energies

Review
A Comprehensive Review of the Bidirectional Converter
Topologies for the Vehicle-to-Grid System
Suresh Panchanathan 1 , Pradeep Vishnuram 1 , Narayanamoorthi Rajamanickam 1 , Mohit Bajaj 2,3, * ,
Vojtech Blazek 4 , Lukas Prokop 4, * and Stanislav Misak 4

1 Electric Vehicle Charging Research Centre, Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering,
SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Chennai 603203, India
2 Department of Electrical Engineering, Graphic Era (Deemed to be University), Dehradun 248002, India
3 Applied Science Research Center, Applied Science Private University, Amman 11931, Jordan
4 ENET Centre, VSB—Technical University of Ostrava, 708 00 Ostrava, Czech Republic
* Correspondence: thebestbajaj@[Link] (M.B.); [Link]@[Link] (L.P.)

Abstract: Over the past decade, there has been a great interest in the changeover from cars powered
by gasoline to electric vehicles, both within the automotive industry and among customers. The
electric vehicle–grid (V2G) technology is a noteworthy innovation that enables the battery of an
electric vehicle during idling conditions or parked can function as an energy source that can store
or release energy whenever required. This results in energy exchange between the grid and EV
batteries. This article reviews various bidirectional converter topologies used in the V2G system.
Additionally, it can reduce the cost of charging for electric utilities, thus increasing profits for EV
owners. Normally electric grid and the battery of an electric vehicle can be connected through
power electronic converters, especially a bidirectional converter, which allows power to flow in both
directions. The majority of research work is carried out over the converters for V2G applications and
concerns utilizing two conversion stages, such as the AC-DC conversion stage used for correcting the
power factor and the DC-DC conversion stage for matching the terminal voltage. Furthermore, a
bidirectional conversion can be made for an active power transfer between grid–vehicle (G2V) and
Citation: Panchanathan, S.;
V2G effectively. This review explores and examines several topologies of bidirectional converters
Vishnuram, P.; Rajamanickam, N.;
Bajaj, M.; Blazek, V.; Prokop, L.;
which make it possible for active power flow between the grid and the vehicle and vice versa.
Misak, S. A Comprehensive Review Moreover, different types of charging and discharging systems, such as integrated/non-integrated
of the Bidirectional Converter and on/off board, etc., which have been used for electric vehicle applications, are also discussed.
Topologies for the Vehicle-to-Grid A comparison study is carried out based on several other factors that have been suggested. The
System. Energies 2023, 16, 2503. utilization of semiconductors in power converters and non-conventional resources in charging and
[Link] discharging applications are the two improving technologies for electric vehicles.
Academic Editors: Martina Kajanova,
Marek Höger, Peter Bracinik,
Keywords: electric vehicle; grid–vehicle; vehicle–grid; AC-DC converter; bidirectional converter; EV
Pavol Špánik and Muhammad Aziz charging station

Received: 19 January 2023

Revised: 1 March 2023
Accepted: 4 March 2023
1. Introduction
Published: 6 March 2023
An increase in demand for petroleum production, oil prices, and weather change
paves an alternate solution for hydrocarbon-based transportation. Hence, developing a
safe, clean, zero-emission, and high-efficiency transportation system attracts researchers’
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors. attention [1]. Moreover, 16 percent of human carbon dioxide emissions are due to the use of
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. fossil fuels for vehicle transportation [2]. The air quality is degraded due to these emissions,
This article is an open access article creating human health issues. Hence, it is necessary to use an electric vehicle (EV) based
distributed under the terms and transportation over internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles to reduce harmful gases.
conditions of the Creative Commons
When compared based on efficiency, EV gives higher efficiency than any IC engine because
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
of the induction motor, which can be operated in braking mode so that energy can be stored
[Link]/licenses/by/
back in the vehicle’s battery [3,4]. The growth of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEV) is
4.0/).

Energies 2023, 16, 2503. [Link] [Link]

Energies 2023,
Energies 2023, 16,
16, 2503
2503 22 of
of 34
34
Energies 2023, 16, 2503 2 of 33

can be
can be stored
stored back
back inin the
the vehicle’s
vehicle’s battery
battery [3,4].
[3,4]. The
The growth
growth of of plug-in
plug-in hybrid
hybrid electric
electric ve-
ve-
illustrated
hicles in
(PHEV) Figure
is 1. Figure
illustrated in 2 depicts
Figure 1.a fair
Figurecomparison
2 depicts awith
fair the article
comparison published
with
hicles (PHEV) is illustrated in Figure 1. Figure 2 depicts a fair comparison with the article the in the
article
Scopus
publisheddatabase.
published in the
in After conducting
the Scopus
Scopus database. aAfter
database. bibliometric
After conducting
conductinganalysis with the keywords
aa bibliometric
bibliometric “V2G/G2V”,
analysis with
analysis with the key-
the key-
“EV”, and “bidirectional
words “V2G/G2V”,
words “V2G/G2V”, “EV”, converter”,
“EV”, and it was
and “bidirectional found that
“bidirectional converter”, 26,336,
converter”, itit was 113,007,
was found and
found that 10,071
that 26,336, articles
26,336, 113,007,
113,007,
had
and been
and 10,071published
10,071 articles related
articles had
had beentopublished
been these topics
published for the
related
related past
these12
to these
to years.
topics
topics for the
for the past
past 12
12 years.
years.

Figure 1.1.
Figure 1. Growth
Growth of PHEV
of PHEV
Growth of PHEV in countries
in different
in different ([Link]
different countries ([Link]
countries ([Link]
tics/charts/global-electric-car-stock-2010-2021#)
tics/charts/global-electric-car-stock-2010-2021#)
global-electric-car-stock-2010-2021#) (accessed
(accessed
(accessed on: on: 14
on:
14 February142023).
February 2023).
February 2023).

Figure 2.
Figure 2. Various
Variousarticles
Various articlespublished
articles publishedin
published inScopus
in Scopusdatabase
Scopus databasewith
database withrespect
with respectto
respect tothe
to thepresent
the presentstudy.
present study.
study.

Thanks
Thanks to
Thanks to EVs’
to EVs’ advantages,
EVs’ advantages, it
advantages, it is
is planned
is planned
planned to to replace
replace ICE
replace ICE with
ICE with EVs
with EVs
EVs in in
in the
the next
the next few
next few
few
years
years [5].
years High
[5]. High
[5]. cost,
High cost, less
cost, less life
less life span
life span of
span of the
of the battery,
battery, charging
the battery, charging system,
charging system, long
system, long journey,
journey, battery
long journey, battery
battery
management
management system,
management system,
system, thethe introduction
the introduction
introduction of of harmonics
of harmonics
harmonics to to the
to the line,
the line, low
line, low input
low input power
input power factor,
power factor,
factor,
and line
and line
and losses
line losses preclude
losses preclude
preclude thethe growth
the growth of
growth of EVs
of EVs in
EVs in real
in real time
real time [6].
time [6]. The
[6]. The success
The success
success ofof EVs
of EVs depends
depends on
EVs depends on
on
developing a fast
developing aa fast
developing charging
fast charging station
charging station with
station with lesser
with lesser power
lesser power quality
power quality issues
quality issues and
issues and improved
improved power
and improved power
power
factor. Moreover,
factor. Moreover,
factor. charging
Moreover, charging more
charging more vehicles
more vehicles
vehicles at at
at a
aa time
time may
time may result
may result in
result in line
in line voltage
line voltage deviation
voltage deviation
deviation
problems,
problems, frequency
problems, frequency issues,
frequency issues, and
issues, and an
and anincrease
an increase in
increase in total
in totalharmonic
total harmonic distortion
harmonic distortion (THD)
distortion (THD)
(THD)level in the
level
level in
in
line current during peak load conditions [7,8]. This issue can be addressed by enhancing
the power system or introducing renewable energy sources (RES), such as solar, wind, etc.
However, RES-based sources are intermittent and rely on the grid source and battery.
Energies 2023, 16, 2503 3 of 33

