or 2 to 3 layers of tarred paper is placed over the plaster
surface, before casting of slab.

7. Provision of glazed, terrazzo or marble tile on vertical

surface:
Before fixing of these tiles on vertical surface background component
should be allowed to undergo movement due to elastic deformation,
shrinkage & creep otherwise tiles are likely to crack and dislodged.

8. RCC work in exposed condition:

For RCC work in exposed condition i.e. sunshades, balconies, canopies,
open verandah etc., to prevent shrinkage cum contraction cracks, adequate
quantity of temperature reinforcement shall be provided. In such condition
quantity shall be increase by 50 to 100 % of the minimum amount
prescribed.
 9. Finish on wall:
Finishing items i.e. distemper and painting etc. should be carried out after
the plaster has dried and has under gone drying shrinkage.

10. Pace of construction:

The construction schedule and the pace of construction should be
regulated to ensure :

o All items of masonry are properly cured and allowed to dry before plastering work is
done, thus concealing the cracks in masonry in plaster work. Similarly plaster work
should be cured and allowed to dry before applying finishing coat. So as to conceals the
cracks in plaster under finish coat.

o In case of concrete work before taking masonry work either over it or by its side, the
most of the drying shrinkage, creep and elastic deformation of concrete should be
allowed to take place, so as to avoid cracks in masonry or a the junction of masonry and
concrete.

11. Provision of reinforcement for thermal stresses:

To control the cracks in concrete due to shrinkage as well as temperature
effect, adequate temperature reinforcement shall be provided. This
temperature reinforcement is more effective if smaller diameter bars and
the deformed steel is used than plain reinforcement.

12. Extension of existing building:

(a) Horizontal extension: Since foundation of an existing building undergoes
some settlement as load comes on the foundation, it is necessary to ensure
that new construction is not bonded with the old construction and the two
parts are separated by a slip or expansion joint right from bottom to top.
Otherwise, when the newly constructed portion undergoes settlement, an
unsightly crack may occur at the junction.
Care should also be taken that in the vicinity of the old building, no
excavation below the foundation level of that building is carried out.

When plastering the new work, a deep groove should be formed separating
the new work from the old.
When it is intended to make horizontal extension to a framed structure
later on than the twin column with combined footing shall be provided at
the time of original construction itself as under:

b) Vertical extension: When making vertical extension to an existing

building (that is adding one or more additional floors) work should be
proceeded at a uniform level all round so as to avoid differential load on
the foundation. In spite of this precaution, however, sometimes cracks
appear in the lower floors (old portion) at the junction of RCC columns
carrying heavy loads and lightly loaded brick masonry walls due to
increase in elastic deformation and creep in RCC columns. Such cracks
cannot be avoided.

Renewal of finishing coats on old walls of old portion should be deferred

for 2 or 3 months after the imposition of additional load due to new
construction so that most of the likely cracking should take place before
finish coat is applied thus concealing the cracks.
13. Rich cement treatment on external walls:
When it is proposed to give some treatment on external walls of some rich
cement based material i.e. artificial stone finish, terrazzo etc., the finish
should be laid in small panels with deep grooves in both directions.

14. Movement joints:

To mitigate/relieve the magnitude of stresses due to thermal movement
and shrinkage movement joints i.e. Expansion joint, Control joint and Slip
joint shall be provided in the structure.

15. Filling in plinth:

Filling in plinth should be done with good soil free from organic matter,
brickbats and debris etc. It should be laid in 25 cm thick layers, well
watered and compacted to avoid possibility of subsequent subsidence and
cracking of floors.
How To calculate The Cement, Sand Quantity For Plastering
Example
Mortar ratio = 1:6 where 1 is cement and 6 part is sand.

Plaster thickness = 12 mm = 0.012 m

Cement density = 1440 kg/m3

1 m3 = 35.3147 ft3

Suggested Plaster Thickness

12 mm for internal walls or brick wall plain surface

15 mm for 4” or 9” brick wall rough surface 20 mm for two plaster layers

normally utilized for external walls

Mortar Wet volume = 1 x 1 x 0.012 = 0.012 m3

Mortar Dry volume = 0.012 x 1.30 = 0.0156 m3

 Mortar Dry volume (sand + cement) = 30 – 35 % greater than wet volume =

wet volume x 1.30
Concrete Dry volume (aggregate + sand + cement) = wet volume x 1.54

As we know that mortar ratio = 1:6, from which 1 + 6 = 7 = sum of ratio

Amount of cement in plaster = 1/7 x 0.0156 x 1440 = 3.21 kg

Also in bags = 3.21/50 = 0.064 bag = approximately 1 bag

Amount of sand in plaster = 6/7 x 0.0156 = 0.0133 m3

Sand quantity in cubic feet = 0.0133 x 35.3147 = 0.47 ft3

Difference Between Red Bricks And Fly Ash Bricks

Difference Between Red Bricks And Fly Ash Bricks:
1- Fly Ash bricks are cast in moulds hence are always of uniform shape. Clay
bricks are handmade causing slight difference in their shape and size.

2- Clay bricks are more porous than Fly ash bricks.

3- Fly ash bricks are lighter in weight and less costly than Clay bricks.

4- Fly ash bricks are made of waste materials which come from the
combustion of coal in thermal power plants. Clay bricks are made of clay
which is collected from fertile land or the top soil. This is the prime reason that
makes Fly ash bricks more preferable than Clay bricks.

5- In all aspects fly ash bricks are better than clay [Link] are environment
friendly because maximum constituent is ash and fly ash bricks has greater
strength as compared to red bricks.
Fly Ash Bricks Advantage:
1- Due to perfect size savings in cement mortar for making
the walls and plastering by 20-40%
2- Strength of supplied lot is similar.
3- Plaster of Paris, Putty can be applied directly without a
backing coat of plaster.
4- Lower water penetration to Clay Bricks.
5- High Strength-can be used for load bearing walls.
6- Eco friendly using Fly Ash.
Fly Ash bricks Disadvantage:
1- Bonding is lower due to smooth finish, this can be easily
corrected by using a cement:sand mortar of 1:4 and proper
curing. Also the quality of sand needs to be checked.

Clay Bricks Advantage:

1- clay brick at high temperatures is weakly acidic, alkaline slag erosion

resistance to a bit weak, but with Al2O3 content increased and enhanced.
Thermal stability than the refractory brick, magnesia brick as well.
2- After the blast of acceptable quality clay dried vacuum impregnation
process phosphoric acid, phosphoric acid impregnated low-temperature firing
of secondary products, it can be used for masonry lining blast furnace body
portion.
3- Brick from local materials, cheap, durable, as well as fire protection, thermal
insulation, sound insulation, moisture absorption, etc., used in a wide range of
engineering works. Waste and scrap refractory bricks can be made of concrete
aggregate.
Clay Bricks Disadvantage:
1- Uneven shape
2- Labour Intensive.
3- Inefficient Kilns Coal Fired -Pollution
4- Cutting of agricultural land and hills -Pollution and
against world food security.

Comparison of Red Bricks and Fly Ash Bricks:

Properties Red Bricks/Clay Fly Ash Bricks Remarks
Bricks

Density 1600-1750 kg/m3 1700-1850 kg/m3 Higher load

bearing

Compressive strength 30-35 kg/cm2 90-100 kg/cm2 Higher load

bearing

Absorption 15-25% 10-14% Less

dampness
Dimensional stability Very low tolerance High tolerance Saving in
mortar up to
25%

Wastage during Up to 10% Less than 2% Saving in

transit cost up to
8%

Plastering Thickness vary on Even on both sides Saving in

the both sides of plaster up to
wall 15%

Differences Between Mortar and Grout

Home/ Building Technology Guide / Brick Masonry / Differences Between Mortar and Grou

Mortar and grout are both used in the field of construction which are cement based
product. Despite both being cement based products, they have different properties,
different uses and serve different purposes. The major difference found in the mortar and
grout is its fluidity property.

