See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: [Link]

net/publication/351606373

Basic principles of reverse osmosis

Chapter · May 2021

DOI: 10.2166/9781780409863_0029

CITATION READS

1 664

3 authors:

Sergio G. Salinas-Rodriguez Jan Cornelis Schippers

IHE Delft Institute for Water Education IHE Delft Institute for Water Education
74 PUBLICATIONS   583 CITATIONS    226 PUBLICATIONS   5,370 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Maria D Kennedy
IHE Delft Institute for Water Education
212 PUBLICATIONS   5,026 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

A study of Pb, Cd & As removal from a drinking water source using pristine and modified Cocoa shell and Miscanthus biochars View project

Microbial desalination for low energy drinking water (MIDES) - H2020/685793 project View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Sergio G. Salinas-Rodriguez on 08 September 2021.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 Chapter 2

Basic principles of
reverse osmosis
Sergio G. Salinas-Rodríguez, Jan C. Schippers, Maria D. Kennedy

The main learning objectives of this chapter are the following:

• Understand and be able to apply the basic principles of reverse osmosis, such
as: recovery, salt passage, salt rejection, concentration polarization, effect of
temperature, energy consumption.

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Reverse osmosis (RO) systems are capable of separating dissolved ions from a feed stream
based on salt diffusion mechanism. In RO systems, feed water is split into two streams: one
with a (very) low salinity and one with a high salinity. The low salinity stream is known as
permeate or product water while the high salinity stream is known as concentrate, brine, or
reject.

Pressure vessel + Membrame elements

Concentrate
Feed pump valve
Concentrate flow
(brine, reject)
Feed flow

Semipermeable Permeate flow

membrame (product water)

Figure 1 Basic schematic of a reverse osmosis system (Adapted from DuPont, 2020)

The quantity of water (Qw) flowing through a membrane is proportional to the differential
pressure feed-permeate (∆P), membrane surface area (A) and permeability of the membrane
(Kw). This relationship is expressed with the following equation:

dV
Qw = = (∆ P − ∆ π )·K w· A Eq. 2.1
dt

© IWA Publishing 2021. Seawater Reverse Osmosis Desalination 29

Editors: Sergio Salinas, Jan Schippers, Gary Amy, In Kim, Maria Kennedy
doi: 10.2166/9781780409863_0029
where:
Qw permeate flow (m3/h)
V total filtered volume water (permeate) (L or m3)
t time (h, min, s)
ΔP differential pressure (pressure feed – pressure permeate) (bar)
Δπ differential osmotic pressure (bar)
(osmotic pressure feed – osmotic pressure permeate)
Kw permeability constant for water (m3/[Link])
A surface area of the membrane(s) (m2)
(ΔP - Δπ) net driving pressure (NDP) (bar)

In membrane technology, flux is defined as the ratio between the permeate flow and surface
area of the membrane. It is expressed as:

Q 1 dV
J= w = Eq. 2.2
A A dt

Flux (J) is the permeate flow through a membrane surface area (Qw/A) (m3/m2.h or L/m2.h).
Then,

1 dV
J= =( P ) Kw Eq. 2.3
A dt

Example 1– Flux and permeate flow of spiral wound membrane elements

Assuming: Pressure is 10 bar; permeability of membrane is
a) 1 L/[Link] and
b) 5 L/[Link]; membrane surface area is 35 m2; and no osmotic pressure.
Question: Calculate the flux (J) and permeate flow (Qw) under the given conditions.

Answer:
a) 10 bar · 1 L/[Link] = 10 L/m2.h then 10 L/m2.h · 35 m2 = 350 L/h
b) 10 bar · 5 L/[Link] = 50 L/m2.h then 50 L/m2.h · 35 m2 = 1,750 L/h

2.2 OSMOTIC PRESSURE

In reverse osmosis systems the osmotic pressure is governed by the salinity of the feed water
and the recovery at which the RO system operates.

Osmotic pressure is the pressure which needs to be applied to a solution to prevent the
inward flow of water across a semipermeable membrane (Voet, et al., 2001). Osmotic
pressure is also defined as the minimum pressure needed to cancel out osmosis. Figure 2.2
illustrates the process of reverse osmosis in which the applied pressure needs to overcome
the osmotic pressure head to force water to pass through the semipermeable membrane.

30 Seawater Reverse Osmosis Desalination

 Semi permeable Applied pressure
membrane

Osmotic
pressure
Water
head
Salt water

Osmosis Osmotic Reverse

equilibrium osmosis

Figure 2 Illustration of reverse osmosis principle. (Adopted from Salinas Rodriguez et al., 2015)

The osmotic pressure reduces the effect of hydraulic pressure; as a consequence, the effective
pressure or net driving pressure (NDP) is equal to the hydraulic pressure minus the osmotic
pressure.

NDP = ∆P – ∆π Eq. 2.4

where:
ΔP differential hydraulic pressure (pressure feed – pressure permeate) (bar)
Δπ differential osmotic pressure (osmotic pressure feed – osmotic pressure permeate) (bar)

In membrane filtration, the osmotic pressure hinders the water flow as illustrated in Figure 3.

Flux

Osmotic pressure

Feed pressure

Figure 3 Schematic of osmotic pressure hindering flux

2.2.1 Calculation of osmotic pressure

In practice, feed water can be classified according to the amount of salts it contains as follows:
brackish water with salts up to 10,000 mg/L, and seawater with salts content higher than
30,000 mg/L. In Table 1 the osmotic pressure is presented for low salinity brackish water
and for seawater.

Chapter 2 31
Table 1 Osmotic pressure for seawater and brackish water
Water type Salinity, mg/L Osmotic pressure, bar
Brackish water 1,000 ~0.7
Seawater 35,000 ~25

In practice a salinity of about 1,300 to 1,400 mg/L equals to 1 bar of osmotic pressure. From
this number, the osmotic pressure (in bar) can be estimated with a rule of thumb, as follows:

π ≈ 0.7 · 10-3 · C Eq. 2.5

Where the salt concentration (C) is in milligrams per liter (mg/L). Hydranautics suggests that
an approximation for osmotic pressure may be made by assuming that 1,000 mg/L of total
dissolved solids (TDS) equals about 11 psi (0.76 bar) of osmotic pressure (Hydranautics,
2001).

