PEd 117:

SPORT and EXERCISE

PSYCHOLOGY
COURSE MODULE
Ponciano Brian Joseph I. Cruzata, LPT
Miguel Lemuel Emmanuel T. Dumas, LPT
Authors
PED 117: Sport and Exercise Psychology

THE AUTHORS. Mr. Cruzata and Mr. Dumas are Part-time Instructors from the MAPEH &
Humanities Unit of Leyte Normal University.

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 Introduction to Sport and Exercise Psychology

Course Information
Course Code PEd 117
Course Title Sport and Exercise Psychology
Pre-requisite None
Course Credit 3 units
Year Level 2nd Year Pre-service Teachers
Semester Offered 2nd Semester
School Year Offered SY 2020-2021

Course Description

This course provides an understanding of the social, psychological

and environmental factors that influence exercise behavior, sports
participation, and performance through observations and analysis of sports
and exercise settings.

Course Objectives

At the end of the semester, the students are expected to:

1. identify his or her position in the field of sport and exercise psychology;
2. explain how a person’s psychological makeup influence that individual’s
behavior in physical activity contexts;
3. discuss the effect of completion and cooperation have on a person’s
behavior;
4. describe how feedback and reinforcement affect learning and
performance;
5. determine how group interaction, leadership, and communication affect
performance in a physical activity setting;
6. demonstrate the usage of psychological techniques to help people
perform more effectively;
7. identify what role does psychology play in the pursuit of better health and
increased fitness; and
8. come up with a sport and/or physical activity that leads to psychological
growth and character development.
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PED 117: Sport and Exercise Psychology

Table of Contents

Course Information………………………………………………..……….. 03
Table of Contents…………………………………………….………….… 04
Time Table……………………………………………………..…………… 04
What I Need to Know……………………………………………...………. 06
What I Know…………………………………………………….………….. 06
What’s In……………………………….…………………………………… 08
What’s New…………………………………………………………………. 08
What Is It…………………………………………...……………………….. 09
What’s More……………………………………….………………….……. 17
What Have I Learned…………………………………..………………….. 18
Assessment…………………………………………….…………………… 19
Additional Readings………………………………………………….……. 21
Answer Key………………………………………………………………… 22
References………………………………………………………………….. 23
Notes ………………………………………………………………………... 24

Time Table

Below is a table containing the activities or tasks you must

accomplish for this course module. On the other side of the table is
where you can find the allotted time for each activity or task. It is
expected of you to follow the time table for the class to be in-sync unless
circumstances do not allow.

Activity/Task Date of Completion Time

Allotted
What I Know March 22-23, 2021 5mins.
What’s In March 22-23, 2021 15mins.
What’s New March 22-23, 2021 15mins.
What Is It March 22-23, 2021 45mins.
What’s More March 25-26, 2021 10mins.
What Have I Learned March 25-26, 2021 10mins.
Class Discussion March 25-26, 2021 30mins.
Assessment March 25-26, 2021 25mins.

Class Discussion will be conducted through Google

Meet/Zoom/Facebook Live. Your Instructor will send you the meeting’s
link through group chat / Google Classroom. Students are not required
to join but are encouraged.
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 Introduction to Sport and Exercise Psychology

Luke, the high school soccer team's striker, is becoming overly

nervous. The more critical he gets and the worse he plays the situation.
This season will help Luke manage stress with your greatest coaching
challenge.

Honey, director of fitness in the Humanities Rehabilitation Center,

runs an aerobic patient recovery fitness program. However, she is
concerned because some customers do not stick to their exercise
programs after they feel better.

Lemuel has wanted to be a physical educator ever since he can

remember. Now, however, he is frustrated by his high school students'
lack of interest in lifelong fitness. Lemuel's aim is to motivate sedentary
students to practice fitness.

Christine is the Leyte State College head athletic trainer. Michael

Duazon, the school's track and field star, has achieved a physical recovery
of 99% from knee surgery. However, the coaches note that in practice he
still favors his previously wounded knee and hesitates about making
reductions. Christine knows that Michael is recovered physically but
needs to regain his trust.

Joseph, a long-standing baseball fan and psychologist, just heard

of his dream job, consulting. The owners of the BPED Movers, fed by the
lack of cohesion in the team, requested him to develop a psychological
training program quickly. If Joseph can build a strong program, he will be
hired as a psychology consultant for the team in the next week.

You will all come face to face with the types of situations that Luke,
Honey, Lemuel, Christine and Joseph face, if you become a coach, a
practice leader, a physical educator, athletics coach or even a sports-
psychologist. A resource for solving such problems and many other
practical concerns are sport and exercise psychology. In this module you
will learn how sport and exercise psychology can help you resolve
practical problems in this exciting area.
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PED 117: Sport and Exercise Psychology

What I Need to Know

This module was created with you in mind. It is here to introduce you to
Sport and Exercise Psychology. Through this module, we will travel back in
history on how this field of Psychology came to be. In addition, we will also
discover how Sport and Exercise Psychology thrived in different countries
around the world and what their focus is.