In the below article we have shed light on the major differences between mortar and
grout. 

Mortar
Mortar is a mixture of cement, sand and water made into a thick paste that is used to bind
two surfaces with each other. It is majorly used in the building projects as a binding
material between stones, concrete and bricks.

Fig 1: Mortar being used as binding material in brick masonry.

Grout 
Grout is a highly viscous material which is used as a filler to
fill spaces or the joints between ceramic or stone tiles. Grout is a binder, but it is certainly
not an adhesive and the tiles stay in place because of the mortar below them and not
because of the grout.

Fig 2: Grout being used as filler material in tilling.

Difference Between Mortar and Grout

The differences between mortar and grout are mentioned below in detail :

SN Properties Mortar Grout

Cement, water and sand, epoxy,

1 Material Cement, sand, lime and water
acrylic and polymer

Water-Cement
2 Less More
Ratio

The primary function of the The primary function of the grout is

Primary
3 cement mortar is to act as a binder to act as a filler material in tilling
Function
in brick or stone masonry work and cracks.

4 Stiffness Stiffer Less stiff

As the water content is more, it is

It sticks well on a trowel and the
5 Workability difficult to handle it with trowel or
workability is more.
other tools.

6 Viscosity Low Highly viscous

Comes in various colors as per the

7 Color Usually takes the color of cement
requirement
 Cement Mortar Sanded grout
Lime Mortar Un-sanded or wall grout
8 Types Surki Mortar Epoxy grout
Gauged Mortar Furan grout
Mud Mortar Acrylic grout

Quite porous, holds waters in it even

9 Porosity Non-porous
after hardening.

Grout does not need extra water for

Mortar needs curing for hardening
10 Curing curing; the initial quantity provided
process
is enough for hardening

Setting time is more when Setting time is less when compared to

11 Setting Time
compared to grout Mortar

Used as a filler in tiles and cracks. 

Used as a bonding material in
Grouting is done to avoid cracks or
stone, concrete and brick masonry.
bedding planes in weak area or
12 Application Used in plastering works to hide
ground.
the joints and to improve
Grouting is used for strengthing of
appearance.
ground for dam foundation.

Read More: Differences Between Coarse-Grained and Fine-Grained Soi

How to Prevent Cracks in

Concrete? Causes & Repairs of
Cracks in Concrete
Why Concrete Cracks?
Generally, it is assumed that cracks are due to some problems in the
foundation, whereas it is not always correct and should not be considered
 failure of structure or improper design or bad quality work. Generally, 1/16
to 1/4-inch-wide cracks is acceptable limits.

The American Concrete Institute as per ACI 302.1-04 addresses this issue,
even the best construction & concreting cannot prevent cracking in
concrete, and 0% cracks is an unrealistic thing.

Causes of Cracks in Concrete

Causes of cracks in concrete can be many summarized as:

o Concrete expands and shrinks due to temperature differences

o Settlement of structure

o Due to heavy load applied or

o Due to loss of water from concrete surface shrinkage occurs

o Insufficient vibration at the time of laying the concrete

o Improper cover provided during concreting

o High water cement ratio to make the concrete workable

o Due to corrosion of reinforcement steel

o Many mixtures with rapid setting and strength gain performance have an increased
shrinkage potential.

Types of Cracks in Concrete

The following figure shows types of cracks in concrete:
How to Prevent Cracks in Concrete Structures?
Preventive measures to avoid creation of cracks:
Preventive measures must be taken at the time of concreting and later to
reduce cracks after concrete formation. Main factors are:
Reduce Water Content in Concrete:
A low water cement ratio will affect the quality of concrete. W/C ratio is
weight of water to the weight of cement used. A lower w/c ratio leads to
high strength in concrete and lesser cracks.

W/C ratio shall not exceed 0.5 in concreting, which reduces the workability
of concrete which can be covered by use of plasticizer or superplasticizer.
Less water content increases the durability of concrete

Concrete expands and shrinks with changes in moisture and temperature.

The overall tendency is to shrink. Shrinkage is the main cause of cracks,
when concrete hardens it evaporates the excess water and thus shrinks, so
lesser the water content, lesser is the shrinkage.

Cracking shrinkage in slabs is ½ inch per 100 ft. The shrinkage of concrete
pulls the slab apart showing it as cracks on surface.

Proper Concrete Mix Design and use of Quality

Materials
The concrete itself must be properly proportioned, and properly mixed.  If
you use too little cement, you can almost guarantee cracks.  Using too much
water will make the concrete weak, leading to cracking.

Use good quality aggregates so will produce lower shrinkage concrete. 

Hard, dense aggregate, using a large top size aggregate and optimizing the
gradation of the aggregate is able to reduce the shrinkage of the concrete.

If the aggregate is of poor quality, maximizing the size, gradation, and

content may have little effect on the concrete shrinkage. Mixing large
aggregate with poor qualities to a mid-size aggregate with good properties
may increase the shrinkage of the concrete.

Avoid the use of shrinkage-promoting admixtures (such as accelerators,

dirty aggregate which increases water demand and using a cement with
high shrinkage characteristics.
Finishing of Concrete Surface
Use proper finishing techniques and proper timing during and between
finishing operations. Flat floating and flat troweling are often
recommended.

Avoid overworking the concrete, especially with vibrating screeds.

Overworking causes aggregate to settle and bleed water and excess fines to
rise.

Don’t finish the concrete when there is bleed water on the surface,
finishing leads the water back to concrete instead of evaporating thus
leading to cracks.

Proper Curing of Concrete

Stop rapid loss of water from surface or drying of concrete due to
hydration (liquid concrete converts to plastic and then to solid state) causes
drying of the slab, so it’s recommended to cure the slab for several days.

As soon as the concrete on slab sets its general practice to make boundary
with mortar on the slab and keep it filled with water. Cover slab with
cotton mats soaked with water or spray on a curing compound also
prevents loss of water.

The concrete should not be subjected to load during the curing period,
which can last up to one month.

 
Proper Placement and Vibration of Concrete
Properly placed, vibrated, finished concrete reduces the chances of
producing cracks. Properly vibrate to release entrapped air which later
leads to cracks.

Proper Compaction of Soil to Prevent Settlement Cracks

in Concrete
The area below the concrete slab has to be compacted properly and in
layers so as to ensure against settlement of soil later. If the soil is left loose
it will settle over time and create cracks on surface. This applies in the
home as well as constructions on highways.
 Providing Control Joints in Concrete
Control joints should be located at regular intervals so as to adjust the
shrinkage of concrete. Generally, for 4-inch depth of slab joints are
provided 8 to 12 ft. apart. Control joints are pre-planted cracks. An
engineer should have an idea that concrete will crack at control joints
instead of cracking any other location.

Some Other Preventive Control Measures for Cracks in

Concrete:
o Applying good acrylic silicone sealer yearly to concrete works

o Avoid calcium chloride admixtures

o Prevent extreme changes in temperature.

o Consider using a shrinkage-reducing admixture

o Warm the subgrade before placing concrete on it during cold weather

o Consider using synthetic fibers to help control plastic shrinkage cracks.

Repairing Methods of Cracks in Concrete

Various types of Concrete Crack Repair Methodologies:
o Stitching

o Muting and sealing

o Resin injection

o Dry packing

o Polymer impregnation

o Vacuum impregnation

o Autogenously healing

o Flexible sealing

o Drilling and plugging

o Bandaging

To summarize, always prevention is better than cure. Prevention of

concrete cracks give good quality, saves time, money and peace of mind to
the owner.
Read More:
Repair of Small and Large Cracks in Concrete
Plastic Shrinkage Cracks in Concrete and Its Prevention
Cracks in Concrete Due to Moisture Change
Cement Grouting of Cracks in Concrete and Masonry

Why do We Test Concrete

Compressive Strength after 28
Days?
Strength of concrete is generally tested after 28 days as concrete cube
strength or concrete cylinder strength. The reason for testing concrete
strength after 28 days is discussed.