On the other hand, the feed osmotic pressure can be calculated more accurately by using the
equation provided by ASTM 2000 based on the van’t Hoff equation:

π f =8.308·ø·(T f +273.15) ∑ mi Eq. 2.6

Where:
πf osmotic pressure (kPa)
φ Osmotic coefficient
Estimates of osmotic coefficients for brackish and seawater are 0.93 and 0.90, respectively.
Tf temperature of feed stream (°C)
Σmi summation of molalities of all ionic and non-ionic constituents in the water

Membrane manufacturers make use of similar formulas, for instance DOW in its Filmtec
technical manual (Dupont, 2020) recommends the following equation for the feed water
osmotic pressure:

π f =1.12· (T +273) ∑ mi Eq. 2.7

Where:
πf osmotic pressure (psi). 1 psi = 6.8948 kPa = 0.068948 bar
T temperature of water (°C)
Σmi summation of molalities of all ionic and non-ionic constituents in the water

Dupont uses the following simplified equations when calculating the average osmotic
pressure in the feed-concentrate stream as a function of salinity. For Cfc < 20,000 mg/L, the
osmotic pressure in bars:

Cfc (T + 320)
fc
= Eq. 2.8
491,000

32 Seawater Reverse Osmosis Desalination

For Cfc > 20,000 mg/L, the osmotic pressure in bars:

0.0117 Cfc 34 (T + 320)

fc
= Eq. 2.9
14.23 345

Where:
T temperature (°C)
Cfc salt feed-concentrate concentration (mg/L)

Hydranautics recommends the following equation for the feedwater osmotic pressure
(Hydranautics, 2001):

fc
=1.19 (T +273) mi Eq. 2.10

Where:
πfc osmotic pressure (psi). 1 psi = 6.8948 kPa
T temperature of water (°C)
Σmi summation of molalities of all ionic and non-ionic constituents in the water

2.3 WATER FLOW

Theory suggests that the chemical nature of the membrane is such that it will absorb and
pass water preferentially to dissolved salts at the solid/liquid interface. This may occur by
weak chemical bonding of the water to the membrane surface or by dissolution of the water
within the membrane structure (Solution Diffusion Theory). The chemical and physical
nature of the membrane (e.g., surface charge and pore size) determines its ability to allow
the preferential transport of water over salt ions.

Under specific reference conditions, flux and rejection are intrinsic properties of membrane
performance (Dupont, 2020).

In constant flux systems, the flux in a RO system can be expressed as:

J = (Net driving Pressure) · Kw = (∆P – ∆π) · Kw Eq. 2.11

With:

∆P = Pf – Pp Eq. 2.12

And

∆π = πf – πp Eq. 2.13

Chapter 2 33
Where:
Jw water flux (L/m2.h)
ΔP hydraulic differential pressure (pressure feed - pressure permeate) (bar)
Δπ osmotic pressure difference between the feed water and product water (permeate) (bar)
Kw permeability constant for water (m3/[Link]) (L/[Link])

Example 2 – Net driving pressure

In a seawater RO plant, the feed pressure equals 25 bar. Assume that the salinity of the feed
water is 35,000 mg/L and the RO recovery is 50 % under normal conditions.
Question: What is the production at 25 bar? Explain your answer.

Answer:
Feed osmotic pressure = 35 × 0.7 = 24.5 bar
NDP = 25 - 24.5 = 0.5 bar ≈ 0.
Concentrate osmotic pressure is much higher than feed osmotic pressure.
Therefore, no production is expected.

Example 3 – Net driving pressure, flux and permeate production

A sea water RO element operates at a pressure of 60 bar.
Questions: What is the flux and permeate production?
Assume: Salinity = 35,000 mg/L; membrane permeability Kw = 0.8 L/[Link]; membrane
surface area per element = 35 m2 and Recovery very low (less than 5 %).

Answers:
Flux: (60 - 25) bar · 0.8 L/[Link] = 28 L/m2.h
Permeate production: 28 L/m2/h · 35 m2 = 980 L/h

Example 4 – Feed water pressure for a seawater RO element

Assuming: average flux 25 L/m2/h; membrane surface area 35 m2; recovery = 12 %; feed
water concentration 44,000 mg/L; Kw = 1.0 L/m2/h/bar

Answer:
The concentrate concentration is 44,000 × 1/(1-R) = 50,000 mg/L.
Now, we can calculate the average feed-concentrate concentration = 47,000 mg/L.
πavg = 36 bar (using the Dupont formula, Eq. 2.8)
The feed pressure will be: Pf = J / Kw + πavg
Pf = 25 / 1.0 + 36 = 25 bar + 36 bar = 61 bar

34 Seawater Reverse Osmosis Desalination

2.3.1 Salt rejection
The salt rejection (SR) is by definition the ratio of the salt concentration in the feed water
minus the salt concentration in the product water over the salt concentration in the feed
water and it is expressed as percentage, as follows:
C f – Cp
SR= ·100% Eq. 2.14
Cf
⎛ C ⎞
SR= ⎜⎜1– p ⎟⎟ ·100%
⎝ Cf ⎠ Eq. 2.15

Where Cf is the salt concentration in the feed water and Cp is the salt concentration in the
product water.

2.3.2 Salt passage

The salt passage (SP) is by definition the ratio of the salt concentration in the product water
to the salt concentration in the feed water expressed as percentage, as follows:
Cp
SP= ·100% Eq. 2.16
Cf
Salt passage is the opposite of salt rejection.

SP=100% – SR Eq. 2.17

Example 5 – Salt rejection and salt passage

A sea water RO plant is processing water with a salinity of 45,000 mg/L. The product
water has a salinity of 500 mg/L.

Questions: Calculate the salt rRejection of the plant and calculate the salt passage of the
plant.

Answers:
SP = (Cp / Cf) × 100 %= (500 / 45,000) × 100 % = 1.1 %
SR = 100 % - SP = 98.9 %

Chapter 2 35
2.4 SALT FLOW

Water can pass a reverse osmosis membrane; salts as well, however, at a much lower rate.
The transport of salts through RO membranes is due to diffusion. Diffusion is a result of the
motion of ions in water and the tendency of salts to move from high concentration to low
concentration. Diffusion is a slow process, but cannot be neglected.