Photovoltaic panels can be directly connected to the DC-bus system to function as DC

sources. The following are some of the advantages that are associated with using a DC-bus
system as opposed to the more conventional AC configuration:
• When the system incorporates DC sources such as PVs, DC loads such as EVs, and
energy storage devices, the system experiences lower energy conversion losses.
• A decrease in both the price and the quantity of power electronics equipment.
• There is no requirement to think about synchronizing with the utility grid or managing
reactive electricity.
Since DC charge stations are faster and have more capabilities when fed from PV for
charging hubs, the avoidance of conversions can increase the efficiency by around 10–15%;
thus, DC fast charging can be an alternative.
Normally V2G network acts as the interface between the AC grid and the battery
by allowing the bidirectional power flow between them. This bidirectional power flow
should maintain the potential stability between the battery and grid with minimum current
harmonics and power quality issues. As a result, power electronics converters are essen-
tial for converting AC-DC and DC-AC with minimal space requirements and maximum
efficiency [9,10]. The converter’s topology can be either unidirectional or bidirectional.
A unidirectional topology uses more components, which are expensive, and does not
make effective use of them [11]. Hence, bidirectional topologies are generally preferred for
V2G-based EV systems [12]. Generally, an on-board charger includes battery storage, which
results in massive weight, occupies more weight, and has space for fewer power specifica-
tions [13,14]. Whereas offline chargers do not have such an issue, it has been installed in
various public locations, such as shopping malls, hospitals, educational institutions, etc.
Moreover, chargers are classified as levels I, II, and III on the charging rate. Levels I and II
are medium-fast chargers connected to a single-phase AC power supply, and only Level III
is the off-board fast charger, which uses a three-phase AC supply as the source [15–17].
The EV-based system provides more flexibility than ICE because of the different
propulsion systems, battery storage systems, electric motors, and charging units. EVs’
power demand is met by the different converter topologies and energy management
systems [18]. Various research has been carried out to construct a novel technical solution
to improve the EV system’s performance. However, there is a need for a comprehensive
review for the kindle researcher to conduct their research in EV. Hence, this article proposes
a comprehensive review of EV systems, which includes power electronic converters, battery-
to-grid and grid-to-battery, and charging/discharging systems.
The organization of the paper is carried out as follows. Section 2 includes a bidirec-
tional converter for EV application. Conductive and inductive chargers, dischargers, and
their comparison are explained in Section 3 and Section 4, respectively. Energy management
in EV and the recent trends are described in Section 5 and Section 6, respectively. The main
theme of the paper is summarized in Section 7. The overall conclusion of the article is
enumerated in Section 8.

2. Power Converters for EV Applications

Innovation in power electronics has extensively contributed to the growth of EV
technology. The heart of the EV system is the electric motor and battery management
system. Depending on how the power flows, converters used to charge batteries are
either one-way or two-way. Quite often, bidirectional converters are preferred for practical
application because the system has less weight, volume, and cost and better component
utilization. Hence various bidirectional topologies used for battery charging are reviewed
in this section.
Energies 2023, 16, 2503 4 of 34
Energies 2023, 16, 2503 4 of 33

[Link].
Semiconductor
Semiconductor Device
DeviceLevel
Level
The The performance of thepower
performance of the power electronics-aided systemrelies
electronics-aided system reliesupon
uponthethe growth
growth of
of wide
wide band gap semiconductor switches. The material of the semiconductor
band gap semiconductor switches. The material of the semiconductor switches include switches in-
clude silicon
silicon carbide
carbide (SiC)-
(SiC)- and and gallium
gallium nitride-based
nitride-based devices,
devices, has breakdown
has high high breakdown volt-
voltage, band
age,
gap, saturation velocity, and thermal conductivity. This results in devices with higherwith
band gap, saturation velocity, and thermal conductivity. This results in devices power
higher powercapacity,
handling handlingsmall
capacity,
size, small size, and
and lesser lesser
losses withlosses with a unidirectional
a unidirectional and bi-
and bi-directional
directional
conducting conducting nature. Moreover,
nature. Moreover, the switchesthe switches can be operated
can be operated in high switching
in high switching frequencies
frequencies
with highwith powerhigh power
density anddensity and high
high voltage voltage capacity.
handling handling capacity.
AtAtthethe
beginning
beginningof the 19th
of the century,
19th century,SiC-based
SiC-based devices
deviceswere
weregenerally
generallypreferred forfor
preferred
high voltage, switching frequency, and temperature applications [19].
high voltage, switching frequency, and temperature applications [19]. They are recently They are recently
available
available in in
thethe
market
marketwith
with1.71.7kVkVand
and13 13mΩ
mΩon-state
on-stateresistance.
resistance. Moreover, 3.3 kV,
Moreover, 3.3 kV,6.5
6.5kV,
kV,andand1010kV kVdevices
devicesareare narrowly
narrowly available
available dueduetoto
thethe problem
problem in in market
market challenges
challenges [20].
[20].
GaN GaN devices
devices are are
usedused for low-power
for low-power applications
applications (<600 (<600
V) andV) and provide
provide excellent
excellent switching
switching and conductance
and conductance performanceperformance
[21]. [21].

[Link]. Full-Bridge
Full-Bridge Bidirectional
Bidirectional Converter
Converter andand Reversible
Reversible DC-DC
DC-DC Converter
Converter
This
This architecture
architecture of of
any any
fullfull bridge
bridge (FB)(FB) is the
is the most
most prevalent
prevalent typetype
of of bidirectional
bidirectional
AC-DC
AC-DC converter
converter (BADC)
(BADC) topology
topology because
because of the
of the versatility
versatility of its
of its circuit
circuit construction.
construction.
The IGBT-based on BADC was described by Pinto et al. [14], and it was integrated withwith
The IGBT-based on BADC was described by Pinto et al. [14], and it was integrated a
a non-isolated
non-isolated DC-DC DC-DC converter
converter usingusing
a bus acapacitor.
bus capacitor.
Along Along
with G2V withandG2V andthis
V2G, V2G,
con-this
converter
verter makesmakes it possible
it possible to operate
to operate in amode
in a third third known
mode known as vehicle–home
as vehicle–home (V2H).(V2H).
In this In
mode, the electric vehicle battery source can be utilized as a voltage-controlled sourcesource
this mode, the electric vehicle battery source can be utilized as a voltage-controlled for
for supplying
supplying the domestic
the domestic load whenloadthewhen
main thepower
main supply
power supply is interrupted.
is interrupted. The BADC Thefunc-
BADC
functions
tions as an rectifier
as an active active rectifier
when itwhen is setittoisthe
set G2V
to themode.
G2V Whenmode. operating
When operating in the
in the V2G
V2G mode, BADC operates as a regulated source of current that
mode, BADC operates as a regulated source of current that contributes electricity to the contributes electricity
to the
utility utility
grid grid for maintaining
for maintaining the power thefactor.
powerFigure
factor.3Figure 3 illustrates
illustrates the structure
the structure of a
of a full-
full-bridge (FB) bidirectional converter and a reversible
bridge (FB) bidirectional converter and a reversible DC-DC converter. DC-DC converter.

S1 S2 S5
L1

L2
Vin C1
Batteries

S3 S4 S6 C2

Figure 3. Full-bridge
Figure bidirectional
3. Full-bridge converter
bidirectional andand
converter reversible DC-DC
reversible converter.
DC-DC converter.

2.2.1.
2.2.1. Eight-Switch
Eight-Switch Topology
Topology
In In [18],
[18], a non-isolated
a non-isolated halfhalf bridge
bridge bidirectional
bidirectional DC-DC
DC-DC converter
converter coupled
coupled DCDC link
link is is
proposed
proposed andand depicted
depicted in in Figure
Figure 4, where
4, where anan induction
induction motor
motor is connected
is connected at the
at the load
load end end
forfor propulsion
propulsion application.
application. ThisThis combined
combined formform of converter
of converter actsacts
as as
an an inverter
inverter during
during
motoring
motoring mode
mode and
and thethe action
action of ofthethe rectifier
rectifier under
under regenerative
regenerative braking
braking mode.
mode. ForFor
thethe
different operating modes, such as V2G mode and G2V mode, the
different operating modes, such as V2G mode and G2V mode, the THD level of the input THD level of the input
side is drastically reduced by incorporating an improved proportional
side is drastically reduced by incorporating an improved proportional resonant controller resonant controller
(PRC).
(PRC). Moreover,
Moreover, anan indirect
indirect scheme
scheme of of field-oriented
field-oriented control
control (FOC)
(FOC) based
based onon particle
particle
swarm optimization (PSO) is introduced to reduce the loss and increase
swarm optimization (PSO) is introduced to reduce the loss and increase efficiency. This efficiency. This
Energies 2023, 16, 2503 5 of 34
Energies 2023, 16, 2503 5 of 33
Energies 2023, 16, 2503 5 of 34

system predominantly improves reliability by reducing the heating effect of current ripple
system predominantly improves reliability by reducing the heating effect of current ripple
andsystem
[Link] improves reliability by reducing the heating effect of current ripple
and
andTHD.
THD.