Why do we test concrete compressive strength

after 28 days?
Concrete gains strength with time after casting. It takes much time for
concrete to gain 100% strength and the time for same is still unknown. The
rate of gain of concrete compressive strength in higher during the first 28
days of casting and then it slows down.

The table below shows the compressive strength gained by concrete after 1,
3, 7, 14 and 28 days with respect to the grade of concrete we use.

Age Strength per cent

1 day 16%

3 days 40%
 7 days 65%

14 days 90%

28 days 99%

From above table, we see that, concrete gains 16 percent strength in one
day, 40 percent in 3 days, 65% in 7 days, 90% in 14 days and 99% strength
in 28 days.

Thus, it is clear that concrete gains its strength rapidly in the initial days
after casting, i.e. 90% in only 14 days. When, its strength have reached 99%
in 28 days, still concrete continues to gain strength after that period, but
that rate of gain in compressive strength is very less compared to that in 28
days.
After 14 days of casting concrete, concrete gains only 9% in next 14 days.
So, rate of gain of strength decreases. We have no clear idea upto when the
concrete gains the strength, 1 year or 2 year, but it is assumed that concrete
may gain its final strength after 1 year.

So, since the concrete strength is 99% at 28 days, it’s almost close to its final
strength, thus we rely upon the results of compressive strength test after 28
days and use this strength as the base for our design and evaluation.

Though there are also some rapid method of testing concrete compressive
strength which gives relation between rapid test methods and 28 day
strength. This rapid test is done where time is limited for construction and
strength of structural member must be known to carry out further
construction work.

Read More:
Concrete – Definition, Grades, Components, Manufacture, Construction and
Articles
Compressive Strength of Concrete Cubes
Planning In-Situ Testing of Concrete for Strength, Durability and Damages

Lightweight Concrete Floor

Systems – Thickness, Uses
Lightweight concrete floor provides more efficient strength-to-weight ratio
in concrete floor systems when compared to other conventional concrete
floor systems. The reduced quantity of concrete and steel reinforcement
offsets the marginally higher cost of lightweight concrete floor systems.

These floors are constructed for different purposes but the reduction of
dead loads on the structure is the main motivation behind using this
system. There are various lightweight concrete floor systems which can be
selected based on the requirements of the structure- The prevalent ones
are Solid lightweight concrete floor and Composite lightweight concrete
floor.
The thickness determination of lightweight concrete floor is crucial to meet
the requirements and specifications of the structure. The minimum
thickness of lightweight concrete floor system can be computed based on
the Specifications of American Concrete Institute (ACI 318-14).

Types of lightweight concrete

1. Lightweight Aggregate Concrete
The production of lightweight aggregate concrete is similar to conventional
concrete, but parts or all quantity of coarse aggregate are replaced by
lightweight aggregate.

2. Foam Lightweight Concrete

It has a good mechanical strength and low thermal conductivity. Foam
concrete contains confined air pockets thus reducing its weight
substantially which offers great reduction in floor cost. It is mainly
designed for making filling and levelling layers of floors in industrial
buildings and other civic structures 

3. Polystyrene Lightweight Concrete

Polystyrene lightweight concrete’s density, compression strength, and
thermal conductivity are similar to that of foam concrete. It is designed for
efficient construction of gradient and thermal insulating layers of flat
roofs.
Types of Lightweight Concrete Floors
Systems
1. Solid Lightweight Floors
This type of lightweight floor system is constructed by pouring lightweight
aggregate concrete into the fixed forms of the concrete slab. It is used in the
construction of multistory buildings. The thickness of solid lightweight
concrete floor system is determined according to the specifications of ACI
318-14, as discussed in the following sections. 

Fig. 1: Solid Lightweight Concrete Floor System

2. Composite Lightweight Concrete Floors

According to EN 1994-1-1:2005, composite slab is composed of profiled steel
decking with an in situ reinforced concrete topping. Not only does the deck
acts as a permanent formwork to the concrete, but also provides adequate
shear bond with the concrete.

Lightweight concrete can also be applied as a topping slab over structural

concrete decks. the shape of profiled steel decking may vary as shown in
Fig.3 and Fig.4.

Fig. 2: Composite Lightweight Concrete Floor System

Fig. 3: Re-entrant Profiled Steel Decking

Fig. 4: Trapezoidal Profiled or Open Trough Profiled Steel Decking

Fig. 5: Profiled Decks are Placed for Composite Lightweight Floor Construction
3. Other Lightweight Floor Systems
This includes Lightweight Wood Concrete Slab, Modular Lightweight
Concrete Floor System, and Precast Concrete Lightweight Concrete Floor.
Some of these floor systems are modifications of the aforementioned
lightweight systems.

Fig. 6: Lightweight Wood Concrete Slab

Fig. 7: Modular Lightweight Concrete Floor System

Fig. 9: Precast Concrete Lightweight Concrete Floor

Minimum Thickness of Lightweight

Floors
For structures that will not be damaged by significant deflections,the
minimum thickness of a slab can be obtained by Table 1. This table is used
for normal weight concrete, but it can be factored (lightweight concrete
factor) and used for lightweight concrete.

The method for calculation of lightweight Concrete factor is as follows :

lightweight concrete factor =  = 1.65-.005*wc

lightweight concrete minimum thickness =  * minimum thickness of table
1.

where:

wc= wt. of lightweight concrete (ranges between 14.13KN/m3 and 18.85

KN/m3)
Table 1 Minimum thickness for normal weight concrete floor system
Types of construction Minimum thickness
 Solid one-way slab

Simply supported beam L/20

one end continuous L/24

both end continuous L/28

Cantilever L/10

  Ribbed one-way slab  

Simply supported beam L/16

one end continuous L/18.5

both end continuous L/21

Cantilever L/8

L is the clear span of the slab  

Economy Lightweight Concrete Floors

The cost of lightweight concrete floor is greater than conventional concrete
by less than 1 percent. However,this increased cost is offset by number of
factors which are discussed below:

1. Dead weight reduction leads to the decline of total load on foundation and hence smaller
foundation would be needed.

2. Similarly, supporting members such as beams would also have smaller sizes which
decline the total cost significantly.
3. Reduced loads lead to smaller inertial seismic forces.

4. Constructing precast and prestress floors, longer spans may be built and hence fewer
number of columns are required

5. ACI 216.1 reported that fire resistance of lightweight concrete is greater than that of
normal concrete. Consequently, the thickness of slabs may be reduced, resulting in
significantly less concrete volumes.

Uses of Lightweight Concrete Floors

1. Steel frame office

2. Commercial buildings

3. Industrial buildings and warehouses

4. Leisure buildings

5. Hospitals

6. Schools

7. Cinemas

8. Individual houses

9. Residential buildings

10. Refurbishment projects

Testing of Sand Quality at

Construction Site for Concrete
There are different methods for testing of sand quality at construction site
for concrete construction. Quality of sand is as much of importance as
other materials for concrete.

Aggregate most of which pass through 4.75 mm IS sieve is known as fine

aggregate. Fine aggregate shall consists of natural sand, crushed stone
 sand, crushed gravel sand stone dust or arable dust, fly ash and broken
brick (burnt clay).

It shall be hard, durable, chemically inert, clean and free from adherent
coatings, organic matter etc. and shall not contain any appreciable amount
of clay balls or pellets and harmful impurities e.g. iron pyrites, alkalis, salts,
coal, mica, shale or similar laminated materials in such form or in such
quantities as to cause corrosion of metal or affect adversely the strength,
the durability or the appearance of mortar, plaster or concrete.