This module is focused on:

Unit I. Introduction to Sports and Exercise Psychology
1. Sport and Exercise Psychology Definition
2. History of Sport and Exercise Psychology
3. Sport and Exercise Psychology Around the World
4. Sport and Exercise Psychology Orientations

After going through this module, you are expected to:

1. define what sport and exercise psychology is,
2. describe the importance of sport and psychology to the society,
3. understand major developments in the history of sport and exercise
psychology,
4. compare and contrast orientations in the field, and
5. identify the uniqueness of sport and exercise psychology in different
countries.

What I Know
Directions: Read and analyze each item carefully and choose the letter
of the best answer. Encircle your best answer.

1. It is the study and application of cognitive principles of human performance

in helping athletes consistently perform in the upper range of their capabilities.
What is it?
a. Sport Psychology b. Exercise Psychology
c. Sport and Exercise Psychology

2. Which era is considered to be the “Preparation for Discipline”?

a. Era 3 b. Era 2 c. Era 5

3. The International Journal of Sport Psychology changed its name into

____________.
a. International Researchers of Sports and Exercise Psychology
b. International Publication for Sport and Exercise Psychology
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c. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology

 Introduction to Sport and Exercise Psychology

4. After the Spanish Federation of Sport Psychology (1987) and before the
Asian South Pacific Association of Sport Psychology (1989) were founded,
what was created in 1988?
a. American Psychological Association b. Austrian
Psychological Association
c. Australian Psychological Association
5. There are three major orientations in which sport and exercise
psychologists tend to follow. What are they?
I. Psychophysiological Orientation
II. Social-Psychological Orientation
III. Psychokinetic Orientation
IV. Cognitive-Behavioral Orientation
a. I, II, III b. I, II, IV c. II, III, IV

6. What sport did American psychologist Norman Triplett use as his basis for
his experiment?
a. Archery b. Baseball c. Cycling

7. Who is the founder of the modern Olympic movement?

a. Karl Lashley b. Pierre de Coubertin c. Babe
Ruth

8. What is the correct sequence of establishment of the following organizations

in descending order?
I. Asian South Pacific Association of Sport Psychology
II. Australian Psychological Association
III. Spanish Federation of Sport Psychology
a. II – I – III b. I – III – II c. III – II – I

9. In what year did the International Journal of Sport Psychology changed its
name to International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology?
a. 2002 b. 2009 c. 2004

10. It is concerned with the psychological factors that influence sport

performance and exercise behavior and its psychological effects.
a. Exercise Psychology b. Sport Psychology
c. Sport and Exercise Psychology
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PED 117: Sport and Exercise Psychology

MODULE Introduction to Sport and

1 Exercise Psychology

What’s In
Directions: Write down words that comes to your mind when you hear or
read the words in bold. Use the space provided for your answers.

Sports Exercise Psychology

What’s New
Directions: Click the link below and watch it on YouTube. The video is
entitled “Sport psychology - inside the mind of champion athletes” with Martin
Hagger at TEDxPerth. The clip is 12 minutes long. Don’t forget to write down
important terms for your notes.

[Link]
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 Introduction to Sport and Exercise Psychology

What Is It
SPORT AND EXERCISE PSYCHOLOGY DEFINITION

Applied sport psychology is the study and application of psychological

principles of human performance in helping athletes consistently perform in the upper
range of their capabilities and more thoroughly enjoy the sport performance process.
Applied sport psychologists are uniquely trained and specialized to engage in a broad
range of activities including the identification, development and execution of the mental
and emotional knowledge, skills and abilities required for excellence in athletic
domains; the understanding, diagnosing and preventing of the psychological,
cognitive, emotional, behavioral and psychophysiological inhibitors of consistent,
excellent performance; and the improvement of athletic contexts to facilitate more
efficient development, consistent execution and positive experiences in athletes (APA
Division 47, 2011).
Exercise psychology is a discipline used to help people assess where they are
at with regards to exercise, define an individualized exercise program, help people
deal with the barriers and issues that restrict people's participation in exercise and
maximize a person's enjoyment of exercise (Cleere, M., 2021).
Sport and exercise psychology is concerned with the psychological factors that
influence sport performance and exercise behavior, and with the psychological effects
of sport and exercise. With regard to the first aspect, the article focuses on individual
determinants of sport and exercise, like personality traits and other dispositional
variables, on social factors like group processes in teams and leadership behaviors of
coaches, and on motivational influences on sport and exercise behavior, like
achievement motivation and exercise adherence. The second part of the article deals
with short- and long-term effects of sport and exercise, namely mood states and
health-related effects, like improved self-esteem and cognitive functioning. The article
closes with recommendations for future research and applications in various settings,
like physical education or recreational sport (Abele, A.E. & Alfermann, D., 2001).