The salinity of the product water (Cp) depends on the relative rates of water and salt transport
through a membrane. This relationship is expressed by the following equation:
Qs
Cp = Eq. 2.18
Qw

Where Qs is defined by the following equation:

Qs = ∆C · Ks · A Eq. 2.19

With

∆C = Cf – Cp Eq. 2.20

Where:
Qs Flow rate of salt through membrane (kg/s)
ΔC Salt concentration differential across membrane (kg/m3) = Cf - Cp
Ks Membrane permeability coefficient for salt (m3/m2.s)
A Membrane area (m2)
Cf Feed concentration (mg/L)
Cp Permeate concentration (mg/L)

Replacing the formula of Qs in the formula of Cp, we have:

∆C·K s · A
Cp = Eq. 2.21
( – π )·K w · A
∆ P

Replacing terms,

Cp =
(C f )
– C p ·K s
Eq. 2.22
( P – P – ∆ π )·K
f p w

Dividing the whole equation by Cf, and rearranging the equation, we have the salt passage:

⎛ C ⎞
⎜C f – p ⎟·K s Eq. 2.23
Cp ⎜ C f ⎟⎠
⎝
=
Cf (
Pf – Pp – ∆ π ·K w )

36 Seawater Reverse Osmosis Desalination

Then,
Cp
( )
Salt passage (SP) = SP =
Cf
·100% Eq. 2.24

Looking at the right side of the equation 2.24, since Cp is small compared to Cf, the ratio Cp
/ Cf is much smaller than 1, therefore the salt transport (Qs) is constant at a certain Cp and is
independent of the pressure. As a consequence, the salt passage (SP = Cp / Cf) is lower at high
pressure (Pf) and vice versa. This is because the same quantity of salt (Qs) will be diluted by a
larger volume of (product) water and vice versa.

Membrane

Cf = Cm

Driving force due to diffusion:

∆C = (Cm - Cp)
independent of water flux

Cp

Figure 4 Schematic representation of the salt flux due to diffusion

The salt flux (Js) is defined as the salt transport per membrane area per hour (mg/m2.h) (mg
per m2 per hour). The salt flux is proportional with the concentration difference between
membrane surface at: feed water side (Cf) and product water side (Cp), and the permeability
coefficient of membrane for salts (ions) Ks.

Js ≈ (Cf – Cp) · Ks Eq. 2.25

Remark: The larger the pores, the larger the permeability for salt and water. In general, Cp is
low in comparison with Cf , so Cp can be neglected in this formula.

Js ≈ Cf · Ks Eq. 2.26

Where:
Js salt flux (mg/m2.h)
Cf concentration at feed side membrane (mg/L)
Cp concentration at product side membrane (mg/L)
Ks Permeability for salt [(mg/m2.h) / (mg/L)]

Chapter 2 37
 Example 6 – Salt passage and salt concentration permeate
The flux in an RO membrane is 10 L/m2/h. Salt concentration in feed water is 41,000
mg/L and Ks value is 0.08 [(mg/m2.h)/(mg/L)] = 0.08 L/m2/h.
Questions: What is the salt concentration in the permeate? What is the salt passage?

Answer:
In 1 hour, 10 L water is produced by 1 m2 membrane surface area. In 1 hour, the following
amount of salt will pass 1 m2 membrane surface area.

C perm = =
( )
J s C f – C p ·K s C f ·K s
≈
Jw Jw Jw

Js = mg/m2.h ≈ Cf · Ks = 41,000 mg/L · 0.08 L/m2h = 3,280 mg/m2h

This amount of salt (namely 3,280 mg) arrives in 10 L.
Resulting in (3,280 mg salt / 10 L water) = 328 mg/L salt in the product water/permeate.
The formula applied is:

Cp 328
SP= ·100%= ·100%=0.8%
Cf 41,000
or
SP = 100 % – SP = 100 % – 0.8 % = 92 %

Example 7 – Salt passage and salt concentration permeate

Considering the previous example, the water flux is increased from 10 L/m2/h to
20 L/m2/h.
Questions: What will be salt concentration in the permeate, salt passage and salt rejection?

Answer:
Salt transport is the same (since the concentration of the feed water does not change) and
water transport (flux) is double, so Cp will be two times lower. Consequently, SP will be
two times lower.

J s C f ·K s
Cp = =
Jw Jw

Cf and Ks are constant. Jw is 20/10 = 2 times higher.

As a consequence, Cp will be 2 times lower, so (328 mg/L / 2) = 164 mg/L
Salt passage will be: SP = (164 / 41,000) · 100 % = 0.4 % instead of 0.8 %
Salt rejection will be: SR = 100 % - 0.4 % = 99.6 % instead of 99.2 %.

38 Seawater Reverse Osmosis Desalination

 Example 8 – Salinity of RO permeate
A seawater RO plant produces water with a salinity of 500 mg/L. Due to technical problems
the capacity has to be reduced by 50 %, while the recovery can be kept constant.
What will happen with the salinity of the product water?
[] same [] decrease [] increase
Make a guess of the salinity of the product water.

Answers:
The flux will be 50% lower, since the capacity is reduced by 50 %.
Cp = (Cfc × Ks) / J
When we assume that Cfc will not change (because the recovery is constant), then Cp will
become two times higher

Two different types of RO membranes are identified, namely:

• brackish water (BWRO) membranes up to about 99.5 % rejection, operating at max. 40
bar.
• Sea water (SWRO) membranes with rejections > 99.8%, operating at max. 80 bar.
In general, high salt rejection (low Ks) combines with a low Kw value (due to smaller pores).
For instance, in SWRO, Ks = 0.08 L/m2/h and Kw = 1 L/[Link], while in BWRO, Ks = 1.1
L/m2/h and Kw = 5 L/m2/h/bar.

2.4.1 Permeate salinity

The salinity product/permeate of a stage (or unit) follows from:
Cp = Cfc (1-SR)
or
SR = 1 – SP
and
Cp = Cfc × SP
Or more accurately, because SR depends on flux:
Cp = Cfc (Ks) / J
Where: Cfc = (Cfc + Cc) / 2

Since salt rejection (SR) depends on flux, Ks is not directly available from manufacturers
information. Thus, Ks has to be calculated from test results under standard conditions.

The permeate salinity can be chosen to a certain extend by the choice of:
• Type of membrane and manufacturer
• Recovery: lower recovery results in lower salinity
• Flux: higher flux gives lower salinity
For drinking water, 500 mg/L is usually the guideline. For industrial waters much lower
guidelines are often adopted, e.g., 10 to 50 mg/L. Usually a second pass is installed when
lower salinity is required. For instance, the product water seawater RO plants use to be
rather high.