The sum of the percentages of all deleterious material shall not exceed 5%.
Fine aggregate must be checked for organic impurities such as decayed
vegetation humps, coal dust etc.

Testing of Sand Quality at Construction

Site
Following are the tests for sand at construction site:
1. Organic impurities test – this test is conducted at the field, for every 20 cum or part thereof.
2. Silt content test – this is also a field test and to be conducted for every 20 cum.
3. Particle size distribution – this test can be conducted at site or in laboratory for every 40
cum of sand.
4. Bulking of sand – this test is conducted at site for every 20 cum of sand. Based on bulking
of sand, suitable water cement ratio is calculated for concrete at site.

1. Test for Silt Content Test of Sand

The maximum quantity of silt in sand shall not exceed 8%. Fine aggregate
containing more than allowable percentage of silt shall be washed so as to
bring the silt content within allowable limits.

2. Test for Grading of sand

On the basis of particle size, fine aggregate is graded into four zones.
Where the grading falls outside the limits of any particular grading zone of
sieves, other than 600 micron IS sieve, by a total amount not exceeding 5
percent, it shall be regarded as falling within that grading zone.
 Percentage passing for

IS Sieve
Grading
Grading Zone I Grading Zone II Grading Zone III
Zone IV

10mm 100 100 100 100

4.75mm 90 – 100 90 – 100 90 – 100 90 – 100

2.36mm 60 – 95 75 – 100 85 – 100 95 – 100

1.18 mm 30 – 70 55 – 90 75 – 100 90 – 100

600 micron 15 – 34 35 – 59 60 – 79 80 – 100

300 microns 5 – 20 8 – 30 12 – 40 15 – 50

150 microns 0 – 10 0 – 10 0 – 10 0 – 15

3. Test for Deleterious materials in sand

Sand shall not contain any harmful impurities such as iron, pyrites,
alaklies, salts, coal or other organic impurities, mica, shale or similar
laminated materials, soft fragments, sea shale in such form or in such
quantities as to affect adversely the hardening, strength or durability of the
mortar.

The maximum quantities of clay, fine silt, fine dust and organic impurities
in the sand / marble dust shall not exceed the following limits:
(a) Clay, fine silt and fine dust when determined in accordance within not
more than 5% by mass in IS 2386 (Part-II), natural sand or crushed gravel
sand and crushed stone sand.
(b) Organic impurities when determined in colour of the liquid shall be
lighter in lighter in accordance with IS 2386 (Part –II) than that specified in
the code.
4. Test for Bulking of sand

Fig: Bulking of sand test

Fine aggregate, when dry or saturated, has almost the same volume but
dampness causes increase in volume. In case fine aggregate is damp at the
time of proportioning the ingredients for mortar or concrete, its quantity
shall be increased suitably to allow for bulkage.

Table below gives the relation between moisture content and percentage of bulking
for guidance only.
Moisture content (%) Bulking percentage (by volume)

2 15

3 20

4 25

5 30
 Factor of Safety For Different
Foundations
Factor of Safety and Allowable Pressure
Allowable bearing pressure, from shear strength consideration, is only a
fraction of the ultimate bearing capacity and is defined by the equation:

qallowable = (qultimate / Fs ) + gDf

Here,

1. The factor of safety against shear failure is given by Fs

2. gDf is the effective overburden pressure at the foundation depth D f

Important Features Affecting Factor of

Safety
The required factor of safety depends upon:

1. Type of structure permanent or temporary

2. Sensitivity of structure

3. Extent of soil exploration

4. Nature of loading considered and assumption made in the design

5. Extent of quality control during construction.

It is recommended that the factor of safety should be between 2 and 4. The

following table may be used as a guide for permanent structures in
reasonably homogeneous soil conditions.
 Factor of Safety for Shallow Foundations
Below mentioned is a table giving minimum values of factor of safety for
the design of shallow foundations. This is as per Vesic,1970.

Table.1:Minimum value of safety factor for design of shallow foundations

(as per Vesic, 1970)

Soil Exploration
Typical Structure Characteristics of the category
Thorough Limited

Railway bridge, Warehouses, blast Maximum design load likely to occur

furnaces, silos, hydraulic retaining often, consequence of failure 3.0 4.0
walls disastrous

Maximum design load may occur

Highway bridge, light industrial
occasionally, consequence of failure 2.5 3.5
and public buildings
serious

Maximum design load unlikely to

Apartments and office buildings 2.0 3.0
occur

Note:

1. Only after properly assessing the reliability of all parameters governing the structure,
the Factor of safety can be decided. These parameters will include the loads, strength and
the deformation properties of the soil mass.

2. The above mentioned values have to be reduced to 75% with value not less than 2, for
temporary structures.

3. In the case of chimneys and towers, or in common tall buildings where there is chances
for progressive collapse, it is recommended to increase the value by 20 to 50%.
4. Adequate consideration must be given to take into consideration scour and excavation
overburden.

Factor of Safety and Allowable Capacity of Pile

Foundation
The factor of safety for both downward and upward loading in pile
foundations are explained below:

1. For downward loading

Fs (Factor of safety) = 2.5 , when both end bearing and shaft resistance are
considered. This value should be reduced upto 2.0 if sufficient number of
pile load tests are conducted to ensure that Fs will never fall below 2.
Fs = 1.5 for shaft resistance and Fs =3 for end bearing. However, Fs based on
both end bearing and shaft resistance should be greater than 2.
First approach should be given greater [Link] allowable load is
estimated based on first approach, it is ensurd that it is not less than
estimated by second. It is essential to have higher factor of safety in end
bearing than in shaft resistance. With negative stress friction acting, factor
of safety as above should be obtained. With negative friction, the factor of
safety should not be less than 2.

2. For uplift conditions

Fs = 2.5
Fs could be reduced to 2, if the capacity of pile could be established by a
pull-out test. Fs could be further reduced to 1.5 if the weight of the pile itself
is 0.75 times the uplift force or greater.

Factor of Safety For Embankments &  Earth

dams
The factor of safety for earth dams, embankments, dams will be less
compared to the factor of safety of other structures. Providing high factor
of safety will result in uneconomical sections of earthwork structures. It is
satisfactory to provide lower values of safety. Table-2 below shows the
factor of safety for different earthwork structures.

Table.2: Factor of Safety for Different Earthwork Structures

Description of earthwork Safety Factors

Embankments, end of construction 1.0 to  1.2

*cuts, end of construction 1.2 and over

Embankments, long term stability 1.2 to 1.4

*cuts, long term stability 1.2 to 1.4

1.5 and
Earthdams
above

Earthdams – extreme conditions of loading (i.e. severe flood followed by sudden

1.1 to 1.25
drawdown)

Note: For cuts, safety factor has usually higher values at end of
construction rather than at some future time.

Factor of Safety For Different

Foundations
Factor of Safety and Allowable Pressure
Allowable bearing pressure, from shear strength consideration, is only a
fraction of the ultimate bearing capacity and is defined by the equation:

qallowable = (qultimate / Fs ) + gDf

Here,
1. The factor of safety against shear failure is given by Fs
2. gDf is the effective overburden pressure at the foundation depth D f

Important Features Affecting Factor of

Safety
The required factor of safety depends upon:

1. Type of structure permanent or temporary

2. Sensitivity of structure

3. Extent of soil exploration

4. Nature of loading considered and assumption made in the design

5. Extent of quality control during construction.

It is recommended that the factor of safety should be between 2 and 4. The

following table may be used as a guide for permanent structures in
reasonably homogeneous soil conditions.

Factor of Safety for Shallow Foundations

Below mentioned is a table giving minimum values of factor of safety for
the design of shallow foundations. This is as per Vesic,1970.