Leading Sport and Exercise Psychology Organizations and Journals

Organizations
▪ Association for the Advancement of Applied Sport Psychology (AAASP) – This organization is designed solely to promote
research and practice in applied sport and exercise psychology. Special interest groups focus on a variety of topics
including health psychology, intervention-performance enhancement, and social psychology.
▪ American Psychological Association (APA) Division 47 – Sport and Exercise Psychology – Among the newest of almost
50 divisions in the APA (the largest professional psychology organization in the United States), this organization
emphasizes both research and practice in sport psychology.
▪ North American Society for the Psychology of Sport and Physical Activity (NASPSPA) – This is the oldest organization
focusing on the psychological aspects of sport and physical activity. The organization focuses on research in motor
development, motor learning and control, and social psychology and physical activity.

(continued)
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PED 117: Sport and Exercise Psychology

(continued)
Journals
▪ International Journal of Sport Psychology – Begun in 1970, this is the official journal of the International Society of Sport
Psychology. It is aimed at enhancing theoretical and practical knowledge in the science of physical activity, exercise, and
sport.
▪ Journal of Applied Sport Psychology – Begun in 1989, this is the official journal of the AAASP; it publishes applied sport
psychology research and professional practice articles.
▪ Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology – This journal publishes basic and applied sport and exercise psychology
research studies. Begun in 1979, it is the oldest and most respected research journal in the field.
▪ The Psychology of Sport and Exercise – This, the newest journal in the area, was begun in 2000. It provides a forum for
scholarly reports in sport and exercise psychology broadly defined.
▪ The Sport Psychologist – This journal, which began in 1987, publishes both applied research and professional practice
articles designed to facilitate the delivery of psychological services to coaches and athletes.

Taken from Foundations of Sport and Exercise Psychology (Fourth Edition) by Weinberg & Gould, page 6

HISTORY OF SPORT AND EXERCISE PSYCHOLOGY

In many ways, the history of sport psychology mirrors the history of other
longstanding disciplines, including psychology, physical education, and other
kinesiology-related disciplines, and has been influenced by larger sociocultural trends
for decades, for example, the growth of the Olympic movement, professionalization of
sport, and women’s liberation. Progressing through a number of eras, sport
psychology has grown into a dynamic and continually advancing field. Although there
are many detailed written histories of sport psychology, the purpose here is to provide
a brief overview. Specifically, this entry begins with a summary of major time periods
and key contributors and concludes with general remarks on sport psychology and its
development. Importantly, most historical accounts of the field are described from a
North American or European white male perspective. However, recent efforts have
aimed to recognize and share a more holistic history inclusive of diverse individuals
all over the world. Attempts are thus made here to present these global contributions.
Finally, the history of sport psychology cannot truly be divorced from the history of
exercise psychology. However, to highlight the historical accounts that uniquely shape
these disciplines today, the history of exercise psychology is described in a separate
entry of this encyclopedia (iresearch, n.d.).

Era 1: Early Years (1895-1920)

While most accounts of the history of sport psychology start in the late
1800s, interest in the area can be traced back to ancient times. For example,
with the start of the Olympic Games around 776 BCE, the ancient Greeks
embraced the mind–body connection and discussed both physical and mental
preparation of athletes. In fact, the ancient Greeks are said to be among the
first to systematically explore athletic performance with much of the work
paralleling modern-day study in the areas of sports medicine and sport
psychology. For instance, comparisons have been made between the Greek
10

tetrad system used to prepare athletes for competition (preparation,

 Introduction to Sport and Exercise Psychology

concentration, moderation, and relaxation) and the contemporary concept of

periodization where training occurs in phases.

Fast forwarding to the Victorian era of the late 1800s in the United States
and Great Britain, athletes, educators, journalists, and others demonstrated
interest in the many topics studied in sport psychology today, such as the
psychological characteristics of high-level athletes as well as cultural issues in
the sporting world. By 1894, French physician Philippe Tissie and American
psychologist Edward Scripture had published some of the first studies in the
field. While Tissie studied psychological changes in endurance cyclists,
Scripture examined reaction time in fencers and runners. Notably, Scripture’s
work reflected efforts to establish a new psychology that focused on data
collection and experimentation versus subjective opinion as well as an
emphasis on applying scientific findings to the real world (e.g., enhancing
athletic performance). Although less recognized, Harvard professor G. W. Fitz
was also examining reaction time in athletes around the same time. In 1898,
American psychologist Norman Triplett conducted the first known experiment
to blend the principles of sport and social psychology. Examining the influence
of others on cycling performance, Triplett’s study contributed to the
development of social facilitation theory often studied in contemporary sport
and exercise settings. Researchers continued to explore these and related
topics throughout the early 1900s; American psychologists Karl Lashley and
John B. Watson conducted a series of studies on skill acquisition in archery.

Perhaps the person who demonstrated the most consistent interest in

sport psychology during this era was the French founder of the modern Olympic
movement, Pierre de Coubertin. A prolific writer, Coubertin wrote numerous
articles relevant to topics studied in sport psychology today, such as the reason
children participate in athletics, the importance of self-regulation, and the role
of psychological factors in performance improvement. He was also the catalyst
in organizing several Olympic Congresses, two of which focused on the
psychological aspects of sport. Interested in the blend between body, character,
and mind, Coubertin’s efforts garnered publicity around the critical role of
psychology in sporting activity and continued to influence the field’s
development well into the 1940s.