Chapter 2 39
2.5 RECOVERY AND CONCENTRATION FACTOR

Recovery (R) is also known as conversion. Recovery is by definition the part of feed water
that is converted in product water and is expressed as percentage.
Qp
R= 100% Eq. 2.27
Qf

Where:
Qp Product water flow rate (m3/h)
Qf Feed water flow rate (m3/h)

Recovery affects salt passage and product flow. As recovery increases, the salt concentration
on the feed-concentrate side of the membrane increases, which increases the salt transport
and the permeate salinity (Cp).

High salt concentration in the feed-concentrate solution increases the osmotic pressure,
which consequently reduces the net driving pressure (NDP). As a result, the product water
flow rate is reduced and the permeate salinity (Cp) increased.

A balance can be performed in a RO system to define the concentration factor as illustrated

in figure 5.

Qf Qc

Cf Cc

Qp

Cp

Figure 5 Balance in a RO system

Qf = Qp + Qc Eq. 2.28

Then multiplying by the concentration of salts in each stream, we have:

Qf · Cf = Qc · Cc + Qp · Cp Eq. 2.29

Re-arranging the equation for the feed concentration:

Qp Cc
Cf = ·Q p + ·C Eq. 2.30
Cf Cf c

From the definition of recovery we can modify the previous equation.

Cc Q f – Q p Q f Q p
= = – =1– R Eq. 2.31
Cf Qf Qf Qf

40 Seawater Reverse Osmosis Desalination

Substituting Eq 2.31 into Eq. 2.30, we have:

Cf = R · Cp + (1 – R) · Cc Eq. 2.32

From the definition of recovery:

Qp Q f – Qc Qc
R= = =1− Eq. 2.33
Qf Cf Cf

The concentration factor (CF) in a RO system is by definition:

Cc
CF = Eq. 2.34
Cf
From section 2.4.1 we have:

Cp = Cf · (1 – SR) Eq. 2.35

Replacing Eq. 2.35 in Eq. 2.32 we have

Cf = R · Cf · (1 – SR) + (1 – R) · Cc Eq. 2.36

And
C f R C f (1– SR) (1– R) Cc
= + Eq. 2.37
Cc Cf Cf

Then
Cc
(1– R)· C =1– R·(1– SR) Eq. 2.38
f

Then
C f ·⎡⎣1– R ·(1– SR)⎤⎦
Cc = Eq. 2.39
1– R
Or
⎡1– R ·(1– SR)⎤
⎣ ⎦
CF = Eq. 2.40
1– R

Since the salt passage is usually low, we may assume that the total amount of salt entering
the plant (Qfeed × Cfeed) will increase in concentration in the concentrate (brine) stream. As
a result:

1
CF = Eq. 2.41
1– R

Chapter 2 41
and
Cf
Cc = Eq. 2.42
1– R
In the concentrate, concentrations of salts are increased, including sparingly soluble
compounds. In seawater mainly calcium carbonate, while in brackish/fresh e.g., calcium
carbonate, calcium sulfate, strontium sulfate, barium sulfate and silica (SiO2).

As soon as the solubility is exceeded, precipitation / scaling might occur (scaling potential
and kinetics play a role). Results in lower membrane permeability (Kw). Precipitation of
calcium carbonate can be avoided by acid dosing and/or adding antiscalants. Supersaturation
to a certain extend is allowable by antiscalant dosing.

Example 9 – Conversion / Recovery / Concentration

A reverse osmosis plant is treating seawater with a salinity of 40,000 mg/L.
Having a feed flow of 500 m3/h and permeate flow of 200 m3/h.
Questions: What is the recovery of the plant? What is the concentrate flow? What is the
salinity in the concentrate? What is the concentration factor?

Answers:
Recovery: Qp / Qf = (200 / 500) × 100 % = 40 %
Concentrate flow: Qf - Qp = 500 – 200 = 300 m3/h
Salinity concentrate: CF × Cf = 1 / (1 - R) × Cf = 1 / (1 - 0.4) × 40,000 = 66,667 mg/L

Assuming salt rejection 100 %, the concentration factor for various recoveries is presented
in table 2.

Table 2 Concentration factor versus recovery

Recovery, % Concentration factor
30 1.4
40 1.7
50 2.0
75 4.0
90 10.0

In practice, brackish water plants operate at 75 %, some up to 90 % recovery. In brackish

water reverse osmosis systems, the maximum recovery is mainly governed by scaling
potential of feed water. Seawater reverse osmosis systems normally operate at 30-50 %, and
the maximum recovery is governed by the high osmotic pressure.

42 Seawater Reverse Osmosis Desalination

 Example 10 – Feed flow
Total capacity of an RO plant: 1,000 m3/h
Number of units: 3
Recovery/conversion: 45 %
Question: What is the feed flow per unit?

Answer:
R = Qp / Qf or Qf = Qp / R
Qf = (1,000 / 3) / 0.45 = 740 m3/h per unit.
Total feed flow is 3 × 740 = 2,220 m3/h/L

Example 11 – Recovery, brine concentration, osmotic pressure

A seawater RO plant is producing 200 m3/h permeate.
Feed flow is 500 m3/h; feed water has a salinity of 47,000 mg/L
Questions: What is the recovery of the plant? What is the salinity of the concentrate?
What is the osmotic pressure in the feed water and in the concentrate? What should be the
minimum feed pressure? How many arrays are in the system?

Answers:
In seawater RO, recovery is usually 40 %.
Concentration factor: CF = 1/ (1-0.4) = 1.667
Salinity concentrate: Cc = 47,000 × CF = 78,300 mg/L
Feed osmotic pressure: πf = 47 × 0.7 = 32.9 bar
Concentrate osmotic pressure: πc = 78.3 × 0.7 = 54.8 bar
Pressure higher than 32.9 bar is required to exceed the osmotic pressure.
One stage.

2.6 PRESSURE DROP

Pressure drop in feed – concentrate channel can be calculated with the formula of Schock
and Miquel, (1987).

0.5·λ ·ρ ·v 2 ·L
∆ P= Eq. 2.43
dh

λ = 6.23 Re-0.3 Eq. 2.44

R ( v dh ) Eq. 2.45c
e=

Chapter 2 43
Or
0.5·ρ 0.7 ·v1.7 ·η 0.3 Eq. 2.46
∆ P=
d h0.7
Where:
ΔP = pressure drop across spacer λ = friction coefficient
ρ = density water v = velocity
L = length membrane dh = hydraulic diameter
The normalized pressure drop (NPD) in a feed – concentrate channel can be calculated with
the following formula.