Table.1:Minimum value of safety factor for design of shallow foundations

(as per Vesic, 1970)

Soil Exploration
Typical Structure Characteristics of the category
Thorough Limited
 Railway bridge, Warehouses, blast Maximum design load likely to occur
furnaces, silos, hydraulic retaining often, consequence of failure 3.0 4.0
walls disastrous

Maximum design load may occur

Highway bridge, light industrial
occasionally, consequence of failure 2.5 3.5
and public buildings
serious

Maximum design load unlikely to

Apartments and office buildings 2.0 3.0
occur

Note:

1. Only after properly assessing the reliability of all parameters governing the structure,
the Factor of safety can be decided. These parameters will include the loads, strength and
the deformation properties of the soil mass.

2. The above mentioned values have to be reduced to 75% with value not less than 2, for
temporary structures.

3. In the case of chimneys and towers, or in common tall buildings where there is chances
for progressive collapse, it is recommended to increase the value by 20 to 50%.

4. Adequate consideration must be given to take into consideration scour and excavation
overburden.

Factor of Safety and Allowable Capacity of Pile

Foundation
The factor of safety for both downward and upward loading in pile
foundations are explained below:

1. For downward loading

Fs (Factor of safety) = 2.5 , when both end bearing and shaft resistance are
considered. This value should be reduced upto 2.0 if sufficient number of
pile load tests are conducted to ensure that Fs will never fall below 2.
Fs = 1.5 for shaft resistance and Fs =3 for end bearing. However, Fs based on
both end bearing and shaft resistance should be greater than 2.
First approach should be given greater [Link] allowable load is
estimated based on first approach, it is ensurd that it is not less than
estimated by second. It is essential to have higher factor of safety in end
bearing than in shaft resistance. With negative stress friction acting, factor
of safety as above should be obtained. With negative friction, the factor of
safety should not be less than 2.

2. For uplift conditions

Fs = 2.5
Fs could be reduced to 2, if the capacity of pile could be established by a
pull-out test. Fs could be further reduced to 1.5 if the weight of the pile itself
is 0.75 times the uplift force or greater.

Factor of Safety For Embankments &  Earth

dams
The factor of safety for earth dams, embankments, dams will be less
compared to the factor of safety of other structures. Providing high factor
of safety will result in uneconomical sections of earthwork structures. It is
satisfactory to provide lower values of safety. Table-2 below shows the
factor of safety for different earthwork structures.

Table.2: Factor of Safety for Different Earthwork Structures

Description of earthwork Safety Factors

Embankments, end of construction 1.0 to  1.2

*cuts, end of construction 1.2 and over

Embankments, long term stability 1.2 to 1.4

 *cuts, long term stability 1.2 to 1.4

1.5 and
Earthdams
above

Earthdams – extreme conditions of loading (i.e. severe flood followed by sudden

1.1 to 1.25
drawdown)

Note: For cuts, safety factor has usually higher values at end of
construction rather than at some future time.

Testing of Sand Quality at

Construction Site for Concrete
There are different methods for testing of sand quality at construction site
for concrete construction. Quality of sand is as much of importance as
other materials for concrete.

Aggregate most of which pass through 4.75 mm IS sieve is known as fine

aggregate. Fine aggregate shall consists of natural sand, crushed stone
sand, crushed gravel sand stone dust or arable dust, fly ash and broken
brick (burnt clay).

It shall be hard, durable, chemically inert, clean and free from adherent
coatings, organic matter etc. and shall not contain any appreciable amount
of clay balls or pellets and harmful impurities e.g. iron pyrites, alkalis, salts,
coal, mica, shale or similar laminated materials in such form or in such
quantities as to cause corrosion of metal or affect adversely the strength,
the durability or the appearance of mortar, plaster or concrete.

The sum of the percentages of all deleterious material shall not exceed 5%.
Fine aggregate must be checked for organic impurities such as decayed
vegetation humps, coal dust etc.
 Testing of Sand Quality at Construction
Site
Following are the tests for sand at construction site:
1. Organic impurities test – this test is conducted at the field, for every 20 cum or part thereof.
2. Silt content test – this is also a field test and to be conducted for every 20 cum.
3. Particle size distribution – this test can be conducted at site or in laboratory for every 40
cum of sand.
4. Bulking of sand – this test is conducted at site for every 20 cum of sand. Based on bulking
of sand, suitable water cement ratio is calculated for concrete at site.

1. Test for Silt Content Test of Sand

The maximum quantity of silt in sand shall not exceed 8%. Fine aggregate
containing more than allowable percentage of silt shall be washed so as to
bring the silt content within allowable limits.

2. Test for Grading of sand

On the basis of particle size, fine aggregate is graded into four zones.
Where the grading falls outside the limits of any particular grading zone of
sieves, other than 600 micron IS sieve, by a total amount not exceeding 5
percent, it shall be regarded as falling within that grading zone.

Percentage passing for

IS Sieve
Grading
Grading Zone I Grading Zone II Grading Zone III
Zone IV

10mm 100 100 100 100

4.75mm 90 – 100 90 – 100 90 – 100 90 – 100

2.36mm 60 – 95 75 – 100 85 – 100 95 – 100

 1.18 mm 30 – 70 55 – 90 75 – 100 90 – 100

600 micron 15 – 34 35 – 59 60 – 79 80 – 100

300 microns 5 – 20 8 – 30 12 – 40 15 – 50

150 microns 0 – 10 0 – 10 0 – 10 0 – 15

3. Test for Deleterious materials in sand

Sand shall not contain any harmful impurities such as iron, pyrites,
alaklies, salts, coal or other organic impurities, mica, shale or similar
laminated materials, soft fragments, sea shale in such form or in such
quantities as to affect adversely the hardening, strength or durability of the
mortar.

The maximum quantities of clay, fine silt, fine dust and organic impurities
in the sand / marble dust shall not exceed the following limits:
(a) Clay, fine silt and fine dust when determined in accordance within not
more than 5% by mass in IS 2386 (Part-II), natural sand or crushed gravel
sand and crushed stone sand.
(b) Organic impurities when determined in colour of the liquid shall be
lighter in lighter in accordance with IS 2386 (Part –II) than that specified in
the code.
4. Test for Bulking of sand

Fig: Bulking of sand test

Fine aggregate, when dry or saturated, has almost the same volume but
dampness causes increase in volume. In case fine aggregate is damp at the
time of proportioning the ingredients for mortar or concrete, its quantity
shall be increased suitably to allow for bulkage.

Table below gives the relation between moisture content and percentage of bulking
for guidance only.
Moisture content (%) Bulking percentage (by volume)

2 15

3 20

4 25

5 30
 Tests on Cement at Construction
Site To Check Quality of Cement
Quality tests on cements at construction site (also called field tests on
cement) are carried to know the quality of cement supplied at site. It gives
some idea about cement quality based on colour, touch and feel and other
tests.

Tests on Cement at Construction site

The following are the quality tests on cement at construction site:
o Color test

o Presence of lumps

o Adulteration test

o Temperature test

o Float tests

o Strength test

o Setting test

o Date of packing

Color Test of Cement

The color of the cement should be uniform. It should be grey colour with a
light greenish shade.

Presence of Lumps
The cement should be free from any hard lumps. Such lumps are formed
by the absorption of moisture from the atmosphere. Any bag of cement
containing such lumps should be rejected.
Cement Adulteration Test
The cement should feel smooth when touched or rubbed in between
fingers. If it is felt rough, it indicates adulteration with sand.

Temperature Test of Cement
If hand is inserted in a bag of cement or heap of cement, it should feel cool
and not warm.

Float Test
If a small quantity of cement is thrown in a bucket of water, the particles
should float for some time before it sinks.

Setting Test
A thick paste of cement with water is made on a piece of glass plate and it
is kept under water for 24 hours. It should set and not crack.
Strength of Cement Test
A block of cement 25 mm ×25 mm and 200 mm long is prepared and it is
immersed for 7 days in water. It is then placed on supports 15cm apart and
it is loaded with a weight of about 34 kg. The block should not show signs
of failure.