The contributions of this era involved several noteworthy psychologists,

physical educators, and physicians whose work demonstrated interest in what
is now referred to as the field of sport psychology. However, while the work of
these scholars dabbled in the world of sports, none of these individuals were
considered sport psychology specialists who made consistent contributions.
Few concerted efforts were made to systematically study the area until the
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1920s.
PED 117: Sport and Exercise Psychology

Era 2: Griffith Era (1921-1938)

In the 1920s and 30s, professionals continued to show interest in the
psychological aspects of sport through periodic writing, research, and
exploration. For example, baseball great Babe Ruth was brought to Columbia
University in 1921 and psychologically tested to determine the reasons for his
exceptional hitting skills. In 1926, American psychologist Walter Miles, his
student B. C. Graves, and legendary football coach Pop Warner conducted an
interesting study on the influence of signal calling on charging times among the
offensive line players.

However, it is also in this era that individuals from around the world
began to specialize in the area by developing more systematic lines of
research, presentations, and publications that marked a more sustained
interest in the psychological aspects of sport. In Charlottenburg, Germany,
Robert Werner Schulte started one of the first sport psychology laboratories in
1920 at the Deutsche Hochshule für Leibesübungen where he wrote a book
titled Body and Mind in Sport and continued his work until his untimely death in
1933. In Russia, notable scholars Piotr Antonovich Roudik and Avksenty
Cezarevich Puni began work at the Physical Institutes of Culture in Moscow
and Leningrad, respectively. Roudik conducted studies on perception, memory,
attention, and imagination while Puni examined psychological preparation and
the effects of competition on athletes.

Around the same time, Coleman Griffith was directing the Research in
Athletics Laboratory at the University of Illinois. Griffith, who is recognized as
the father of North American sport psychology, published approximately 25
studies on topics ranging from motor learning to personality and character. He
also published two classic books, Psychology of Coaching (1926) and
Psychology of Athletics (1928), and outlined the key functions of the sport
psychologist. Griffith’s laboratory closed during the Great Depression of the
1930s, but in 1938, he was hired by the Chicago Cubs to assist in improving
the team’s athletic performance. Unfortunately, Griffith’s applied work is said to
have been far from successful because of resistance from players and coaches.

The 1920s and 1930s were characterized by not only scholars who
dabbled in sport psychology work, but also those across the globe who set up
sport psychology laboratories and devoted significant portions of their career to
studying the area. Interestingly, with the exception of some Russian scholars
whose work continued through the 1960s, the research findings of these early
pioneers had little direct influence on the scientific advancement of the field.
Griffith, for example, was ahead of his time but worked in isolation with few
students to immediately build upon his work. Still, the emergence of sport
12

psychology as a discipline was ready to begin.

 Introduction to Sport and Exercise Psychology

Era 3: Preparation for the Future (1939-1965)

Scholars who trained future generations of students and professionals
set the stage for the development of sport psychology as an academic
discipline. As previously mentioned, Puni’s work in Russia continued well into
the 1960s and 70s and is still recognized today. The same is true in North
America where Franklin Henry of the University of California at Berkeley
established a psychology of physical activity program and trained physical
educators. Upon earning their graduate degrees, these students initiated
systematic lines of research across the country. While much of Henry’s work
focused on what would now be considered motor learning and control, some of
his students examined social psychology topics such as athlete personality and
the arousal–performance relationship. This era of sport psychology research
was also likely influenced by sociocultural events, such as increasing emphasis
on performance at the Olympic Games, the Cold War, and the space race,
which spurred considerable interest in the development of science in many
fields.

On the applied front, the work of David Tracy is noteworthy as he

consulted with semipro baseball players as well as the St. Louis Browns’ major
league team. Tracy helped athletes improve their performance by teaching
relaxation skills, using confidence building techniques, autosuggestion, and
hypnosis. His work is crucial to this era in that it garnered a great deal of
publicity for the practice of sport psychology. It was reported that the Browns’
front office believed that if other industries used psychologists, then it would be
logical for professional baseball to do so as well. This may have helped initiate
a shift in the attitudes of sportspersons and administrators toward the
usefulness of sport psychology practitioners.

In addition to Tracy, the work of female pioneer Dorothy Hazeltine Yates

is also noteworthy. Best known for her consulting with university boxers, Yates
emphasized the use of positive affirmations and relaxation to enhance
performance. She also taught a psychology course for athletes and aviators.
Embracing the science–practitioner model, she went on to conduct an
assessment of her interventions with boxers. A reflection of her work reveals
that Yates made important contributions in an otherwise male-dominated field.