S1 S3 S9 S9 L
S1 S3 S9 S9 L
V
Vinin
L1 L
1
S5S5
SS88 SS88
CC
11
L2 L2
Battery
Battery

IM
IM

S2 S2 S 4S 4 S6S6 SS77 S7

Figure 4. Non-isolated
Figure half bridgebidirectional
bidirectional DC-DC converter.
converter.
[Link]-isolated
Non-isolatedhalf
halfbridge
bridge bidirectionalDC-DC
DC-DC converter.
2.2.2.
2.2.2.
2.2.2. Three-Level
Three-Level
Three-Level Topology
Topology
Topology
Thesuggested
suggested topology
topology aims
aims to shape the grid current
currentwaveform byby
The
The suggested topology aims totoshape
shapethe thegrid gridcurrent waveform
waveform byensuring
ensuring
ensuring thatthat
that
switching
switchingbetweenbetween
between voltages
voltages with
withvariable
variable pulse
pulse width happens
width happensappropriately. In
appropriately. [19], re-
In [19],
switching voltages with variable pulse width happens appropriately. In [19], re-
ported in
reported inthe
the V2G
V2G system,
system, the structure comprises two diodes and six-number switches
ported in the V2G system, thethe structure
structure comprises
comprises twotwo diodes
diodes and
and six-number
six-number switches
switches
with a non-isolated BDC. However, the system depicted in Figure 5 has a BADC linked
with
with aanon-isolated
non-isolatedBDC. [Link],
However,the thesystem
systemdepicted
depictedininFigure
Figure5 5hashasaaBADC
BADClinked linked
with BDC with five switches and diodes [20]. Capacitors C1 and C2 isolate both converters,
with
with BDC
BDC with five switches
with five switches and diodes
and gate
diodes [20].
[20]. Capacitors C and C isolate both converters,
forCapacitors C1 and C2 isolate both converters,
1 2
and for generating the required pulse all the IGBTs, a feedback controller is added
andfor
and forgenerating
generatingthe therequired
requiredgate
gatepulse
pulsefor forallallthetheIGBTs,
IGBTs,a afeedback
feedbackcontroller
controllerisisadded
added
with a low pass filter. Apart from V2G and G2V, the proposed technique aids regenerative
with
with a low
a low pass pass filter.
filter. Apart
Apartextrafrom V2G
frompower
V2G and and G2V,
G2V, the the proposed
proposed technique
technique aids regenerative
braking, which delivers to plug-in hybrid electric vehicles aids regenerative
during accelera-
braking,which
braking, whichdelivers
delivers extra
extra power
power to to plug-in
plug-in hybrid
hybrid electric
electric vehicles
vehicles during
during acceleration.
accelera-
tion. This bidirectional converter produces reduced current harmonic and noise. The volt-
ThisThis
tion. bidirectional converter produces reduced current harmonic and noise. The voltage
age stress felt by all the components is less, and a smaller input side inductor limits volt-
bidirectional converter produces reduced current harmonic and noise. The the
stress
age felt size,
stress
cost andfelt
by by
alleven
thethe
all components
components
though
is less,
is less,
the applications
and aBADC
and
of
smaller
a smallerinput
suffer input
sideside
from more
inductor
inductorlimits
conduction
the cost
limits
loss. the
andand
cost size, even
size, though
even though the the
applications
applications of BADC
of BADC suffer from
suffer more
from moreconduction
conduction [Link].

S1 S5
S1 S5 C1
C1
S7
L1 S2 S8 S10
S7
L1 S2 S8 S10
Vin
Vin
S3 L2
Battery

S3 L2
Battery

C2 S11 C3
S4 S6 S9
C2 S11 C3
S4 S6 S9
Figure 5. Five switches non-isolated buck–boost BDC.

Figure [Link]
Fivecomplete
switches non-isolated
bridge BADC buck–boost
structureBDC.
combined with an asymmetrical three-level
Figure 5. Five switches non-isolated buck–boost BDC.
structure significantly reduces switching loss and inductor size, as shown in Figure 6 [21].
The
Thecomplete
completebridge
bridgeBADC
BADCstructure
structurecombined
combinedwith
withananasymmetrical
asymmetricalthree-level
three-level
structure
structure significantly reduces switching loss and inductor size, asshown
significantly reduces switching loss and inductor size, as shownininFigure
Figure6 6[21].
[21].
Energies 2023, 16, 2503 6 of 34
Energies 2023, 16, Energies
2503 2023, 16, 2503 6 of 33 6

Four switches create the proposed structure, S1 to S4 and an asymmetrical three-level con-
Four with
verter switches create
the Four
switches the proposed
S5 to
switches S8. From
create thestructure,
the S1structure,
structure,
proposed toitSis4 clear
andS1 an Sasymmetrical
that
to 4a
andpath
anmade three-level
betweenthree-level
asymmetrical
converter
the converterwith
and the
the switches
battery S
to to
be S .
chargedFrom the
reduces structure,
the ratingit is
and clear
verter with the switches S5 to S8. From the structure, it is clear that
5 8 that
power a
losspath mademade bet
ofaBDC.
path
between the converter
Thus, the system can
the and the
produce and
converter battery
an efficiency to
the battery be charged
of not reduces
lesscharged
to be than 97% the rating
in boththe
reduces and
modes power loss
of operation
rating and power of loss of
BDC. Thus, the
when choosing Thus,system
a widethe can
range
systemproduce
of voltage. an efficiency of not less than 97% in both modes
can produce an efficiency of not less than 97% in both modes of oper of
operation when choosing
when a wide
choosing range
a wide rangeof voltage.
of voltage.

BDC
BDC S5 S7
S5 S
L0 7
L0
Grid
S1 S2 C0 Grid
Battery

S1 S2 C0
Battery

S6 S8
S3 S4 S6 S8
S3 S4
Figure 6. Asymmetrical three-level converter.
Figure 6. three-level
Figure 6. Asymmetrical Asymmetrical three-level converter.
converter.
2.2.3. Single-Stage Topology
2.2.3.
In Single-Stage
[22], the2.2.3. Topology
authorSingle-Stage
proposed Topology
a single-stage topology of BADC incorporated with a
powerIn [22],correction
factor the author proposed
(PFC)
In [22], converter
the authora single-stage
comprising
proposed atopology
half-bridge
single-stage of BADC
and FB incorporated
topologytopologies
of BADC with
both a
on incorporated w
power
the inputfactor correction
and output
power sides.
factor (PFC)
This converter
topology
correction (PFC) comprising
achieves
converter half-bridge
zero-voltage
comprising and FB (ZVS)
switching
half-bridge topologies
and on FB theon
topologies on
bothside
input the input and
by properly
the output
input andsides.
combiningoutputThis topology
frequency
sides. achieves
andtopology
This phase shift zero-voltage
modulation.
achieves switching
Moreover,
zero-voltage (ZVS)theon (ZVS) o
switching
the input side by
input side rectification properly
input side combining
is removed
by properly frequency
withcombining and
the help offrequency phase
switches that shift
and are modulation.
connected
phase Moreover,
in the op- Moreove
shift modulation.
the input
posing sideinput
direction rectification
of the input,
side is
asremoved
depicted
rectification with thewith
in Figure
is removed help of help
7. Here,
the switches
Lm and Lthat arethat
2 represent
of switches connected
magnet-
are in
connected in th
the opposing
izing inductance direction of the
and transformer
posing input,
direction of the as
leakage depicted
input,inductance, in Figure 7.
as depictedrespectively. Here, L
Grid
in Figure 7. Here,
m and L
Lside represent
2 filtering
m and L2 represent ma
magnetizing
component inductance
consisting
izing of L1and
, C1, transformer
inductance and 2 avoidleakage
andCtransformer inductance,
the injection
leakage respectively.
of harmonic
inductance, GridGrid
content towards
respectively. side side filt
filtering
the grid andcomponent
maintains consisting
a unity of
powerL , C
factor, and C
during avoid
power the injection
flow of
vehicle
component consisting of L1, C1, and C2 avoid the injection of harmonic content tow
1 1 2 harmonic
to grid. content
During
towards
the positivethe grid andrectification,
half-cycle
the grid maintains
and maintains aswitches
unity power
a unity S1 andfactor
power S3 are during power
switched
factor during ON flow vehicle
at high-frequency
power flow to grid.
vehicle to grid. Du
During the positive
levels, and S2 and half-cycle
theSpositive rectification,
4 are at low-frequency levels. switches S1 and S3 are switched ONhigh-
half-cycle rectification, switches S 1 and S3 are switched ON at at high-frequ
frequency levels, andand
levels, S2 and S4 are
S2 and at low-frequency
S4 are at low-frequency levels.
levels.
L1
L1