The briquettes of a lean mortar (1:6) are made. The size of briquette may
be about 75 mm ×25 mm ×12 mm. They are immersed in water for a period
of 3 days after drying. If cement is of sound quality such briquettes will not
be broken easily.

Date of Packing:
Strength of cement reduces with time, so it is important to check the
manufacturing date of the cement. Generally, the cement should be used
before 90 days from the date of manufacturing.

Read More on Material Testing Guide. Recommended Book:  Concrete

Technology

Concrete Calculator – Calculate

Concrete for Slab, Beam, Column
and Footings
This Concrete Calculator calculates quantities of materials required for
construction of concrete slabs, beams, columns, footings and trapezoidal
footings in cubic meters and cubic feet.

The quantity of cement, sand and aggregates for various proportions of

concrete such as M10 (1:3:6), M15 (1:2:4), M20 (1:1.5:3), M25(1:1:2) and
other custom concrete mix can be calculated for shapes such as
rectangular, square, circular, trapezoidal concrete members.
Concrete Calculator
 

Select Concrete Mix Proportion

Cement : 1

Sand : 1.5

Aggregates : 3

W/C Ratio : 0.45

Select Member
Select Concrete Member*:

Select Units
Select Unit System*:

Calculate Concrete

Concrete Calculator – Results

Volume of Concrete = m3 = Cubic Yard = CFT = Pounds
Quantity of Cement = kg = Bags of 50 kg = Pounds
Quantity of Sand = kg = m3 = Cubic Yard = CFT = Pounds
Quantity of Coarse Aggregates = kg = m3 = Cubic Yard = CFT = Pounds
Quantity of Water = Liter = Gallons
Read More:
Calculate Quantities of Materials for Concrete
Concrete – Definition, Grades, Components, Manufacture, Construction and
Articles
Concrete Calculator – Calculate
Concrete for Slab, Beam, Column
and Footings
This Concrete Calculator calculates quantities of materials required for
construction of concrete slabs, beams, columns, footings and trapezoidal
footings in cubic meters and cubic feet.

The quantity of cement, sand and aggregates for various proportions of

concrete such as M10 (1:3:6), M15 (1:2:4), M20 (1:1.5:3), M25(1:1:2) and
other custom concrete mix can be calculated for shapes such as
rectangular, square, circular, trapezoidal concrete members.

Concrete Calculator
 

Select Concrete Mix Proportion

Cement : 1

Sand : 1.5

Aggregates : 3

W/C Ratio : 0.45

Select Member
Select Concrete Member*:
 Select Units
Select Unit System*:

Calculate Concrete

Concrete Calculator – Results

Volume of Concrete = m3 = Cubic Yard = CFT = Pounds
Quantity of Cement = kg = Bags of 50 kg = Pounds
Quantity of Sand = kg = m3 = Cubic Yard = CFT = Pounds
Quantity of Coarse Aggregates = kg = m3 = Cubic Yard = CFT = Pounds
Quantity of Water = Liter = Gallons
Read More:
Calculate Quantities of Materials for Concrete
Concrete – Definition, Grades, Components, Manufacture, Construction and
Articles

Good Construction Practices and

Techniques to Prevent Structural
Damage
Good construction practices and techniques should be followed to prevent
occurrence of structural damages that may occur during occupancy and
with age of the structure. A structure has to go through different stages in
construction process.

Each and every stage of construction is important to make sure that the
structure being constructed will not experience damage under any general
circumstances. Development of cracks in structure is the first sign of
damage. Structural damage does not only reduces strength of the structure
but it may also make it unfit for use to the extent that the structure
collapses
 It is very important for the civil engineers to ensure good construction
practices are followed at every stage of construction to prevent structural
damage and failure of the structure.

Good Construction Practices and

Techniques to Prevent Structural
Damage
Following are the good construction practices and techniques that shall be
followed for good quality and durable construction of structure:
1. Masonry work:
o Masonry work in a structure should be carried out in uniform levels at all parts of the
structure to prevent differential settlement of foundation due to differential loading. This
will prevent the cracking of masonry walls and also other structural elements. Difference
in the height of masonry in different parts of a building should normally not exceed 1m
any time during construction.

o Masonry work should be properly cured for a minimum period of 7 to 10 days.

o Masonry works on any RCC elements such as RCC Slab and beams should not be started
till minimum of 2 weeks after striking off the shuttering.

2. Concrete work:
o In reinforced concrete members such as cantilever beams and slabs which are liable to
deflect appreciably under load, removal of centering and imposition of load should be
deferred at least one month so that concrete gains sufficient strengths before it bears the
load.

o Curing of any concrete member should be done for a minimum period of 7 to 10 days
and terminated gradually so as to avoid quick drying.

o Concrete work in very hot and windy climate should be avoided, and in case it is not
avoidable then precautions shall be taken to keep the temperature of fresh concrete
 down and to prevent quick drying of concrete. Following steps should be taken to keep
the temperature of freshly prepared concrete down:

– Aggregate and mixing water should be shaded from direct sun.

– Part of mixing water may be replaced by pounded ice.

– As far as possible concreting should be done in early hours of the day.

o Re-trowelling the concrete surface slightly, before its initial setting to mitigate plastic
shrinkage cracks

3. RCC frame work:

o As far as possible frame work should be completed before starting work of panel walls
for cladding and partitioning.

o Work of construction of panel walls and partition should be deferred as much as possible
and should proceed from top to down ward.

o When partition walls are to be supported on floor beam or slab upward camber should
be provided in floor slab/beam to counter act deflection.

o Horizontal movement joint should be provided between top of panel wall and soffit of
beam and when structurally required little support to the wall should be provided at the
top by using telescopic anchorage or similar arrangement. Horizontal movement joint
between top of wall and soffit of beam/slab shall be filled which some compressible
jointing material.

o If door opening is to be provided in partition wall a center opening is more preferable

than off center opening.

o Light re-vibration of concrete shall be done, before it has set, for the member and section
prone for plastic settlement cracks i.e. narrow column and walls, at change of depth in
section.

4. Plastering:
o When plastering is to be done on masonry, mortar joints in masonry should be raked out
to 10 mm depth while the mortar is green. Plastering should be done after masonry has
been properly cured and allowed to dry so as to undergo initial shrinkage before plaster.
o For plastering on concrete background, it should be done as soon as feasible after
removal of shuttering by roughing of concrete surface where necessary by hacking, and
applying neat cement slurry on the concrete surface to improve the bond.

o When RCC and brick work occurs in combination and to be plastered, then sufficient
time (at least 1 month) shall be allowed for RCC and brickwork to undergo initial
shrinkage and creep before taking up plaster work. In such case either groove shall be
provided in the plaster at the junction or 10cm wide strip of metal mesh or lathing shall
also be provided over the junction to act as reinforcement.

5. Concrete and terrazzo floor:

o Control joint should be provided in the concrete and terrazzo floor either by laying floors
in alternate panels or by introducing strips of glass, aluminium or some plastic material
at close interval in grid pattern.

o When flooring is to be laid on RCC slab, either a base course of lime concrete should be
provided between the RCC slab and the flooring or surface of slab should be well
roughened, cleaned and primed with cement slurry before laying of floor.

5. RCC Lintels:
Bearing for RCC lintels should be on the liberal side when spans are large
so as to avoid concentration of stress at the jambs.

6. RCC roof slab:

o The top of the slab should be provided with adequate insulation or protective cover
together with some high reflectivity finish cover to check the thermal movement of the
slab and consequent cracking in supporting wall and panel/partition wall.

o In load bearing structure, slip joint should be introduced between the slab and
supporting/cross walls. Further either the slab should project for some length from the
supporting wall or the slab should rest only on part width of the wall as shown in figure
below:
 Fig.1: Constructional detail of bearing of RCC roof slab over a masonry wall
On the inside, wall plaster and ceiling plaster should be made
discontinuous by a groove of about 10 mm.

