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FINANCIAL REPORTING AND MANAGEMENT REPORTING SYSTEM

The General Ledger System

According to Hall (2016), a general ledger system (GLS) is characterized as a hub connected to the other
systems of the firm through spokes of information flows. Just like in the illustration below, the center part of
the wheel is the hub, and it is connected to other parts through the spokes. This means that information that
flows from GLS connects it from the other systems.

Figure 1. Wagon Wheel

Source: [Link]

The information flows in the GLS comes from the transaction processing subsystems. That information
becomes the source of input for the management reporting system (MRS) and financial reporting system
(FRS).
The Source of Information
A journal voucher is an accounting document that serves as the source of transactions included in the general
ledger. This journal voucher contains the following information:
➢ Journal Voucher (JV) Number
➢ Transaction Date
➢ Description Amount
➢ Account Number
➢ Explanation
➢ Authorizing Signature/s

The following figure shows an example of a journal voucher (Hall, 2016):

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Figure 2. Journal Voucher

Source: Accounting Information System (9th ed.), 2016, p. 333

Files in a GLS Database

Depending on the firm, or on a case-to-case basis, a GLS database includes a variety of files. Hall (2016) gave
some examples of these files that are common to firms in general. These are enumerated as follows:

• General ledger (GL) master file - It is labeled as the principal file in the GLS database. This file is based on
the organization’s published chart of accounts. Each record in the GL master is either a separate GL
account or a control account for a corresponding subsidiary ledger in the transaction processing system.
• General ledger history file - It has the same format as the GL master file. Its primary purpose is to provide
historical financial data for comparative financial reports.
• Journal voucher file - It is the total collection of the journal vouchers processed in the current period. This
file provides a record of all general ledger transactions and replaces the traditional general journal.
• Journal voucher history file - It contains a journal voucher from past periods. This historical information
supports management’s stewardship responsibility to account for resource utilization. Both the current
and historical journal voucher files are essential links in the firm’s audit trail.
• Responsibility center file - It contains the revenues, expenditures, and other resource utilization data for
each responsibility center in the organization. The MRS draws upon these data for input in the preparation
of responsibility reports for management.
The Financial Reporting System
The company’s management, as mandated by the law, carries the primary responsibility of providing the
company’s information to external parties or its stakeholders. This responsibility is achieved through the use
of the financial reporting system (FRS).

Procedure in Financial Reporting

Financial Reports are the end product of the whole accounting process. As discussed by Hall (2016), the
accounting process begins with a clean slate at the start of a new fiscal year. Only the balance sheet
(permanent) accounts are carried forward from the previous year. From this point, the following steps occur:

1. Capture the transaction. Within each transaction cycle, transactions are recorded in the appropriate
transaction file.

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2. Record in a special journal. Each transaction is entered into the journal. Recall that frequently occurring
classes of transactions, such as sales, are captured in special journals. Those that occur infrequently are
recorded in the general journal or directly on a journal voucher.
3. Post to the subsidiary ledger. The details of each transaction are posted to affected subsidiary accounts.
4. Post to the general ledger. Periodically, journal vouchers, summarizing the entries made to the special
journals and subsidiary ledgers, are prepared and posted to the GL accounts. The frequency of updates to
the GL will be determined by the degree of system integration.
5. Prepare the unadjusted trial balance. At the end of the accounting period, the ending balance of each
account in the GL is placed in a worksheet and evaluated based on the equality of debits and credits.
6. Make adjusting entries. Adjusting entries are made to the worksheet to correct errors and to reflect
unrecorded transactions during the period, such as depreciation.
7. Journalize and post adjusting entries. Journal vouchers for the adjusting entries are prepared and posted
to the appropriate accounts in the GL.
8. Prepare the adjusted trial balance. From the adjusted balances, a trial balance is prepared, which
contains all entries that should be reflected in the financial statements.
9. Prepare the financial statements. The balance sheet, income statement, and statement of cash flows are
prepared using the adjusted trial balance.
10. Journalize and post the closing entries. Journal vouchers are prepared and posted for entries that close
out the income statement (temporary) accounts and transfer the income or loss to retained earnings.
11. Prepare the post-closing trial balance. A trial balance worksheet containing only the balance sheet
accounts may now be prepared to indicate the balances being carried forward to the next accounting
period.

The following figure outlines the whole financial reporting process (Hall, 2016):

Figure 3. Financial Reporting Process

Source: Accounting Information System (9th ed.), 2016, p. 335

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Controlling the GL/FRS

Sarbanes-Oxley (SOX) legislation requires that management should design and implement controls over the
general ledger/financial reporting system (GL/FRS). These controls include the transaction processing systems
that feed data into the FRS. In the course of FRS, some potential risks may arise. These include (Hall, 2016):
1. Defective audit trail;
2. Unauthorized access to the GL;
3. GL accounts that are out of balance with subsidiary accounts; or
4. Incorrect GL account balances because of unauthorized or incorrect journal vouchers.

In not controlled, these risks may result in misstated financial statements and other reports, thus misleading
the users of this information. The potential consequences are litigation, a significant financial loss of the firm,
and sanctions specified by SOX legislation.
The Management Reporting System
As discussed by Hall (2011), a management reporting system (MRS) is often called discretionary reporting
because it is not mandated, as compared to financial reporting. It has long been recognized as a critical
element of an organization’s internal control structure. An MRS that directs management’s attention to
problems on a timely basis promotes effective management and thus supports the organization’s business
objectives.
Also, MRS does not need to comply with Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP) as compared to
FRS, for it is specifically tailored based on management needs.
Management Principles
Management principles provide insight into management information needs. The principles that most directly
influence the MRS are as follows (Hall, 2016):
• Formalization of tasks - This principle suggests that management should structure the firm around the
tasks it performs rather than around individuals with unique skills. Under this principle, organizational
areas are subdivided into tasks that represent full-time job positions. Each position must have clearly
defined limits of responsibility.
• Responsibility and authority - This refers to an individual obligation to achieve the desired results.
Responsibility is closely related to the principle of authority. If a manager delegates responsibility to a
subordinate, s/he must also grant the subordinate the authority to make decisions within the limits of
that responsibility. In a business organization, managers delegate responsibility and authority through the
organizational hierarchy from superior to subordinates.
• Span of control - A manager’s span of control refers to the number of subordinates directly under his/her
control. The size of the span has an impact on the organization’s physical structure. A firm with a narrow
span of control has fewer subordinates reporting directly to managers. These firms tend to have a tall,
narrow span of control and have fewer subordinates reporting directly to managers. These firms tend to
have tall, narrow structures with several layers of management. Firms with broad spans of control tend
to have wide structures, with fewer levels of management.
• Management by exception - This principle suggests that managers should limit their attention to potential
problem areas rather than being involved with every activity or decision. Managers thus maintain control
without being overwhelmed by the details

Reference
Hall, J. A. (2016). Accounting information system (9th ed.). Taguig City: Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ltd.

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