NPD = ∆Pact · CF(Q) · CF(T) Eq. 2.47

Where:
∆Pact is actual pressure drop
CF(Q) is correction factor for flow
CF(T) is correction factor for temperature.

The pressure drop in one element is approximately 0.2 bar.

The empirical formula for normalizing pressure drop is according to Schock and Miquel
(1987):
m n
⎛Q ⎞ ⎛η ⎞
NPD = ∆ Pact ·⎜⎜ fc,ref ⎟⎟ ·⎜⎜ τ ,ref ⎟⎟ Eq. 2.48
⎝ Q fc,act ⎠ ⎝ ητ ,act ⎠

Where:
Qfc,ref average reference feed/concentrate flow
Qfc,act average actual feed/concentrate flow
ηT,ref viscosity at reference temperature
ηT,act viscosity at actual temperature
m = 1.4 (Hydranautics); or m = 1.7 (Schock and Miquel)
n = 0.34 (Hydranautics); or n = 0.3 (Schock and Miquel)

The procedure to determine the reference pressure drop, which equals normalized pressure
drop at startup, is the following:
1. Measure ∆Pstart at startup, preferably for each stage
2. Measure Qfc,start at startup, preferably per stage. Use this value as reference Qfc,ref
3. Choose a reference temperature e.g., 20 °C
4. Calculate ∆Pref with formula and ηT,ref and ηT,start
5. Use ∆Pref as reference pressure drop.

2.7 CONCENTRATION POLARIZATION

Concentration polarization is the accumulation of salts (ions) at the membrane surface.

As water flows through a membrane and salts are rejected by the membrane, the retained
salts can accumulate at the membrane surface where their concentration will gradually
increase. The concentration build-up at the membrane will generate a diffusive flow of salts

44 Seawater Reverse Osmosis Desalination

back to the bulk of the feed, but after a given period of time steady state conditions will
be established. Steady-state conditions are reached when the convective salt flow to the
membrane surface is balanced by the salt flux through the membrane plus the diffusive flow
from the membrane to the bulk.

Under steady-state conditions, the concentration at the membrane surface (Cm) is constant.
The crossflow along the membrane surface enhances back diffusion of salts to the bulk. This
increase in salt concentration at the membrane surface is called concentration polarization.
As a result, the concentration at the membrane surface (Cm) is higher than in the bulk (or
feed water) (Cb).

This phenomenon results from: water flows through a membrane; salts (ions) are rejected;
retained salts (ions) accumulate at the membrane.

Feed / Bulk solution Boundary layer Permeate

Cm

J·C J·Cp

Feed Flow
Cb

Cb = Concentration in the bulk / feed

D·dC Cp
Cp = Concentration in the permeate
dx
Cm = Concentration at the membrame
x δ 0

Figure 6 Concentration polarization - Concentration profile under steady state conditions (Mulder,
2003)

At steady-state the convective transport of salt to the membrane is equal to the sum of the
permeate salt flow plus the diffusive back transport of salt:

dC
J ·C p = D· + J ·C Eq. 2.49
dx
With the following boundary conditions:
When x = 0 then C = Cm
When x = δ then C = Cb

After integration:
⎛ C – C ⎞ J ·δ
ln= ⎜⎜ m p
⎟=
⎟ D Eq. 2.50
C
⎝ b – C p ⎠

Or after re-arranging the previous formula we have

⎛ J ·δ ⎞
Cm – C p ⎜
⎝ D ⎠
⎟
=e Eq. 2.51
Cb – C p

Chapter 2 45
The ratio of the diffusion coefficient (D) and the thickness of the boundary layer (δ) is called
the mass transfer coefficient (k).
D
k= Eq. 2.52
δ

The intrinsic retention (Rint) of the membrane is the salt concentration at the membrane
minus the concentration of salt in permeate over the salt concentration at the membrane.
Cp
Rint =1− Eq. 2.53
Cm
Then, Cm / Cb becomes:
⎛J⎞
⎜ ⎟
Cm e ⎝k⎠
Eq. 2.54
=
Cb ⎛J⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎝k⎠
Rint +(1− Rint )·e

The ratio Cm / Cb is called the concentration polarization factor. This ratio increases (i.e.,
the concentration at the membrane (Cm) surfaces increases) with increasing flux (J), with
increasing retention (Rint) and with decreasing mass transfer coefficient (k).

When the salt is completely retained by the membrane (Rint = 1 and Cp = 0), then
⎛J⎞
Cm ⎜ ⎟
⎝k⎠
=e Eq. 2.55
Cb
This is the basic equation for concentration polarization which demonstrates the two
factors (the flux “J” and the mass transfer coefficient “k”) and their origin (membrane part
“J”, hydrodynamics “k”) responsible for concentration polarization.

The pure water flux (specific permeability) is determined by the membrane used and this
parameter is not subject to further change once the membrane has been selected. On the
other hand, the mass transfer coefficient depends strongly on the hydrodynamics of the
system and can therefore be varied and optimized.

2.7.1 Control of concentration polarization

The following actions can be considered to control concentration polarization in RO
membranes:
• Decreasing the flux (J). The higher the permeate flow (Qp) in an element, the higher the
transport of salts (ions) to the membrane surface. As a result, accumulation will be higher
and concentration polarization will be higher.
A consequence of lowering the flux is lower capacity of the plant or more elements need
to be installed.
• Increasing feed flow. Limited to maximum allowable feed flow to avoid membrane
damage. A consequence of increasing the feed flow is the higher head loss (pressure loss)
across the spacer.
• Increasing concentrate flow by reducing recovery.

46 Seawater Reverse Osmosis Desalination

By increasing the mass transfer coefficient (k) we can control the concentration polarization
in the RO system. k is mainly determined by the diffusion coefficient and the flow velocity.
Because the diffusivity of solutes cannot be increased (only by changing the temperature), k
can only be increased by increasing the feed velocity along the membrane or by changing
the module shape and dimensions (decreasing module length or increasing the hydraulic
diameter). The higher the cross flow along the membrane surface the higher the back
diffusion. As a result, accumulation will be reduced and concentration polarization will be
lower.