S1 L1
S1 L1
C1
S2 C1 S5 S6
L2 S S5 S6
2
L2
Battery

Grid
Battery

Grid Lm C1
Lm C1

S3
S3 S7 S8
C2
S7 S8
S4 C2
S4

Figure 7. 7.
Figure Single-stage isolated
Single-stage BADC.
isolated BADC.
Figure 7. Single-stage isolated BADC.
 Similarly, under adverse half-cycle conditions, switches S2 and S4 are switched ON at
high-frequency levels, and switches S1 and S3 are switched ON at low-frequency levels. In
this topology, variable dependent load frequency is maintained with the frequency ranges
from 20 kHz to 120 kHz, but the frequency level is maintained less during low load con-
Energies 2023, 16, 2503 ditions. This makes the design complication of the controller. The proposed topology 7 of 33 in
[22] reveals a similar type of converter. However, the half-bride topology is replaced by
the full-bride topology on the input side, leading to increased power devices. The induc-
tive capacitor
Similarly,tank
undercircuit
adverseprovides theconditions,
half-cycle soft switching
switchesof the
S2 power
and S4 device circuits
are switched ONtoatobtain
ahigh-frequency
higher efficiency levels,
valueand switches S1 and S3 are switched ON at low-frequency levels.
[23].
In this topology,
In the paper variable
[24], thedependent load frequency
author suggested is maintained
a center-tapped with the
structure frequency
with a cyclo-con-
ranges from 20 kHz to 120 kHz, but the frequency level is maintained
verter-based topology on the grid side and a FB topology on the battery side, less during low
as load
shown in
conditions. This makes the design complication of the controller. The proposed topology
Figure 8. This topology is made up of four power switches (S1–S8). Two switches are fully
in [22] reveals a similar type of converter. However, the half-bride topology is replaced by
active, and the other creates paths for freewheeling. Center-tapped transformers are used
the full-bride topology on the input side, leading to increased power devices. The inductive
tocapacitor
isolate from the power
tank circuit circuit,
provides andswitching
the soft leakage inductance
of the powerand parasitic
device circuitscapacitances
to obtain a are
used for soft switching
higher efficiency value [23]. operation. During V2G mode, the components on the battery side
are connected with pulse width modulation (PWM). In contrast, the other
In the paper [24], the author suggested a center-tapped structure with a cyclo-converter- devices con-
nected at the grid
based topology on frequency
the grid sideare
and swapped so that
a FB topology on battery-side
the battery side,devices can in
as shown achieve
Figure ZVS.
8.
ThisOn the other
topology hand,
is made up in grid-to-vehicle
of four mode,
power switches the
(S1 –S 8 ). devices
Two in the
switches battery-side
are fully active, converter
and
themodulated
are other creates sopaths for freewheeling.
that the sinusoidal pulse Center-tapped transformers
width modulation SPWM are at
used
grid tofrequency
isolate is
from the power
generated. The circuit, and leakagecharacteristics
soft switching inductance andincrease
parasitic capacitances
the power are used for
density at soft
reduced
switching frequencies.
switching operation. During V2G mode,
However, the components
an accurate design is oncarried
the battery
out side are connected
for the transformer to
with pulse width modulation (PWM). In contrast, the other devices connected at the grid
match the leakage currents on the secondary side.
frequency are swapped so that battery-side devices can achieve ZVS.

S8
S1 S3 L1
L4

S7
Battery

L2

Grid S5
S2 S4 L3

S6
Figure8.
Figure Cyclo-converter-based full
8. Cyclo-converter-based fullbridge topology.
bridge topology.

On the other hand, in grid-to-vehicle mode, the devices in the battery-side converter
2.2.4. Topology Based on Matrix Converter
are modulated so that the sinusoidal pulse width modulation SPWM at grid frequency
Typically The
is generated. for power frequency
soft switching to AC grid increase
characteristics voltage conversion into high-frequency
the power density at reduced ac
grid voltage, it requires the AC voltage to DC voltage and DC to AC conversion
switching frequencies. However, an accurate design is carried out for the transformer to stages,
match
and themore
also leakage currents capacitors.
expensive on the secondary side. these heavy and costly components are
However,
eliminated by matrix converters, which is a direct type of AC-to-AC converters presented
2.2.4. Topology Based on Matrix Converter
by the author in [25]. Here, a matrix converter for a three-phase system has been suggested
for theTypically for power
V2G system, frequency
which utilizestoan
AC grid voltage
optimized conversion
sectional into high-frequency
topology ac cur-
for reducing the
grid voltage, it requires the AC voltage to DC voltage and DC to AC conversion stages,
rent ripples during the charging period [25]. It is proposed to use bidirectional, series-
and also more expensive capacitors. However, these heavy and costly components are
connected, antiparallel IGBTs with freewheeling diodes that are connected to a CE struc-
eliminated by matrix converters, which is a direct type of AC-to-AC converters presented
ture. Inauthor
by the this arrangement,
in [25]. Here, asix switches
matrix of bidirectional
converter typesystem
for a three-phase and LChasfilters are connected
been suggested
both at the grid converter side and battery side converter, as shown in Figure
for the V2G system, which utilizes an optimized sectional topology for reducing the current9.
ripples during the charging period [25]. It is proposed to use bidirectional, series-connected,
antiparallel IGBTs with freewheeling diodes that are connected to a CE structure. In this
arrangement, six switches of bidirectional type and LC filters are connected both at the grid
converter side and battery side converter, as shown in Figure 9.
Energies 2023, 16, 2503 8 of 3
Energies 2023, 16, 2503 8 of 33

L1

S1 S3 S5

S2 S4 S6
Three phase

Battery
C2
AC Supply
with filter
S7 S9 S11

S8 S10 S12

[Link]-isolated
Figure Non-isolated matrix
matrix converter.
converter.

The
Themain
main reason for connecting
reason for connecting on the on
grid-side converterconverter
the grid-side is that the LC filterthe
is that prevents
LC filter pre
high-frequency injections from the grid. Similarly, the LC filter connected
vents high-frequency injections from the grid. Similarly, the LC filter connected at the bat at the battery
side
teryprevents high-frequency
side prevents ripples. ripples.
high-frequency To improve To the synchronization
improve of V2G voltage
the synchronization on voltag
of V2G
the grid side, digital PLL is incorporated, and two PI controllers maintain constant current
on the grid side, digital PLL is incorporated, and two PI controllers maintain constan
and voltage profiles.
current
On theandother
voltage
hand, profiles.
it is required to add a controller in the G2V mode to stabilize
the operation by reducing it
On the other hand, theis damping.
required toThe add a controller
controller usedininthe theG2V modesystem
proposed to stabilize th
has merits such as more efficiency, reliability, quick response over the transients, and,has mer
operation by reducing the damping. The controller used in the proposed system
its such asflexibility
importantly, more efficiency,
in the powerreliability, quickEven
factor correction. response
thoughover it has the
sometransients,
advantages,and, im
itportantly,
also experiences someindemerits
flexibility the power during the correction.
factor active power flowthough
Even from vehicle
it hastosomegrid and
advantages
vice versa. Additionally, the life of the battery can be reduced
it also experiences some demerits during the active power flow from vehicle to due to reduced ripples in grid an
the current.
vice versa. Additionally, the life of the battery can be reduced due to reduced ripples i
In [26–28], the author proposed some topologies-based matrix converters for V2G
the current.
systems. The converter shown in Figure 10 gives an isolated bidirectional converter where
In [26–28], the author proposed some topologies-based matrix converters for V2G
a square wave-modulated converter is coupled with a resonant matrix converter through a
systems. The converter
high-frequency transformer. shown in Figureconsists
This topology 10 givesofan isolated inductor
a resonant bidirectional converter wher
and capacitor
L1 and C1 , respectively. A unipolar SPWM controller is incorporated for synchronized throug
a square wave-modulated converter is coupled with a resonant matrix converter
a high-frequency
operation with the [Link].
The grid sideThisvoltage
topology canconsists
be adjustedof awith
resonant
the helpinductor
of the PWMand capacito
rectifier
L1 and C voltage on the p transformer
1, respectively. A unipolarprimary side. The tank
SPWM controller circuit can ensure
is incorporated a lower
for synchronized op
level of VA transformer rating. Higher efficiency can be maintained
eration with the grid. The grid side voltage can be adjusted with the help of the PWM by properly turning
ON the power
rectifier voltagedevices when
on the p ZVS is presentprimary
transformer and OFFside.
underThe ZVStankconditions.
circuit Thiscan type
ensureof a lowe
BADC structure yields quick charging of EVs, quick response to transients on the demand
level of VA transformer rating. Higher efficiency can be maintained by properly turnin
side, lower THD, easy control systems, higher reliability, and power density. However,
ON the power devices when ZVS is present and OFF under ZVS conditions. This type o
the topology faces low-frequency ripples during battery charging and uses more power
BADC structure
components. yields
In [27], quick
the same charging
isolation of EVs,
topology quick
with response tomatrix
a single-phase transients on the deman
is suggested.
Inside,
[28],lower
the EVTHD, easy control
battery–grid systems,
interfacing higher reliability,
is performed by the proposedand powermatrixdensity.
converter However
the topology
where faces low-frequency
inductor–capacitor resonant dual ripples
activeduring
bridge battery
topologycharging and uses more
was incorporated. The powe
components.
structure In [27],
can charge andthe same isolation
discharge more than topology
one EV inwith a single-phase matrix is suggested
parallel.
In [28], the EV battery–grid interfacing is performed by the proposed matrix converte
2.2.5. Recent Trends
where inductor–capacitor resonant dual active bridge topology was incorporated. Th
Components such as GaN and SiC, which has a wide band gap, can enhance the
structure can charge and discharge more than one EV in parallel.
functionality of substantial power converters [29,30]. From the researcher’s point of view,
all the silicon-based devices can be replaced with GaN and SiC devices shortly [31] as
Energies 2023, 16, 2503 9 of 33