Era 4: Establishment of Academic Sport Psychology (1966-1977)

The latter part of the 1960s was marked by a major occasion. The First
World Congress of Sport Psychology was held in Rome, Italy, in 1965. While
few delegates were considered sport psychologists given that the field was only
emerging as a discipline, this event marked the beginning of worldwide interest
and institutionalization of the field. It was here that the International Society of
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Sport Psychology (ISSP) was born. With Ferruccio Antonelli of Italy as its first
president, the inaugural issue of the International Journal of Sport Psychology
PED 117: Sport and Exercise Psychology

arrived just five years later in 1970. Serving as a model, ISSP inspired the
development of several other professional organizations of sport psychology
across the globe, including the North American Society for the Psychology of
Sport and Physical Activity in 1966, the British Society of Sports Psychology in
1967, the French Society of Sport Psychology in 1967, the Canadian Society
for Psychomotor Learning and Sport Psychology in 1969, and the German
Association of Sport Psychology in 1969. Born out of disagreements within
ISSP, the European Federation of Sport Psychology (FEPSAC) was founded
in 1969 with female pioneer Ema Geron of Bulgaria as its first president. Both
ISSP and FEPSAC remain prominent influences on the field today.

In the late 1960s and 70s, physical education as an academic discipline

was firmly taking hold in the United States. Professors were asked to begin
research programs in all the sport sciences, curriculums were revised to include
more academic sport science coursework, and graduate programs were
developed. Sport psychology, now considered distinct from motor learning and
control, was a part of this change. Increased activity on the applied side of the
field was also occurring during this era, albeit not without controversy. In 1966,
clinical psychologists Tom Tutko and Bruce Ogilvie wrote a controversial book,
Problem Athletes and How to Handle Them, and developed the Athletic
Motivation Inventory, a personality assessment that was said to predict athletic
success. The book was controversial because it suggested that athletes were
problematic and needed to be controlled, while some scholars felt that their
personality test was based on questionable science. Despite the controversy,
Ogilvie was active in working with elite athletes and teams and was seen as a
role model for many young professionals with an interest in applied work. In
fact, he has been called the father of applied sport psychology in North America.

Era 5: Bridging Science and Practice in Sport Psychology (1978-2000)

As the name of the era implies, it was between the late 1970s and 1990s
that sport psychology came of age as both a science and an area of
professional practice. This era was characterized by increasing interest in the
field with scientists devoting their entire careers to the field, and a growing
number of practitioners working directly with athletes and coaches. For
example, the U.S. Olympic Committee developed a sport psychology advisory
board, hired its first resident sport psychologist, and sent its first sport
psychologist to the Olympic Games. New academic journals, including the
Journal of Sport Psychology (1979; known as the Journal of Sport & Exercise
Psychology since 1988), The Sport Psychologist (1986), the Journal of Applied
Sport Psychology (1989), and the Korean Journal of Sport Psychology (1989),
were published. The development of organizations to meet the needs of a
growing field continued. For example, the Japanese Society of Sport
14

Psychology was developed in 1973 followed by the Korean Society of Sport

Psychology in the 1980s. Following the dissolution of other related
 Introduction to Sport and Exercise Psychology

organizations, the British Association of Sport and Exercise Sciences was

developed in 1984 with The Sport and Exercise Scientist becoming its official
publication. The Association for Applied Sport Psychology (formerly the
Association for the Advancement of Applied Sport Psychology) was established
in 1986, established its Certified Consultant designation in 1991, and continues
to be the largest applied sport psychology organization in the world. In 1986,
the American Psychological Association formed a new division, Division 47,
devoted specifically to exercise and sport psychology. Born out of the First
National Congress of Sport Psychology in Barcelona, the Spanish Federation
of Sport Psychology was founded in 1987. Shortly thereafter, the Australian
Psychological Association was developed with sport and exercise psychology
as a specialization in 1988, followed by the creation of the Asian South Pacific
Association of Sport Psychology in 1989.

Finally, women of this era were afforded more opportunities and entered
the field in greater numbers thanks to the concerted efforts of several female
pioneers, including Ema Geron, Dorothy Yates, Dorothy Harris, Jean Williams,
Carole Oglesby, Tara Scanlan, Maureen Weiss, and Diane Gill, to name just a
few. Recently, determined efforts have been made to write these female
pioneers into the history of the field and recognize their many contributions.

Era 6: Contemporary Sport and Exercise Psychology (2000–Present)

Contemporary sport psychology is a firmly established discipline. The
popularity of the field was evidenced by over 700 delegates from 70 countries
attending the 2009 World Congress of Sport Psychology held in Morocco. A
large number of universities now offer specializations at the graduate level with
hundreds of research studies being conducted every year. Reflecting a shift in
the field’s focus toward the inclusion of both sport and exercise contexts, the
International Journal of Sport Psychology changed its name to the International
Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology (IJSEP) in 2002. The British
Psychological Society also developed a sport and exercise psychology division
in 2004. Greater attention is being paid to the practice of sport psychology with
the development of an applied journal, The Journal of Sport Psychology in
Action, published by the Association for Applied Sport Psychology in 2010. As
sport psychology becomes increasingly popular through media outlets and
social networking, Olympic and professional athletes continue to work with
sport psychology specialists, as do a number of developing and recreational
athletes.