2.7.2 Effects of concentration polarization

Concentration polarization has several negative effects on the performance of reverse
osmosis systems. These effects are described below.
• Higher osmotic pressure at membrane surface than in bulk feed water, resulting in lower
Net Driving Pressure. Consequently, higher feed pressure is required to maintain same
flux (capacity).
• Increase salt transport (Qs) due to higher salt concentration at membrane surface. As a
result, a lower salt rejection (higher salt passage). Higher Cp.
• Due to higher concentration of sparingly soluble salts (e.g., calcium carbonate, calcium
sulphate) at the membrane surface, possibility of precipitation (scaling) will increase.
• Reduced water transport through the membrane (Qw).
• Higher rate of fouling due to suspended and colloidal matter, organic polymers, due to
accumulation at membrane surface.

2.7.3 Concentration polarization factor

The concentration polarization factor (β) can be calculated with the following formula:
⎛J⎞
Cm ⎜ ⎟
⎝k⎠
β= =e Eq. 2.56
Cb

In practice, the formula is simplified to:

⎛ Q ⎞
⎜ p ⎟
⎜Q ⎟
β = Kp· e ⎝ f avg ⎠
Eq. 2.57

Where: Kp is a proportionality constant depending on the module geometry.

This simplification is justified by the fact that: i) Qp is proportional to J, and ii) Qf avg is the
average feed flow and is proportional to k and k is almost proportional to the cross flow
velocity (v).

Using the arithmetic average of feed and concentrate flow as average feed flow, the
concentration polarization factor can be expressed as a function of the permeate recovery
rate of a membrane element Ri.

⎛ 2·R ⎞
⎜⎜ i ⎟
⎟
⎝ 2−Ri ⎠
β = Kp· e Eq. 2.58

Chapter 2 47
Where:
β = CPF = concentration polarization factor
Kp constant depending on type (manufacturer) membrane (usually 0.99)
Qp permeate flow of an element (m3/h)
Qc concentrate flow in an element (m3/h)
Ri recovery of a membrane element

The value of the concentration polarization factor of 1.2, which is the recommended
Hydranautics limit, corresponds to 18 % permeate recovery for a 40 inches long membrane
element (Hydranautics, 2001). Equations 2.57 and 2.58 and frequently applied by Koch
and Hydranautics membranes manufacturers (Hydranautics, 2001).

Example 12 – Concentration polarization 1

In a reverse osmosis element, the feed flow equals: 8 m3/h; product flow equals 1 m3/h;
the average TDS (total dissolved salts) in this element equals 43,000 mg/L.
Question: What is the average concentration polarization factor in this element? What is
the average salt concentration (TDS) at the membrane surface? Assume: Kp = 0.99
Answers:
β = 0.99 × exp(1/8) = 1.12
1.12 × 43,000 = 48,160 mg/L

Dupont FILMTEC (2020) applies for their elements the formula:

β = e(0.7 · R) Eq. 2.59

Where:
β Concentration polarization factor
R Recovery

The recommended recovery (by Dupont) per RO element varies with the quality of the feed
water e.g.:
• Seawater 10-12 %
• Filtered treated domestic wastewater 10-12 %
• Pre-treated surface water 15-18 %
• Softened well water 19-25 %

48 Seawater Reverse Osmosis Desalination

 Example 13 – Concentration polarization 2
Six spiral wound RO elements (8 inch) in one vessel are fed with 10 m3/h. The productivity
of the first and the last element are assumed to be the same namely 1 m3/h.
Question: Calculate the Concentration Polarization Factor in the first and the last element.
Answer:
Use the formula: CPF = Kp · exp(Qp / Qc)
Where: Qp is the permeate flow; Qc is the concentrate flow (leaving an element)
Calculate the concentrate flow (leaving the element) in the first and the last element.
The concentrate flow in the first element is: Qc = Qf – Qp
Qc = 10 – 1 = 9 m3/h
In the last element the concentrate flow is: Qc = Qf– Qp = 10 – 6 × 1 = 4 m3/h
Substitute in formula: CPF = Kp × exp (Qp/Qc)
then we get for:
the first element: CPF = 0.99 × (exp) 1/9 = 1.10
the last element: CPF = 0.99 × (exp) 1/4 = 1.27

In sea water RO systems, the concentration polarization will decrease with increasing
recovery. Consequently, the CPF is the last element is lower than in the first element. The
reason for that is that the flux is reducing dramatically with increasing recovery.

2.8 MASS TRANSFER COEFFICIENT

The mass transfer coefficient (k), is related to the Sherwood number (Sh).
k·d n
Sh= = a·Re b ·Sc c Eq. 2.60
D
Where: a, b and c are constants. With
ρ ·v·d n
Re= Eq. 2.61
η
And
η
Sc= Eq. 2.62
ρ ·D
Where:
k Mass transfer coefficient (m/s)
Re Reynolds number, dimensionless
Sc Schmidt number, dimensionless
dh Hydraulic diameter (m)
v Flow velocity (m/s)
ρ Water density (kg/m3)
η Dynamic viscosity (kg/m.s)
D Diffusion coefficient (m2/s)

Chapter 2 49
Correlations for mass transfer coefficients depend on physical characteristics of the system
and the flow conditions (e.g., laminar or turbulent). The mass transfer coefficient (k) is
mainly a function of the feed flow velocity (v), the diffusion coefficient of the solute (D),
the density and the module shape and dimensions. Of these parameters, flow velocity and
diffusion coefficient are the most important.

Table 3 Mass transfer coefficients in various flow regimes

Laminar Turbulent
0.33
k dn Re Sc d h
Tube Sh= = 1.62 Sh = 0.04 · Re0.75 · Sc0.33
D L

0.33
Re Sc d h
Channel Sh= 1.85 Sh = 0.04 · Re0.75 · Sc0.33
L

In the channel of the feed spacer of a spiral-wound RO element, Schock and Miquel (1987)
found that the mass transfer coefficient could be predicted by the following equation, when
calculations for the velocity in the channel and the hydraulic diameter took the presence of
the spacer into account:
D
k = 0.023· ·Re0.875 ·Sc0.25 Eq. 2.63
dn

2.9 TEMPERATURE AND WATER QUALITY

Temperature has an effect on Kw. The higher is the water temperature the higher the
permeability will be. The change in permeability is about 3 % per °C. Kw is linked with the
viscosity of water.

TCF = 1.03(t – 25) Eq. 2.64

When dealing with the membrane permeability, the correction will be as follows:

Kwt = K25˚C · 1.03(t – 25) Eq. 2.65

Where:
TCF temperature correction factor
t temperature in °C
Kwt membrane permeability at temperature “t”
Kw25 membrane permeability at 25 °C

As a result of the temperature effect of viscosity and therefore on membrane permeability,

the required pressure to achieve or keep a certain flux (capacity) will be lower at higher
temperatures.