Energies 2023, 16, 2503 9 of 34

they can give better thermal efficiency, low value of reverse recovery charge, higher power
density, high-frequency operation [31,32] and high blocking capability.

L2

S1 S3 S5
S13 S14
L1 C1

Battery
S2 S4 S6
Three phase C2
AC Supply
with filter
S7 S9 S11
S15 S16

S8 S10 S12

Figure 10. Isolated matrix converter.

Figure 10. Isolated matrix converter.

2.2.5. Recent Trends

2.3. Bidirectional DC-DC Converter
Components
BDC is a typesuch as GaN
of DC-DC and SiC,capable
converter which of has a wide band
correcting gap, can
the control enhance that
instruction the
functionality
causes the power of substantial power converters
flow to change its direction.[29,30].
TheyFrom allowthe DC researcher’s
voltage to point of view,
be converted
between
all two levels devices
the silicon-based in both can
directions [33]. with
be replaced The magnitude
GaN and SiC ofdevices
one of the two [31]
shortly voltages
as theyis
moregive
can than that of
better the other.
thermal The following
efficiency, low value areofthe two clearly
reverse recovery defined roles
charge, that apower
higher BDC
type converter
density, plays in operation
high-frequency a vehicle-to-grid connectivity
[31,32] and high blocking subsystem: during the mode of
capability.
V2G, the voltage of the battery is altered to DC side voltage, and during G2V mode, or
the Bidirectional
2.3. charging mode, DC-DC the Converter
voltage is converted to the proper level of charging voltage. A
Bidirectional
BDC is a typetype DC-DC
of DC-DC converter
converter (BDCs)
capablecharges the EV the
of correcting batteries
controlfollowed
instructionby that
two
stages of charging, such as a constant current mode [15,16] and
causes the power flow to change its direction. They allow DC voltage to be converted a constant voltage mode.
Bidirectional-type
between two levels DC-DC
in bothconverters
directions(BDCs) run magnitude
[33]. The at higher switching
of one offrequencies in suchisa
the two voltages
way as to enhance the capacity of power density. As a result of devices
more than that of the other. The following are the two clearly defined roles that a BDC being turned ON
and OFF quickly, HF noise is produced, which harms other grid-connected
type converter plays in a vehicle-to-grid connectivity subsystem: during the mode of V2G, equipment and
generates electromagnetic interference (EMI) in the grid. Therefore, while designing BDCs,
the voltage of the battery is altered to DC side voltage, and during G2V mode, or the
reliable EMI mitigation and control techniques must be adopted.
charging mode, the voltage is converted to the proper level of charging voltage. A Bidi-
rectional type Topologies
2.3.1. Isolated DC-DC converter (BDCs) charges the EV batteries followed by two stages
of charging, such as a constant current mode [15,16] and a constant voltage mode. Bidi-
The voltage-fed dual active bridge (DAB) design is one of the most often used isolated
rectional-type DC-DC converters (BDCs) run at higher switching frequencies in such a
types of bidirectional DC-DC converters (BDCs) for an extended range of voltage appli-
way as to enhance the capacity of power density. As a result of devices being turned ON
cations such as V2G [17,34]. This conventional converter has two complete bridges with
and OFF quickly, HF noise is produced, which harms other grid-connected equipment
four transistors each, and the HF transformers are used to isolate switches. Phase shift
and generates electromagnetic interference (EMI) in the grid. Therefore, while designing
modulation methods are mainly used to regulate the flow of power. Galvanic isolation,
BDCs, reliable EMI mitigation and control techniques must be adopted.
the flexibility of control, the soft-switching capability of soft-switching, less voltage stress,
higher efficiency, high capability of power [35], density, symmetrical, and [34] expandable
2.3.1. Isolated Topologies
design are some of the key benefits of the DAB architecture. The restricted voltage con-
Therange,
version voltage-fed dual active
high circulating bridge[36],
current (DAB)
anddesign
increased is one of theofmost
injection oftenpower
reactive used [37]
iso-
lated types
are some of of
thebidirectional DC-DC converters
problems associated (BDCs)converters.
with voltage-fed for an extended
The BDC rangeusesofsnubber
voltage
applications
capacitors tosuch as V2G
ensure [17,34].devices’
the power This conventional
[Link] has twoofcomplete
The author bridgesa
[38] describes
with four transistors
high-power BDC system each, and
that the HF
consists of transformers
a three-phase are used to
FBBADC isolate switches.
connected to a dual Phase
active
shift modulation methods are mainly used to regulate the flow
bridge BDC as illustrated in Figure 11. Switches S1 to S6 comprises the BADC, whereasof power. Galvanic isola-
tion, the flexibility of control, the soft-switching capability of soft-switching,
S7 to S13 comprise the BDC. The BADC has been controlled under direct current control, less voltage
stress,the
while higher
BDCefficiency, high capability
has been controlled underofsingle-phase
power [35], shiftdensity, symmetrical, and [34] ex-
modulation.
pandable design are some of the key benefits of the DAB architecture. The restricted volt-
age conversion range, high circulating current [36], and increased injection of reactive
power [37] are some of the problems associated with voltage-fed converters. The BDC
uses snubber capacitors to ensure the power devices’ soft-switching. The author of [38]
describes a high-power BDC system that consists of a three-phase FBBADC connected to
a dual active bridge BDC as illustrated in Figure 11. Switches S1 to S6 comprises the BADC,
 Energies 2023, 16, 2503 10 of 34

Energies 2023, 16, 2503 10 of 33

whereas S7 to S13 comprise the BDC. The BADC has been controlled under direct current
control, while the BDC has been controlled under single-phase shift modulation.

S1 S2 S3 S7 S8 S10 S11
L1

Battery
Three phase
C1 C2
AC Supply
with filter
S3 S4 S5 S9 S10 S12 S13

Figure 11. Three-phase BADC and BDC.

Figure 11. Three-phase BADC and BDC.