With the growth of both the science and practice of sport psychology, a
number of major changes are occurring in the field today. For example, fueled
by rising obesity rates and a decrease in physical activity in many Western
15

countries, there has been an explosion of interest in health and exercise-related

research in the last decade. Exercise motivation and adherence, the role of
PED 117: Sport and Exercise Psychology

physical activity in mental health, and the psychology of athletic injuries have
all been topics of considerable interest (see also the entry “History of Exercise
Psychology”). Life skill development, cultural issues, and diversity in the sport
context have also become popular areas of inquiry. In addition to the topics
studied, the methods employed are also expanding. An increase in qualitative
research methods in particular is evidenced by the development of new journals
solely devoted to this type of research like Qualitative Research in Sport,
Exercise, and Health.

At the same time sport psychology has seen tremendous growth and
advancement, several important challenges face the field. For example,
although they are more widely accepted, qualitative research methods have
been criticized for their subjective nature and have led to some debate over the
best way of gaining knowledge. Economic support for higher education in many
Western societies has declined and caused sport psychology laboratories to
become more conscious of the need to secure external funding (e.g., grants,
fellowships) to support their research efforts. Tension between researchers and
practitioners of sport psychology continues, which has led various professional
organizations to purposefully attempt to bridge the gap. Other concerns include
the job outlook for many being trained in the field. While sport psychology has
certainly grown, academic positions are somewhat limited, and few
practitioners will land full-time positions working with athletes and teams.
Finally, perhaps the greatest challenge is defining the educational training
necessary to become a practitioner in sport psychology. Disagreement over the
role of kinesiology versus counseling-based training has led to heated debates
among professionals. Increasing attention paid to certifications, licensures, and
ethical standards are intended to safeguard against those who may unethically
practice sport psychology without the appropriate competencies. Addressing
these challenges and embracing the aforementioned successes of the field will
fuel the growth of sport psychology in the future.

SPORT AND EXERCISE PSYCHOLOGY AROUND THE WORLD

Sport and exercise psychology today is different from the discipline that
emerged in the 1960s. Scholars have responded to public concern with increased
research on health-oriented exercise, and many sport psychologists focus on youth
development following a positive psychology approach. Some researchers emphasize
theory-based research with tight controls while others use interpretive approaches and
search for experiential knowledge. Some do no research, but use information to
educate, consult or clinically treat sport and exercise participants.
16

European sport psychology, particularly in the former Soviet Union, was

centrally controlled and focused on training elite athletes until recently. Current work
 Introduction to Sport and Exercise Psychology

encompasses more diverse activities, especially health-oriented exercise, with more

diverse participants. Biddle (1995) in his edited volume of European perspectives,
noted the former emphasis on elite sport, but also confirmed the changes in former
state- controlled sport psychology programs as well as in most of western Europe.
This welcome contribution to international dialogue includes several chapters on
exercise and health topics as well as sport topics with diverse participants by authors
from several European countries. For example, Kunath (1995), of the German
Academy of Physical Culture at Leipzig, described the historical emphasis on training
coaches and elite athletes, as he welcomed the extension of sport psychology to
leisure sport, exercise for people with disabilities, and health-oriented exercise.

As we move into the new millennium, expanding international communication

and interaction has moved us toward a global sport psychology with shared research
and professional identification. Sport psychology has expanded beyond its North
American and European bases to become a truly international discipline. Australia has
many scholars and programs, and the rise of sport and exercise psychology in Asian
countries is particularly notable. Japan and Korea have strong sport and exercise
psychology programs, and the 1989 ISSP conference in Singapore enhanced mutual
recognition of sport psychology research and approaches by Asian and Western
countries. In 1994 1 participated in an International conference with the Korean
Society for Sport Psychology. I visited university programs and met sport psychology
scholars who participate in international conferences and publish in top journals. Many
international sport psychologists received their graduate training in North American
universities, but the expanding number of international programs is highlighting unique
cultural concerns.

The international presence at sport psychology conferences around the world

should only enhance the dialogue. The 1996 AAASP conference emphasized the
international theme, with keynote speakers from around the world, as well as a
symposium entitled "Sport and Exercise Psychology: A Global Perspective" with
panelists from Australia, France, Korea, New Zealand, Norway, Russia, Spain and the
United Kingdom (Gould, 1996). Panelists noted specific features of sport psychology
in their countries, but common themes also emerged. Chung (1996) noted that some
Koreans are moving from traditional quantitative research to more qualitative
approaches; Fournier (1996) commented on attention to certification criteria and
consulting ethics in France; and Stambulova (1996) noted the decline in the emphasis
on elite sport with increased interest in exercise for health in Russia.

International sport and exercise psychology continues to expand. The current

AAASP membership includes professionals from 35 different countries, and the latest
conference featured scholars from too many countries to list. ISSP's 10th World
Congress of Sport Psychology will be held on Skiathos Island, Greece, May 28-June
17

2, 2001; keynote speakers represent all parts of the world, and the submissions, which
are still being processed, will exceed all previous conferences. Conferences are
PED 117: Sport and Exercise Psychology

increasingly international, and with easy access to communication networks,

information is shared even when travel is prohibitive. North America, Europe, Asia and
Australia/New Zealand have internationally active sport psychology communities now,
and other countries are gaining. ISSP includes representatives from South America
and Africa, and several countries have developed sport psychology organizations. As
sport and exercise psychology activity expands around the world, we will likely
recognize common global themes and gain insights into cultural variations. Overall, a
more global sport and exercise psychology enriches our scholarship, and enhances
sport and exercise for all.