50 Seawater Reverse Osmosis Desalination

 Example 14 – Effect of temperature on required feed pressure
A brackish water element operates at 15 °C (t1) and a feed pressure of 20 bar (P1). In
summer season the water temperature increases to 30 °C (P2).
Question: What will happen with the required feed pressure in summer time (P2), if we
want to keep the product flow constant? Assume that osmotic pressure can be neglected.

Answer: At higher temperature the viscosity is lower.

As a consequence the permeability will be higher. So the required pressure will be … bar.
How much lower will be the pressure?
To calculate, we apply the temperature correction factor (TFC).
TFC = (1.03)(t1 - t2)
Combined with: P2 = P1 × TFC
P2 = 20 × (1.03)(15 - 30) bar {P1 = 20 bar, t1 = 15 °C and t2 = 30 °C}
P2 = 20 × 0.63 bar
P2 = 12.6 bar, which is (20-12.6)/20 = 36.7 % lower.
With rule of thumb of “3 % per ˚C” we get: 3 × 15 % = 45 % lower.

Example 15 – Where does the TFC come from?

P2 = P1 × TFC
TFC = (1.03)(t1 - t2)
Since: J = P × Kw
follows: P2 = J / Kw2 and P1 = J/ Kw1 so, P2 / P1 = Kw1 / Kw2
and from: Kw1 = Kw25oC × (1.03)(t1 - 25) and Kw2 = Kw25oC · (1.03)(t2 - 25)
follows: Kw1 / Kw2 = (1.03)(t1 - t2) = TFC or P2 = P1 · TFC

The membrane permeability and the salt passage increase with temperature. Salt
permeability is connected with the diffusion of salt ions through the membrane. The
diffusion coefficient is defined with the following formula:
k B ·T
D= Eq. 2.66
6·π ·η ·r
Where:
kB Boltzmann constant
T absolute temperature 273 + T°C
η viscosity of water
r radius of ion
In the diffusion coefficient equation, the viscosity is a dominant factor. Viscosity will
decrease with temperature.

Chapter 2 51
A frequently applied formula for normalizing the salt permeability is:

Kst = Ks25˚C · 1.03(t-25) Eq. 2.67

Where:
Kst Salt permeability at temperature “t”
Ks25˚C Salt permeability at 25 °C
t Temperature in °C

The consequence of the previous equation is that the higher the temperature the higher the
salt passage will be. Similar to the effect of temperature on required pressure, the effect on
salt passage can be derived:
C pt1 C pt1
C pt 2 = = Eq. 2.68
TCF 1.03(t1−t 2)

Example 16 – Normalization of permeate salinity

A RO spiral wound element is treating river water at 5 °C at a flux of 25 L/m2.h. The
salinity (sodium chloride) of the permeate is 5 mg/L.
Question: What will be the salinity in the summer period when the temperature of the
water increases to 25 °C. The flux is kept at the same level.

Answer:
The salt permeability will increase with approximately 3 % per °C.
Since the flux (J) and Cf are constant, Cp will increase with approximately (25-5) = 20 °C
times 3 % per °C or about 60 %.
So, Cp will increase approximately with 60 %, from 5 mg/L to 8 mg/L.
Using the TFC we get the more accurate answer:
Cp t2 = Cp t1 / TCF = Cp t1 / 1.03(t1-t2) ; {Cp t1 = 5 mg/L and t = 5 °C and t = 25 °C}
Cp t2 = 5 mg/L / TCF = Cp t1 / 1.03(5 - 25)
Cp t2 = 5 mg/L / 0.55 = 9 mg/L

2.10 FACTORS AFFECTING REVERSE OSMOSIS PERFORMANCE

The permeate flux and the RO membrane salt rejection are important operational
performance parameters of a reverse osmosis system. Dupont (2020) summarizes the
parameters influencing the flux and salt rejection as follows:
• With increasing effective feed pressure, the permeate salinity will decrease (increased
salt rejection) while the permeate flux will increase.
• With increasing temperature (and all other parameters are kept constant), the permeate
flux and the salt passage (less salt rejection) will increase.
• With increasing recovery, the permeate flux will decrease and stop if the salt concentration
reaches a value where the osmotic pressure of the concentrate is as high as the applied
feed pressure. The salt rejection will reduce (more salt passage) with increasing recovery.

52 Seawater Reverse Osmosis Desalination

Permeate flux and salt rejection are important performance indicators of a RO system. The
flux and salt rejection of a membrane system are mainly influenced by variable parameters
including: feed pressure, water temperature, RO recovery, and feedwater salt concentration.
Figure 7 illustrates the impact of each of those parameters when the other three parameters
are kept constant. In practice, there is normally an overlap of two or more effects. These
figures are qualitative examples of RO performance. These figures are qualitative examples
of RO performance and based on the solution-diffusion model.

(a) (b)
Permeate flux

Permeate flux
Salt rejection

Salt rejection
Pressure Temperature

(c) (d)
Permeate flux

Permeate flux
Salt rejection

Salt rejection
Recovery Feed concentration

Figure 7 Impact of pressure (a), temperature (b), recovery (c), and feed concentration (d) on
reverse osmosis performance (Dupont, 2020)

2.11 ENERGY CONSUMPTION

To pressurize water cost energy. The theoretical minimum energy can be calculated with
the formula:

E = 0.0275 · P Eq. 2.69

Taking into account the efficiency of the pump the formula changes into

0.0275 P
E=
Eq. 2.70
Npump

In RO and NF the recovery is less than 100%. As a consequence, the energy consumption
per m3 water produced will be higher according the formula:

0.0275 P
E=
Eq. 2.71
Npump R

Where:
E = energy consumption in kWh/m3

Chapter 2 53
P = pressure in bar
Npump = efficiency pump + motor
R = recovery

Example 17 – Energy consumption in BWRO

A brackish water RO operates at a feed pressure of 15 bar. The recovery is 75 %. No energy
recovery. What is the energy consumption per m3.

Answer:
E = (0.0275 · P) / (R · Npump)
Assuming: Npump = 70 %
We have: E = (0.0275 · 15) / (0.75 · 0.7) = 0.8 kWh/m3
Usually no energy recovery is applied for brackish water RO.

As a reference, in Table 4, the energy to just overcome the osmotic pressure seawater
is presented. At 50 % recovery, the theoretical minimum energy is about 1 kWh/m3. In
brackish water this energy is much lower.