For introducing the slip joint, the bearing portion of supporting wall is
rendered smooth with plaster (preferably with neat cement finish), which
is then allowed to set and partly dry. Thereafter either it is given thick coat
of whitewash, or 2 to 3 layers of tarred paper is placed over the plaster
surface, before casting of slab.

7. Provision of glazed, terrazzo or marble tile on vertical

surface:
Before fixing of these tiles on vertical surface background component
should be allowed to undergo movement due to elastic deformation,
shrinkage & creep otherwise tiles are likely to crack and dislodged.

8. RCC work in exposed condition:

For RCC work in exposed condition i.e. sunshades, balconies, canopies,
open verandah etc., to prevent shrinkage cum contraction cracks, adequate
quantity of temperature reinforcement shall be provided. In such condition
quantity shall be increase by 50 to 100 % of the minimum amount
prescribed.
 9. Finish on wall:
Finishing items i.e. distemper and painting etc. should be carried out after
the plaster has dried and has under gone drying shrinkage.

10. Pace of construction:

The construction schedule and the pace of construction should be
regulated to ensure :

o All items of masonry are properly cured and allowed to dry before plastering work is
done, thus concealing the cracks in masonry in plaster work. Similarly plaster work
should be cured and allowed to dry before applying finishing coat. So as to conceals the
cracks in plaster under finish coat.

o In case of concrete work before taking masonry work either over it or by its side, the
most of the drying shrinkage, creep and elastic deformation of concrete should be
allowed to take place, so as to avoid cracks in masonry or a the junction of masonry and
concrete.

11. Provision of reinforcement for thermal stresses:

To control the cracks in concrete due to shrinkage as well as temperature
effect, adequate temperature reinforcement shall be provided. This
temperature reinforcement is more effective if smaller diameter bars and
the deformed steel is used than plain reinforcement.

12. Extension of existing building:

(a) Horizontal extension: Since foundation of an existing building undergoes
some settlement as load comes on the foundation, it is necessary to ensure
that new construction is not bonded with the old construction and the two
parts are separated by a slip or expansion joint right from bottom to top.
Otherwise, when the newly constructed portion undergoes settlement, an
unsightly crack may occur at the junction.
Care should also be taken that in the vicinity of the old building, no
excavation below the foundation level of that building is carried out.

When plastering the new work, a deep groove should be formed separating
the new work from the old.
When it is intended to make horizontal extension to a framed structure
later on than the twin column with combined footing shall be provided at
the time of original construction itself as under:

b) Vertical extension: When making vertical extension to an existing

building (that is adding one or more additional floors) work should be
proceeded at a uniform level all round so as to avoid differential load on
the foundation. In spite of this precaution, however, sometimes cracks
appear in the lower floors (old portion) at the junction of RCC columns
carrying heavy loads and lightly loaded brick masonry walls due to
increase in elastic deformation and creep in RCC columns. Such cracks
cannot be avoided.

Renewal of finishing coats on old walls of old portion should be deferred

for 2 or 3 months after the imposition of additional load due to new
construction so that most of the likely cracking should take place before
finish coat is applied thus concealing the cracks.
13. Rich cement treatment on external walls:
When it is proposed to give some treatment on external walls of some rich
cement based material i.e. artificial stone finish, terrazzo etc., the finish
should be laid in small panels with deep grooves in both directions.

14. Movement joints:

To mitigate/relieve the magnitude of stresses due to thermal movement
and shrinkage movement joints i.e. Expansion joint, Control joint and Slip
joint shall be provided in the structure.

15. Filling in plinth:

Filling in plinth should be done with good soil free from organic matter,
brickbats and debris etc. It should be laid in 25 cm thick layers, well
watered and compacted to avoid possibility of subsequent subsidence and
cracking of floors.

Measurement of Plinth Area and

Carpet Area of a Building
Plinth area and carpet area of a building is measured for estimation and
calculation of building cost. It is also a measure of usable space of building.

Plinth area is the covered built-up area measured at the floor level of any
storey or at the floor level of the basement. Plinth area is also called as
built-up area and is the entire area occupied by the building including
internal and external walls. Plinth area is generally 10-20% more than
carpet area.
 Fig.1: Plinth Area of a Room in Building
Carpet area the covered area of the usable spaces of rooms at any floor. It is
measured between walls to walls within the building and is the sum of the
actual areas of the rooms where you can carpet.

Fig.1: Carpet Area of a Room in Building

Measurement of Plinth Area and Carpet Area of
a Building
For measurement, the lengths and widths should be measured nearest to
0.01m and areas should be rounded to 0.01 m2. In Case of feet system,
length should be measured to nearest 1 inch.
During the measurement, following categories are measured separately:
o Basement
o Floor without cladding (stilled floor)

o Floors including top floor which may be partly covered

o Garage

o Mezzanine floor

Measurement of Plinth Area

Following areas are included during measurement of plinth area:
1. Area of the wall at the floor level, excluding plinth offsets. If there are any common walls
between two buildings, half of the area of such walls shall be considered in the plinth
area. When building consists of columns projecting beyond the cladding, the plinth area
is measured upto the external face of the cladding (in case of corrugated sheet, cladding
outer edge of the corrugation is considered).

2. Areas of the internal shaft for sanitary installations and garbage chute, electrical,
telecom and firefighting services provided these do not exceed 2 m 2 in area.
3. Vertical duct for air conditioning and lift well including landing.

4. Staircase room or head room other than terrace level

5. Machine room

6. Porch

7. Open projections of veranda, balconies and parapets, if the area is protected by

projections, full area is included in plinth area, if the area is un-protected by projections,
50% of the area is included.

8. Recess by cantilevering beyond external walls, bay window is the best example. If the
recess height is up to 1.0 meter, 25% of such area shall be included. If the recess height is
1.0 to 2.0 meters, 50% of such area shall be included. If the recess height is above 2.0
meters, 100% of such area shall be included.

The following is not to be included in the calculation of plinth area:

1. Additional floor for seating in assembly buildings, theatres, auditoriums

2. Cantilevered porch

3. Balcony

4. Area of loft
5. Internal sanitary shaft and garbage chute, provided these are more than 2 m 2 in area
6. Area of architectural band, cornice, etc.

7. Area of vertical sun breaker or box louver projecting out and other architectural
features such as slab projection for keeping flower pots

8. Open platform

9. Terrace at first floor

10. Spiral staircase including landing

11. Towers, turrets, domes projecting above the terrace level at terrace.

Wall Area in Plinth Area Calculation

Wall area is also included in plinth area calculation. Wall area is the area
on plan occupied by walls on any particular floor. It includes the thickness
of any finishing or dado tiles if the height of such wall is more than 1m
from floor finish.