The battery
The battery can can be
be charged
charged using using either
either aa constant-current
constant-current or or constant-voltage
constant-voltage tech- tech-
nique. The PQ control technique incorporated in the BADC
nique. The PQ control technique incorporated in the BADC is utilized in the V2G mode is utilized in the V2G mode to
regulate the injection of reactive power and real power to
to regulate the injection of reactive power and real power to the grid side. Current-fedthe grid side. Current-fed type
dual dual
type activeactive
bridge BDCsBDCs
bridge have ahave broad input voltage
a broad range, minimum
input voltage range, minimum value inputvalue current,
input
minimalminimal
current, diode ringing,diodeless ratio in
ringing, lesstransformer turns, zero turns,
ratio in transformer loss in zero
duty loss
cycle,
inhigh
dutyvoltage
cycle,
gains [39], fewer diodes, reduced transformer turns ratio,
high voltage gains [39], fewer diodes, reduced transformer turns ratio, and improved and improved current control
capabilities
current control[40,41]. However,
capabilities to reduce
[40,41]. However,the switching
to reducelosses in current-fed
the switching losses converters,
in current-fed ac-
tive clampers or snubbers must be used to reduce the spikes,
converters, active clampers or snubbers must be used to reduce the spikes, which can which can increase the cost.
In isolated
increase thephase-shifted
cost. In isolated BDCs, snubber capacitors
phase-shifted are usually
BDCs, snubber used across
capacitors are the switching
usually used
devicesthe
across [36,42]. It aids
switching in reducing
devices [36,42]. transients
It aids ininreducing
switching, voltage spikes,
transients currentvoltage
in switching, spikes,
electromagnetic
spikes, current spikes,interferences,
electromagneticand theinterferences,
problem in recovery of diodein
and the problem reverse.
recovery In of
order
diode to
maximize
reverse. the energy
In order circulating
to maximize and extend
the energy the range
circulating of soft-switching
and extend the range of converters,
soft-switching an
adequate inductor
converters, an adequatedesign is necessitated.
inductor design is The current and
necessitated. Thevoltage-fed
current anddual active bridge
voltage-fed dual
structure
active bridgeis used [35]. is
structure The usedcurrent-fed
[35]. The bridge type bridge
current-fed is utilized
typefor buck mode
is utilized for buckoperation,
mode
operation, and the current-fed
and the current-fed type structure type structure is implemented
is implemented during boostduring boost
mode mode operation.
operation. The au-
The
thorauthor
discusseddiscussed a secondary
a secondary modulation-based
modulation-based dynamically
dynamically clamped
clamped soft-switching
soft-switching cur-
current-voltage
rent-voltage fedfed dualdual
activeactive
bridgebridgeBDC BDC in [36]
in [36] thatthat switches
switches primary
primary devices
devices at zeroat zero
cur-
current switchings (ZCS) and secondary side components
rent switchings (ZCS) and secondary side components at ZVS independently. BDC con- at ZVS independently. BDC
consists of the
sists of the transformer’s
transformer’s leakage
leakage inductance
inductance L1, asL1shown
, as shown in Figure
in Figure 12. The12. system’s
The system’s foot-
footprint
print and magnetics cost decreased by using a high switching frequency of of
and magnetics cost decreased by using a high switching frequency highhigh value
value of
of
100100 kHz.
kHz. This
This typeofofconverter
type converterisisextendable
extendablefor forhigher-power
higher-power V2G V2G applications
applications and and cancan
be
be interleaved.
interleaved. The The main
main limitation
limitation is is that
that it operates with
it operates with eight
eight active
active power
power components,
components,
which raises the BDC’s conduction losses. Figure 13 depicts
which raises the BDC’s conduction losses. Figure 13 depicts current–voltage supplied current–voltage supplied
half-
half-full bridge BDC. An identical modulation approach has
full bridge BDC. An identical modulation approach has been applied in [42]. The benefits been applied in [42]. The
Energies 2023, 16, 2503
benefits of having six power switches rather than eight, zero
of having six power switches rather than eight, zero voltage source for secondary11devicesvoltage source for secondary
of 34
devices
instead of instead of ZCSless
ZCS include include
peak lessvalue peak value of
of current current
through through
devices, lessdevices, less loss in
loss in conduction,
conduction, and lesscurrent.
and less circulating circulating current.

Current fed converter Voltage fed converter

S1 S2 L1 S5 S7

C2
Battery
DC Bus

C2

S3 S4 S6 S8

Figure
Figure12.
[Link]
Currentfed
fedfull
fullbridge
bridgesnubber
snubberless
lessconverter.
converter.

Current fed converter Voltage fed converter

S3 S4
 2

B
D
S3 S4 S6 S8

Energies 2023, 16, 2503 11 of 33

Figure 12. Current fed full bridge snubber less converter.

Current fed converter Voltage fed converter

S3 S4
L1 L2
L1lk
DC Bus

Battery
C2 C2

S1 S2 S3 S4

Figure
Figure13.
13. Current
Currentfed
fedhalf
halfbridge
bridge snubber
snubber less
less converter.
converter.

2.3.2. Non-Isolated
2.3.2. Non-IsolatedType Type Topologies
Topologies
Thesetopologies
These topologiesuse useanan inductor
inductor to to transfer
transfer thethe energy
energy toward
toward the load,
the load, andcon-
and the the
controller architecture is quite simple. The inductor can store
troller architecture is quite simple. The inductor can store magnetic energy when themagnetic energy when
the switch
switch is ONis under
ON underboostboost operation
operation and release
and release it when it when it is switched
it is switched OFF. Because
OFF. Because of the
of the absence of the high-frequency isolation transformer, the
absence of the high-frequency isolation transformer, the benefits of non-isolated benefits of non-isolated
method-
methodology
ology are that are thatless
it uses it uses less number
number of switches
of switches and passive
and passive components,
components, has costs,
has lesser lesser
costs, and has a minimum footprint than isolated methodology [18]. The non-isolated
and has a minimum footprint than isolated methodology [18]. The non-isolated configu-
configurations, however, do not adhere to the safety requirements.
rations, however, do not adhere to the safety requirements.
Furthermore, compared to isolated configurations, non-isolated topologies have re-
Furthermore, compared to isolated configurations, non-isolated topologies have re-
duced voltage magnitude, range of conversion, and control flexibility [41,43–48]. The
duced voltage magnitude, range of conversion, and control flexibility [41,43-48]. The com-
common, typical non-isolated BDC architecture is the buck–boost mode of operation, in
mon, typical non-isolated BDC architecture is the buck–boost mode of operation, in which
which the functions of BDC are as a buck converter mode in the grid to the vehicle and
the functions of BDC are as a buck converter mode in the grid to the vehicle and as a boost
as a boost converter mode in the vehicle to grid. The non-isolated buck–boost mode of
converter mode in the vehicle to grid. The non-isolated buck–boost mode of operation
operation employs only two switches in BDCs to accomplish the DC-DC conversion step,
employs only two switches in BDCs to accomplish the DC-DC conversion step, but a five-
but a five-switch non-isolated buck–boost mode BDC architecture is presented in [20].
switch non-isolated buck–boost mode BDC architecture is presented in [20]. It was re-
It was reported that a FB type of bidirectional converter linked with a non-isolated [44]
ported that a FB type of bidirectional converter linked with a non-isolated [44] buck–boost
buck–boost converter could regulate both real power and reactive power. The phase angle
converter
and voltagecould regulate
provided byboth real power
the vehicle and
to the reactive
grid power. The phase
are synchronized anglegrids
with these and voltage
using a
provided
PLL algorithm in α-β coordinates. Here BADC employs a d-q frame controllera to
by the vehicle to the grid are synchronized with these grids using PLL algo-
regulate
rithm in α-β coordinates. Here BADC employs a d-q frame
reactive power. The BDC uses a PI controller to regulate real power. controller to regulate reactive
power. TheThe BDC uses
electric vehiclea PIbattery
controller to regulate
is charged real power.
by a controller using constant current, voltage,
and power techniques. Here the BADC utilizes inductor filters on the grid side, and the
BDC utilizes LC filters on the battery side. Khan et al. developed a non-isolated cascaded
buck–boost mode of BDC suggested in [43], which enables input voltage and output voltage
range overlap for electric vehicles with vehicle-to-grid capabilities. The input and output
voltage ranges are overlapped using four switches with an intermediate capacitor in this
configuration. Figure 14 shows the circuit, where C1 stands for the intermediate DC-link
capacitor. Two distinct PI controllers control the output voltage and the intermediate
DC-link voltage. PWM serves to operate the BDC. With the presence of both modes,
G2V and V2G, the compensation of reactive power can be performed easily and, thus,
the compensation of power factor. The suggested system combines a non-isolated two-
phase interleaved half-bridge BDC design with the neutral-clamped BADC [48]. Coupled
inductors have been employed to minimize charging current ripple, maintaining the model
simple and mode-friendly.
 link capacitor. Two distinct PI controllers control the output voltage and the intermediate
DC-link voltage. PWM serves to operate the BDC. With the presence of both modes, G2V
and V2G, the compensation of reactive power can be performed easily and, thus, the com-
pensation of power factor. The suggested system combines a non-isolated two-phase in-
terleaved half-bridge BDC design with the neutral-clamped BADC [48]. Coupled induc-
Energies 2023, 16, 2503 12 of 33
tors have been employed to minimize charging current ripple, maintaining the model sim-
ple and mode-friendly.