Table 4 Theoretical minimum energy consumption in Seawater RO

Recovery, R Theoretical separation energy 25 °C
0% 0.71 kWh/m3
25% 0.82 kWh/m3
50% 0.99 kWh/m3
75% 1.35 kWh/m3
100% 3.1 kWh/m3

In practice, energy recovery devices are applied to optimize the energy consumption in RO
plants.

Feedwater Product

Pump

Turbine

Discharge concentrate

Figure 8 Schematic of an RO system with energy recovery with turbine

The energy consumption can be reduced by e.g., recovering energy from the brine with a
turbine:

(0.0275 Pfeed ) (0.0275 (1– R) Pconc Nturbine )

E= – Eq. 2.72
( Npump R ) R

54 Seawater Reverse Osmosis Desalination

Where:
Pconc = Pfeed - ΔP ; (ΔP = brine pressure loss through the RO plant)
Np = pump /generator efficiency
Nt = turbine efficiency

In practice the energy consumption equals: 0.5 – 1 kWh/m3 for brackish (without energy
recovery device); 3.0 – 4.0 kWh/m3 for sea (with energy recovery device).

Example 18 – Energy consumption in SWRO with turbine energy recovery

A SWRO plants operates at a recovery = 50 %, the feed flow = 1500 m3/h, the product
flow = 750 m3/h and concentrate flow = 750 m3/h
H.P. pump RO membrames
Product flow

Low pressure feed

from pretreatment
Booster
M

T Brine flow

Flow Efficiency, % Pressure, bar Power Sp. Energy

Consumption

m3/ h pump motor inlet outlet pres. kW kWh/m3

drop
Booster 1500 83% 96% 0 11.5 11.5 595 0.794
before
HP pump
HP 1500 88% 97% 11.5 74.1 62.6 2,934
pump
Turbine 750 87.2% 72.2 0 -72.2 -1,299
1,686 2.249
2,282 3.042

The application of pressure exchangers is a well-established technology in SWRO

desalination. An energy recovery device of the type “pressure exchanger” exchanges the
pressure of the RO concentrate with a very high efficiency (> 95%) to the feed seawater as
illustrated in figure 9. In this way the capacity of the feed pump can be much less (50%),
having two advantages:
i) saving cost due to less high pressure pump capacity, which are very costly;
ii) saving energy, because the pressure exchanger has a higher efficiency ( >95 %) than high
pressure pumps (< 90 %).

Chapter 2 55
 Example 19 – Energy consumption in SWRO with pressure exchanger energy recovery
Same information as in the previous example.

H.P. pump RO membrames

Product flow

Recirculation
M pump
M

Booster

Brine flow

Low pressure feed Booster Work exchanger

from pretreatment energy recovery system

Flow Efficiency, % Pressure, bar Power Sp. Energy

Consumption
m3/ h pump motor inlet outlet pres. kW kWh/m3
drop
Booster 750 83% 96% 0 11.5 11.5 298 0.397
before HP
pump
HP 750 88% 97% 11.5 74.1 62.6 1,513 2.017
pump
Booster 750 83% 96% 0 1.2 1.2 31 0.041
before Work
Exchanger
System

Work 750 72.2 71.5 0.7

Exchanger
Energy
Recovery
System
Recirculation 750 80% 94% 71.5 74.1 2.6 71 0.095
Pump

Total 1,913 2.55

56 Seawater Reverse Osmosis Desalination

Pressure exchangers have several advantages, such as:
• High efficiency in exchanging the pressure of the brine to feed water, up to 97%. A
Pelton turbine has max. 90% efficiency.
• Replacement of 50 - 60% of the capacity of the high-pressure feed pumps having much
lower efficiency than pressure exchangers.
Remark: High pressure feed pumps have 70-90% efficiency.
Saving investment cost in installed high pressure pump capacity 50 - 60%.

Membranes
High pressure
pump

Main pump size Circulation PX transfers energy

reduced by 60% pump from high pressure
brine to seawater
Brine
management
PX device/array

Figure 9 Schematic of a seawater RO system with a pressure exchanger (PX) and image of a
pressure exchanger (Adopted from Energy Recovery, 2021)

Energy consumption represents together with the investment, the largest part of the cost of
seawater RO. Seawater RO has improved tremendously over the past 20-25 years. Energy
consumption has been reduced: from 8 kWh/m3 in 1980 to 4 kWh/m3 in 2000.
Since 2006 further reduction down to about 3 kWh/m3 was achieved, due to lowering the
feed pressure down to 60 bar and applying pressure exchangers.

2.12 SYSTEM CONFIGURATION

According a commonly applied rule of thumb for brackish water: “When conversion has
to be higher than about 50 % a second stage (array) is used as well”. The number of vessels
in the next stage is about 50 % of the previous one. Because the ratio feed flow to permeate
flow at the entrance of the next stage is the same. In the second stage about 50 % is converted
in product. This brings the total conversion at about 75 %.

Modern membranes have a very high permeability. Consequently, the required pressure is
much lower than in the past. Head loss due to the spacer and increasing osmotic pressure
reduce the net driving pressure. As a result, the permeate flow in the last elements in a vessel
are substantially lower, which allows a higher recovery before the CPF arrives at 1.21.

Chapter 2 57
 2.13 REFERENCES

ASTM D4516 - 00 (2000) Standard Practice for standardizing reverse osmosis performance data
ASTM, West Conshohocken.
DUPONT (2020) FILMTEC™ Reverse Osmosis Membranes Technical Manual. In: Water solutions
(ed), pp. 207.
Energy Recovery. (2021). PX Pressure exchanger [Online]. Available: [Link]
water/px-pressure-exchanger/ [Accessed 20 April 2021].
Hydranautics (2001) Terms and Equations of Reverse Osmosis.
Mulder M (2003) Basic Principles of Membrane Technology, Second edn Kluwer Academic, Dordrecht
/ Boston / London
Salinas Rodríguez, S. G., Schippers, J. C. & Kennedy, M. D. (2015). The process of reverse osmosis. In:
Burn, S. & Gray, S. (eds.) Efficient Desalination by Reverse Osmosis: A best practice guide to RO.
IWA Publishing.
Schock G, Miquel A (1987) Mass transfer and pressure loss in spiral-wound modules. Desalination
64: 339
Voet D, Voet JG, Pratt CW (2001) Fundamentals of Biochemistry (Rev. ed.), New York

58 Seawater Reverse Osmosis Desalination

View publication stats