SPORT AND EXERCISE PSYCHOLOGY ORIENTATIONS

Some coaches believe that teams win games through outstanding defense;
other coaches believe teams win through a wide-open offensive system; and still
others believe that wins come through a structured and controlled game plan. Like
coaches, sport psychologists differ in how they view successful interventions.
Contemporary sport and exercise psychologists may choose from many different
orientations to the field, three of the most prevalent being psychophysiological, social-
psychological, and cognitive behavioral approaches.

Psychophysiological Orientation
Sport and exercise psychologists with a psychophysiological orientation
believe that the best way to study behavior during sport and exercise is to
examine the physiological processes of the brain and their influences on the
physical activity. These psychologists typically assess heart rate, brain wave
activity, and muscle action potentials, determining relationships between these
psychophysiological measures and sport and exercise behavior.

Social-Psychological Orientation
Using a social-psychological orientation, sport and exercise
psychologists assume that behavior is determined by a complex interaction
between the environment (especially the social environment) and the personal
makeup of the athlete or exerciser. Those taking the social-psychological
approach often examine how an individual’s social environment influences her
behavior and how the behavior influences the social-psychological
environment.

Cognitive-Behavioral Orientation
Psychologists adopting a cognitive-behavioral orientation emphasize the
athlete’s or exerciser’s cognitions or thoughts and behaviors, believing thought
to be central in determining behavior. Cognitive-behavioral sport psychologists
18

then would see how these assessments are linked to changes in an athlete’s
or an exerciser’s behavior.
 Introduction to Sport and Exercise Psychology

What’s More
Directions: Categorize the key words/terms inside the table under the
era they belong to. Avoid skimming through the lesson. Write your answers on
the space provided under each era.

Greek tetrad Bridging Science Increasing interest

Chicago Cubs
system and Practice in the field
Science- Yates and
Coleman Griffith Olympic games
practitioner model university boxers
Universities offers
Baseball and its Women with more
Norman Triplett SEP in graduate
players opportunities
level
International
Australian PE as an
Journal of Sport Pierre de
Psychological academic
and Exercise Coubertin
Association discipline
Psychology
First World
Skill acquisition in Sport Psychology Contemporary
Congress of Sport
archery as a specialty Sport Psychology
Psychology
Socio-cultural Athletic Motivation
David Tracy Franklin Henry
influence Inventory

Era 1 Era 2 Era 3

Era 4 Era 5 Era 6

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PED 117: Sport and Exercise Psychology

What Have I Learned

Direction: Identify five (5) countries and list down their unique
characteristics in relation to Sport and Exercise Psychology. Don’t forget to cite
your sources. You may use the space provided.
20
 Introduction to Sport and Exercise Psychology

Assessment
I. Directions: Read the items carefully and choose the best answer.
Encircle the letter of your choice.
1. It is the study and application of psychological principles of human
performance.
a. Exercise Psychology b. Sport Psychology
c. Sport and Exercise Psychology

2. It is a discipline used to help people assess where they are at with regards to
exercise.
a. Exercise Psychology b. Sport Psychology
c. Sport and Exercise Psychology

3. It is concerned with the psychological factors that influence sport performance

and exercise behavior and its psychological effects.
a. Exercise Psychology b. Sport Psychology
c. Sport and Exercise Psychology

4. What sport did American psychologist Norman Triplett use as his basis for his
experiment?
a. Archery b. Baseball c. Cycling

5. Who is the founder of the modern Olympic movement?

a. Karl Lashley b. Pierre de Coubertin c. Babe Ruth

6. What is the correct sequence of establishment of the following organizations in

descending order?
I. Asian South Pacific Association of Sport Psychology
II. Australian Psychological Association
III. Spanish Federation of Sport Psychology
a. II – I – III b. I – III – II c. III – II – I

7. In what year did the International Journal of Sport Psychology changed its name
to International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology?
a. 2002 b. 2009 c. 2004

8. There are three major orientations in which sport and exercise psychologists
tend to follow. What are they?
I. Psychophysiological Orientation
II. Social-Psychological Orientation
III. Psychokinetic Orientation
21

IV. Cognitive-Behavioral Orientation

a. I, II, III b. I, II, IV c. II, III, I
PED 117: Sport and Exercise Psychology

II. Directions: Come up with a concise write-up of how important Sport and
Exercise Psychology is to our situation right now. Use the space provided for
your answer. Limit your work up to 100 words.

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 Introduction to Sport and Exercise Psychology

Additional Readings

Sport Psychology – Business Link

A number of sport psychology specialists have been transferring what
they learned in sport to the world of business. Here are two
examples:
➢ Noted sport psychologist Jim Loehr (Loehr & Schwartz, 2001) has
drawn a parallel between top executives and world-class athletes.
He teaches some of America’s top executives to be more effective
by becoming corporate athletes who reach ideal performance states
by learning to better develop and manage their physical, emotional,
mental, and spiritual capacities.
➢ The Lane4 Management Group is a world-wide consulting group
started by sport psychology specialist Graham Jones and Olympic
swimming champion Adrian Moorhouse. Using lessons learned in
high-performance sport, Lane4 associates help major corporations,
business teams, and individual executives achieve and sustain high
performance through interactive workshops, team development
events, organization performance assessments, and senior
executive coaching. Topics often addressed by Lane4 associates
include leadership development, stress management, confidence,
focus, team building, team performance enhancement, teamwork,
and one-to-one executive coaching and consulting (Jones, 2002).