S1 S3

L2 L1
C1

Battery
DC Bus
S2 S4
C2

Figure
Figure14.
[Link]-isolated
Non-isolatedcascaded
cascadedbuck–boost
buck–boostconverter.
converter.

[Link]
2.3.3. ResonantTopologies
Topologies
Researchersare
Researchers are substantially
substantially investigating
investigatingresonant-type
resonant-type DC-DC
DC-DC converters
convertersfor afor
large
a
range of voltage applications. As they do not require clamp or snubber
large range of voltage applications. As they do not require clamp or snubber circuitry, circuitry, they pro-
videprovide
they incredible works on
incredible high on
works frequency, outstanding
high frequency, efficiency,efficiency,
outstanding minimal electromagnetic
minimal elec-
interference, and lesser components [37]. Resonant converters
tromagnetic interference, and lesser components [37]. Resonant converters have better efficiency
have better ef-for
low loads than phase-shifted DAB and similar efficiency for huge power
ficiency for low loads than phase-shifted DAB and similar efficiency for huge power trans-transfers [49–57].
However,
fers [49-57]. because
However, of because
the low of
input impedance
the low of the filterofcapacitors,
input impedance the preponderance
the filter capacitors, the pre-
of resonant converters experiences a significant start-up surge current. Despite having
ponderance of resonant converters experiences a significant start-up surge current. De-
outstanding switching characteristics, the PWM resonant converter is mostly a buck-mode
spite having outstanding switching characteristics, the PWM resonant converter is mostly
type converter. It is unsuitable for BDCs and performs both buck mode and boost mode op-
a buck-mode type converter. It is unsuitable for BDCs and performs both buck mode and
erations. Figure 15 illustrates an isolated full-bridge pulse width modulation [50] resonant
boost mode operations. Figure 15 illustrates an isolated full-bridge pulse width modula-
type BDC. The converter comprises a series of LC resonant tanks made of L and Cf in the
tion [50] resonant type BDC. The converter comprises a series of LC resonantf tanks made
isolation transformer’s primary side and a capacitor-based charge pump connected in series
of Lf and Cf in the isolation transformer’s primary side and a capacitor-based charge pump
with the second part for resonant PWM operation, which facilitates enhanced functioning.
connected in series with the second part for resonant PWM operation, which facilitates
The negative impacts of an extremely high level or low level of switching frequency are
enhanced functioning. The negative impacts of an extremely high level or low level of
reduced by PWM control. A significant value of Cv is necessary to prevent the LC tank’s
switching frequency are reduced by PWM control. A significant value of Cv is necessary
resonance frequency from affecting Cv , and it causes the BDC to be large and expensive.
to prevent the LC tank’s resonance frequency from affecting Cv, and it causes the BDC to
Additionally, the bidirectional DC-to-DC converter has a sluggish overvoltage response.
beThe
large and expensive.
author Additionally,isolated
created a CLLLC-type the bidirectional DC-to-DC converter
double voltage-fed full-bridge hasbidirectional
a sluggish
Energies 2023, 16, 2503 13 of 34
overvoltage response. The author created a CLLLC-type isolated double
DC-DC converter with its phase angle control and incredibly high conversion efficiencyvoltage-fed full-in
bridge bidirectional
both modes [37]. DC-DC converter with its phase angle control and incredibly high
conversion efficiency in both modes [37].

L1

S1 S3 S1 S3
Battery
DC Bus

C1

CV Lf Cf
S2 S4 S2 S4

Figure
Figure15.
[Link]
Isolatedfull-bridge
full-bridgetype
typeBDC.
BDC.

An approach with variable switching frequency was used to ensure a zero-voltage

source under different load conditions. Figure 16 shows the BDC where the CLLLC-type
resonant network is comprised of capacitances at resonant conditions C1 and C2, resonant
inductors L1 and L2, and Lm transformer magnetizing inductor. The transformer’s series
 CV Lf Cf
S2 S4 S2 S4
Energies 2023, 16, 2503 13 of 33

Figure 15. Isolated full-bridge type BDC.

Anapproach
An approachwithwithvariable
variableswitching
switchingfrequency
frequencywaswasused
usedtotoensure
ensureaazero-voltage
zero-voltage
sourceunder
source underdifferent
differentloadloadconditions.
[Link]
Figure1616shows
showsthetheBDC
BDCwhere
wherethetheCLLLC-type
CLLLC-type
resonant network is comprised of capacitances at resonant conditions C1 and CC2,2 ,resonant
resonant network is comprised of capacitances at resonant conditions C 1 and resonant
inductors L and L , and L transformer magnetizing inductor. The transformer’s
inductors L1 1and L2,2 and Lm transformer magnetizing inductor. The transformer’s series
m series
leakage inductance is an element of the resonant network. Switches
leakage inductance is an element of the resonant network. Switches (IGBT) S1–S4 are (IGBT) S –S 4 are
1 used
used in the primary side switching, whereas switches
in the primary side switching, whereas switches S5–S8 (MOSFET) S –S
5 8 (MOSFET)
are utilized at the sec-at
are utilized
the secondary
ondary sideswitches
side power power switches since MOSFETs
since MOSFETs areprimary
are on the on the primary side, resulting
side, resulting in an ap-in
propriate switching loss. The secondary circuit is formed by adding the inductiveinductive
an appropriate switching loss. The secondary circuit is formed by adding the element
Lelement L2 andthe
2 and keeping
keeping
switchingthe switching
frequencyfrequency
somewhatsomewhat greater
greater when when compared
compared with
with the typ-
the typical operating frequency, which can help solve the issues of a significant
ical operating frequency, which can help solve the issues of a significant starting level starting
level current.
surge surge current.

S1 S2 S5 S6
C1 L1 L2

Battery
C2
DC Bus

Cin Lm C

S3 S4
S7 S8

Figure
Figure16.
[Link]-type
CLLLC-typeresonant
resonantconverter.
converter.

The
Thedual
dualresonant
resonanttype
typeofofBDC
BDCwaswaspresented
presentedinin[32],
[32],which
whichconnects
connectsthree
threeconverter
converter
bridges
bridgestype
type using three-windingtransformer
using a three-winding transformertotoenable
enableG2VG2V and
and V2G V2G operations
operations andand
also
from
also highhigh
from voltage (HV)(HV)
voltage charging to low
charging to voltage (LV) charging.
low voltage Reduced
(LV) charging. effect effect
Reduced of saturation,
of sat-
fewer magnetizing
uration, losses, losses,
fewer magnetizing a fewera footprint, and minimum
fewer footprint, cost are
and minimum theare
cost implications
the implica-of
converting
tions three windings
of converting types into
three windings typesa into
single transformer
a single whose
transformer combined
whose combinedtopology
topol-is
depicted
ogy in Figure
is depicted 17. Here
in Figure 17. both
Herethe primary-side
both and secondary-side
the primary-side converters
and secondary-side consist
converters
of a half-bridge
consist type with
of a half-bridge type capacitors C1 and
with capacitors C1 C 2 . However,
and the the
C2. However, tertiary sideside
tertiary is of a FB
is of a
synchronous converter which also reduces the conduction loss and the circulating current.
Switches on the tertiary side are silicon MOSFETs, while the primary-side and secondary-
side switches are silicon carbide MOSFETs with a large drain in voltage and less turn-
on resistance.
On the tertiary side, switches S9 and S10 comprise the back-to-back combination,
which helps disconnect the LV side load whenever needed. An LLC-type converter and a
CLLLC-type converter are combined in the integrated resonant converter. Here, L1 is the
primary side leakage inductance; L2 is the leakage inductance on the secondary side; Lm
is the magnetizing transformer inductance; and four resonant split capacitors, C1 , C2 , C3 ,
and C4 , make up the CLLLC resonant network. Together with LLC resonant, Ll , Lm, C3,
and C4 form a network. C1 , C2 , and Ll form a resonant network in grid-to-vehicle mode.
C3 , C4 , and L2 make up the vehicle’s resonant network to the grid and H2L modes. By
employing PI controllers, an adjustable DC-link voltage control scheme ensures that the
BDC maintains close to the resonant range of frequency over the full output voltage range.
Because of the ZVS turning ON of components over a broad input and output range of
voltage, the converter exhibits great efficiency and power density capabilities. However,
a transformer with three-winding and two significant leakage inductances is required,
which is costly and complex to make. For V2G systems, an isolated double semi-bridge
CLLC-type resonant bidirectional type DC-DC to converter was suggested in [52].
 employing PI controllers, an adjustable DC-link voltage control scheme ensures that the
BDC maintains close to the resonant range of frequency over the full output voltage range.
Because of the ZVS turning ON of components over a broad input and output range of
voltage, the converter exhibits great efficiency and power density capabilities. However,
Energies 2023, 16, 2503 a transformer with three-winding and two significant leakage inductances is required,
14 of 33
which is costly and complex to make. For V2G systems, an isolated double semi-bridge
CLLC-type resonant bidirectional type DC-DC to converter was suggested in [52].