Following should be included in wall area of the building:

1. Area on plan occupied by doors and other openings

2. Intermediate pillars, supports and other such obstructions within the plinth area
irrespective of their locations

3. Pilasters along wall if exceeding 300 cm2 in area

4. Flues within the wall

5. Built-in cupboards, wardrobes, shelves appearing within a height of 2.2m from floor

6. Fire place projecting beyond the face of wall in living or bed room

The following is not included in wall area:

1. Pilaster along wall not exceeding 300 cm2 in are
2. Platforms projecting beyond the face of the wall

Measurement of the Carpet Area of the Building

Carpet area is the plinth area less the area of the following portions of the
building:
1. Wall area

2. Veranda

3. Corridor and passage

4. Entrance hall and porch

5. Staircase and stair cover

6. Lift shaft and machine room for lift

7. Bathroom and lavatory

8. Kitchen and pantry

9. Store

10. Canteen

11. Air conditioning duct and plant room

12. Shaft for sanitary piping

13. Stilted floor and garage

For the calculation of approximate cost of the building using plinth area
method, the sum of the built-up area of all floors including based basement is
considered as the plinth area of the building.
Also Read: Methods of Approximate Construction Cost Estimate Preparation

13 Types of Cement and their Uses

in Concrete Construction
There are various types of cement used in concrete construction. Each type
of cement has its own properties, uses and advantages based on
composition materials used during its manufacture.
 13 Types of Cement and their Uses
1. Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)

2. Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC)

3. Rapid Hardening Cement

4. Quick setting cement

5. Low Heat Cement

6. Sulphates resisting cement

7. Blast Furnace Slag Cement

8. High Alumina Cement

9. White Cement

10. Coloured cement

11. Air Entraining Cement

12. Expansive cement

13. Hydrographic cement

1. Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)
Ordinary Portland cement is the most widely used type of cement which is
suitable for all general concrete construction. It is most widely produced
and used type of cement around the world with annual global production
of around 3.8 million cubic meters per year.  This cement is suitable for all
type of concrete construction.

2. Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC)

Portland pozzolana cement is prepared by grinding pozzolanic clinker with
Portland cement. It is also produced by adding pozzolana with the addition
of gypsum or calcium sulfate or by intimately and uniformly blending
portland cement and fine pozzolana.

This cement has high resistance to various chemical attacks on concrete

compared with ordinary portland cement and thus it is widely used. It is
used in marine structures, sewage works, sewage works and for laying
concrete under water such as bridges, piers, dams and mass concrete
works etc.

3. Rapid Hardening Cement

Rapid hardening cement attains high strength in early days it is used in
concrete where formworks are removed at an early stage and is similar to
ordinary portland cement (OPC). This cement has increased lime content
and contains higher c3s content and finer grinding which gives greater
strength development than OPC at an early stage.

The strength of rapid hardening cement at the 3 days is similar to 7 days

strength of OPC with the same water-cement ratio. Thus, advantage of this
cement is that formwork can be removed earlier which increases the rate
of construction and decreases cost of construction by saving formwork
cost.

Rapid hardening cement is used in prefabricated concrete construction,

road works, etc.
4. Quick setting cement
The difference between the quick setting cement and rapid hardening
cement is that quick setting cement sets earlier while rate of gain of
strength is similar to Ordinary Portland Cement, while rapid hardening
cement gains strength quickly. Formworks in both cases can be removed
earlier.

Quick setting cement is used where works is to be completed in very short

period and for concreting in static or running water.

5. Low Heat Cement

Low heat cement is prepared by maintaining the percentage of tricalcium
aluminate below 6% by increasing the proportion of C2S. This makes the
concrete to produce low heat of hydration and thus is used in mass
concrete construction like gravity dams, as the low heat of hydration
prevents the cracking of concrete due to heat.

This cement has increased power against sulphates and is less reactive and
initial setting time is greater than OPC.

6. Sulphates Resisting Cement

Sulfate resisting cement is used to reduce the risk of sulphate attack on
concrete and thus is used in construction of foundations where soil has
high sulphate content. This cement has reduced contents of C3A and C4AF.

Sulfate resisting cement is used in construction exposed to severe sulphate

action by water and soil in places like canals linings, culverts, retaining
walls, siphons etc.

7. Blast Furnace Slag Cement

Blast furnace slag cement is obtained by grinding the clinkers with about
60% slag and resembles more or less in properties of Portland cement. It
can be used for works economic considerations is predominant.
8. High Alumina Cement
High alumina cement is obtained by melting mixture of bauxite and lime
and grinding with the clinker. It is a rapid hardening cement with initial
and final setting time of about 3.5 and 5 hours respectively.

The compressive strength of this cement is very high and more workable
than ordinary portland cement and is used in works where concrete is
subjected to high temperatures, frost, and acidic action.

9. White Cement
It is prepared from raw materials free from Iron oxide and is a type of
ordinary portland cement which is white in color. It is costlier and is used
for architectural purposes such as precast curtain wall and facing panels,
terrazzo surface etc. and for interior and exterior decorative work like
external renderings of buildings, facing slabs, floorings, ornamental
concrete products, paths of gardens, swimming pools etc.

10. Colored cement

It is produced by mixing 5- 10% mineral pigments with ordinary
cement. They are widely used for decorative works in floors.

11. Air Entraining Cement

Air entraining cement is produced by adding indigenous air entraining
agents such as resins, glues, sodium salts of sulphates etc. during the
grinding of clinker.

This type of cement is especially suited to improve the workability with

smaller water cement ratio and to improve frost resistance of concrete.
12. Expansive Cement
Expansive cement expands slightly with time and does not shrink during
and after the time of hardening . This  cement is mainly used for grouting
anchor bolts and prestressed concrete ducts.

13. Hydrographic cement

Hydrographic cement is prepared by mixing water repelling chemicals and
has high workability and strength. It has the property of repelling water
and is unaffected during monsoon or rains. Hydrophobic cement is mainly
used for the construction of water structures such dams, water tanks,
spillways, water retaining structures etc.

Read More:
Applications of Different Cement Types for Concrete Construction
Tests on Cement at Construction Site To Check Quality of Cement

Quantity of Cement and Sand

Calculation in Mortar
Quantity of Cement and Sand Calculation in
Mortar
Quantity of cement mortar is required for rate analysis of brickwork and
plaster or estimation of masonry work for a building or structure. Cement
mortar is used in various proportions, i.e. 1:1, 1:2, 1:3, 1:4, 1:6, 1:8 etc.

Calculation of quantity of cement mortar in brickwork

and plaster:
For the calculation of cement mortar, let us assume that we use 1m 3 of
cement mortar. Procedure for calculation is:
1. Calculate the dry volume of materials required for 1m3 cement mortar.
Considering voids in sands, we assume that materials consists of 60% voids.
That is, for 1m3 of wet cement mortar, 1.6m3 of materials are required.
2. Now we calculate the volume of materials used in cement mortar based
on its proportions.

Let’s say, the proportion of cement and sand in mortar is 1:X, where X is
the volume of sand required.

Then, the volume of sand required for 1:X proportion of 1m 3 cement

mortar will be

3. Volume of cement will be calculated as:

Since the volume of 1 bag of cement is 0.0347 m3, so the number of bag of
cement will be calculated as:

Example:
For cement mortar of 1:6, the quantity calculated will be as below:
 Sand quantity:

Quantity of cement (in bags):

Volume of cement = 

There number of bags required =   = 6.58 bags.

Concrete 3-Day, 7-Day and 28-Day

Strength Test The standard concrete compressive strength
test is carried out at 28 days. 3-days and 7-days concrete tests are carried
out only to monitor the early strength gain and are useful in construction
where high early strength of concrete is required as per construction
documents. But the values of 3-days and 7-days test results are not used for
acceptance purpose.

Concrete 28-Day Strength Test

The 28 days concrete test results are accepted as standard compressive
strength values. The compressive strength acceptance is specified by
[Link] of ACI 318-14 as :

1. Average of three compressive tests results should be equal to or more than the specified
strength.

2. At least three 4 x 8 in. (100 x 200 mm) cylinders or at least two 6 x 12 in. (150 x 300 mm)
cylinders should be used for compressive strength test as per sections [Link] and
[Link] of ACI 318-14, ACI 301-16 “Specifications for Structural Concrete”, and ACI 311.6-
18 “Specification for Testing Ready Mixed Concrete”.
3. For concrete with specified strength upto 35 MPa (5000 psi), no strength test results
should fall below the specified compressive strength by more than 3.5 MPa or 500 psi.

4. For concrete with specified strength above 35 MPa (5000 psi), no test results should fall
below the specified strength by more than 10%.

Also Read: Compressive Strength of Concrete -Cube Test, Procedure, Results