Taken from Foundations of Sport and Exercise Psychology (Fourth

Edition) by Weinberg & Gould, page 20

23
PED 117: Sport and Exercise Psychology

Answer Key
What I Know What’s More
1. A Era 1
2. A • Greek tetrad system
3. C • Norman Triplett
4. C • Olympic Games
5. B • Pierre de Coubertin
6. C • skill acquisition in archery
7. B Era 2
8. C • Sport Psychology as a specialty
9. A • Coleman Griffith
10. C
• Baseball and its players
• Chicago Cubs
Era 3
Assessment
Part I. • Franklin Henry
1. B • Socio-cultural influence
2. A • David Tracy
3. C • Yates and university boxers
4. C • Science-practitioner model
5. B Era 4
6. C • First World Congress of Sport Psychology
7. A • PE as an academic discipline
8. B • Athletic Motivation Inventory
Era 5
• Bridging Science and Practice
• Women with more opportunities
• Australian Psychological Association
• Increasing interest in the field
Era 6
• Universities offers SEP in graduate level
• Contemporary Sport Psychology
• International Journal of Sport and Exercise
Psychology
24
 Introduction to Sport and Exercise Psychology

References
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Federation of Sport Psychology (FEPSAC): I. Definition of sport psychology.
The Sport Psychologist, 10, 221-223.
Abele, A.E. & Alfermann, D., (2001). Sport and Exercise Psychology: Overview.
Retrieved on March 10, 2021 from [Link]
7/01379-6
APA Division 47, (2011). What Is Exercise Psychology and Sport Psychology?.
Retrieved on March 10, 2021 from [Link]/division-
47/about/resources/what-is
Biddle, S.J.H. (1995). European perspectives on exercise and sport psychology.
Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Chung, C.H. (1996).Sport and exercise psychology in Korea. Journal of Applied
Sport Psychology: 1996
Cleere, M. (2021). What is exercise psychology?. Retrieved on March 10, 2021 from
[Link]
psychology#:~:text=Exercise%20psychology%20is%20a%20discipline,a%2
0person's%20enjoyment%20of%20exercise.
Fournier, J.F. (1996). Sport and exercise psychology in France. Journal of Applied
Sport Psychology: 1996 AAASP Abstracts, 8, S4.
Gill, D.L. (2000). Psychological dynamics of sport and exercise. Champaign, IL:
Human Kinetics.
Green, C. D., & Benjamin, L. T. (2009). Psychology gets in the game: Sport, mind,
and behavior, 1880–1960. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
Gould D. (1996). Symposium: Sport & exercise psychology: A global perspective.
Journal of Applied Sport Psychology: 1996 AAASP Abstracts, 8, S3.
[Link] (n.d.). Sports Psychology History. Retrieved on March 10, 2021 from
[Link]
history/
Kornspan, A. S. (2012). History of sport and performance psychology. In S. M.
Murphy (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of sport and performance psychology
(pp. 3–23). New York: Oxford University Press.
Krane, V., & Whaley, D. E. (2010). Quiet competence: Writing women into the history
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Kunath, P. (1995). Future directions in exercise and sport psychology. In S.J.H.
Biddle (Ed.), European perspectives on exercise and sport psychology (pp.
324-331). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Ram, N., Starek, J., & Johnson, J., (2004). Race, Ethnicity, and Sexual Orientation:
Still a Void in Sport and Exercise Psychology?. Retrieved on March 10, 2021
from [Link]
Ryba, T. V., Schinke, R. J., & Tenenbaum, G. (2010). The cultural turn in sport
psychology. Morgantown, WV: Fitness Information Technology.
25

Stambulova, N. (1996). Sport and exercise psychology in Russia. Journal of Applied

Sport Psychology: 1996
PED 117: Sport and Exercise Psychology

Vanek, M. (1993). On the inception, development and perspectives of ISSP's image

and self-image. In S. Serpa, J. Alves, V. Ferreira & A. Paula-Brito (Eds.),
Proceedings VIII World Congress of Sport psychology (pp. 154-158). Lisbon:
International Society of Sport Psychology.
Vealey, R. S. (2006). Smocks and jocks outside the box: The paradigmatic evolution
of sport and exercise psychology. Quest, 58, 128–159.
NOTES
Weinberg, R. S., & Gould, D. (2011). Foundations of sport and exercise psychology.
Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
26
 NOTES Introduction to Sport and Exercise Psychology

NOTES

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PED 117: Sport and Exercise Psychology
NOTES

NOTES
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 Introduction to Sport and Exercise Psychology

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PED 117: Sport and Exercise Psychology

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