S1 C1L S C3
1 L2 3
DC Bus

Battery
Cdc C5

S2 C2 S4 C4

S5 S7 S9 S10

Battery
C5

S6 S8

Figure 17. Dual type output resonant BDC.

Figure 17. Dual type output resonant BDC.

The
The system
systememploys
employsthetheHFHFtransformer’s leakage
transformer’s leakageandand
magnetizing inductors
magnetizing as res-
inductors as
onant inductors.
resonant Resonant
inductors. capacitors
Resonant are replacing
capacitors the half-bridge
are replacing DC DC
the half-bridge capacitors. A fre-
capacitors. A
quency
frequencyat aat
high resonant
a high of 130
resonant ofkHz
130 was
kHzused
was to reduce
used EMI and
to reduce EMIincrease the converter’s
and increase the con-
power
verter’sdensity. In order
power density. to enhance
In order system
to enhance efficiency,
system thethe
efficiency, technology
technologyensures
ensures gentle
gentle
switching of the components in either operating condition while running at a broad output
voltage range. The secondary resonant tank circuit reduces circulating current and related
conduction loss through synchronous rectification and dead-band management. This leads
to a 1.7% increase in system efficiency. When employed as a source of energy storage,
electrolytic capacitors threaten a BDC in terms of power density and reliability.
The author presented a sinusoidal type charging methodology for the electric vehicle
battery that was suggested in [53]; it moves away from the need for electrolytic capacitors,
as shown in Figure 18. Here, FB-BADC with an LCL filter is connected to an isolated half-
bridge series resonant converter with an LC filter by capacitors C1 and C2 . In transformer
L1 , the leakage inductance, two resonant capacitors, C3 and C4 , work together to form
the resonant network. Only HF ripples are eliminated by the LC filter and capacitors C1
and C2 , enabling low-frequency unwanted ripples for the electric vehicle battery. The
BDC is controlled by PI controllers and has a predefined switching frequency. The BADC
and LCL filter work together to regulate the power factor control and minimize the grid
harmonic injection. The zero current source switch makes ON/switch-OFF for the whole
load range, enabling the converter to operate at high efficiency. The switching devices with
conduction losses constitute most system losses, even though switching losses are pretty
low. However, sinusoidal charging increases the battery temperature when charging by
reducing the battery capacity.
 LCL filter work together to regulate the power factor control and minimize the grid har-
monic injection. The zero current source switch makes ON/switch-OFF for the whole load
range, enabling the converter to operate at high efficiency. The switching devices with
conduction losses constitute most system losses, even though switching losses are pretty
Energies 2023, 16, 2503 low. However, sinusoidal charging increases the battery temperature when charging
15 of 33 by
reducing the battery capacity.

L1

S7 S5 S1 S4
C1 C3
L2

Battery
Vin
C5

S8 S6 S2 S3
C2 C4

Figure 18. A
Figure [Link]-bridge bidirectional
A full-bridge bidirectionalDC
DCconverter withan
converter with anLCL
LCLfilter.
filter.

2.3.4.
2.3.4. Current
Current Trends
Trends
Comprehensive
Comprehensive bandgaptechnologies
bandgap technologies such
suchasassilicon
siliconcarbide
carbideand gallium
and galliumnitride are are
nitride
the main focus of current research because they provide substantial benefits over other
the main focus of current research because they provide substantial benefits over other
silicon switch alternatives for large energy applications. According to [31], an all-SiC
silicon switch alternatives
architecture for large
for 10 kW isolated energy applications.
soft-switching devices such According
as semi andto full-bridge
[31], an all-SiC
LLC ar-
chitecture
type resonant bidirectional DC-DC converter exhibited an efficiency boost of 0.7–2% overtype
for 10 kW isolated soft-switching devices such as semi and full-bridge LLC
resonant bidirectional
employing DC-DC
all-Si devices. converter
Gallium nitrideexhibited an efficiency
FET promises boost of
similar benefits, 0.7–2% lower
including over em-
ploying
inputall-Si [Link]
capacitance, Gallium nitridestrength,
dielectric FET promises
switchingsimilar benefits,
frequency, including
lesser lower in-
Miller charge,
put higher operating
capacitance, temperature,
higher dielectriclower reverse-recovery
strength, switchingvoltage, and smaller
frequency, non-active
lesser Miller charge,
components
higher operating[30]. These advantages
temperature, suggest that Gallium
lower reverse-recovery nitrideand
voltage, FETs can switch
smaller to
non-active
previously inaccessible or unfathomable performance areas. A GaN-based
components [30]. These advantages suggest that Gallium nitride FETs can switch to pre- DAB and BDC
that runs at 500 kHz and promises to reduce the space by 90% of the DC link capacitor via
viously inaccessible or unfathomable performance areas. A GaN-based DAB and BDC
sinusoidal charging have been disclosed in [30].
that runs at 500 kHz and promises to reduce the space by 90% of the DC link capacitor via
sinusoidal charging have
2.3.5. Comparison been disclosed
of Different Types of BDCin [30].
One of the most common types of non-isolated bidirectional DC-DC converters is the
buck-and-boost type of converter. On the other hand, the most general isolated bidirectional
DC-DC converter type is a full bridge type. As the isolation transformer is not present
in the non-isolated methodologies, it offers advantages such as a lesser footprint, lighter
weight, low amount, and easy control. Components in these converters are employed to
their maximum potential using fewer switching devices. The substantial conduction loss
produced by the substantial current flowing across the passive components and switching
devices, however, reduces the power density capabilities of these converters and affects
their efficiency. In non-isolated BDCs, interleaving is thus recommended where quick
charging/discharging capability is required.
Furthermore, the controller mechanisms in any non-isolated BDC cannot give ZVS/ZCS
naturally. Hence, soft-switching strategies must be considered to mitigate the switching
losses. Excellent transient performance may be attained using the cascaded buck–boost
architecture. It offers an option for improving the significant power transfer capability.
An isolated BDC topology offers better internal safety over fault, which increases the
system’s size, weight, and cost. A comparison between various converter topologies is
listed in Table 1.
Energies 2023, 16, 2503 16 of 33

Table 1. Comparison between various converter topologies.

Maximum Number of Switching Frequency

Ref. No Converter Topology Filter Switching Mode Efficiency (%) Applications
Power Switches (kHz)
Auxiliary switching EV Auxillary Load
[12] 500 W 4 C hard-switching 20 83
buck–boost converter Applications
Level 1 Charger, Light Duty
[15] Buck–boost converter 3.5 kW 2 LC hard-switching 20 >90
EV Applications
Level 1 Charger, Light Duty
[16] Buck–boost 1.2 kW 2 LC hard-switching 50 -
EV Applications
Level 1 Charger, Light Duty
[17] Dual full-bridge 3.3 kW 8 CLC Soft switching 250
EV Applications
Interleaved Level 2 Charger for Medium
[18] 30 kW 4 C hard-switching 20 -
buck–boost Power EV
Non-inverted Level 2 Charger for Medium
[20] 18 kW 5 C hard-switching 10 95.25
buck–boost Power EV
>96
Half-full-bridge (G2V) Level 2 Charger for Medium
[31] 10 kW 6 LC Soft switching 90–150
resonant >98 Power EV
(V2G)
Level 1 Charger, Light Duty
[32] Half-bridge resonant 3.3 kW 4 C Soft switching 180–200 96
EV Applications
EV Auxillary Load
[36] Dual full-bridge 250 W 8 C Soft switching 100 93
Applications
85–145
(G2V), 97.7
40–110 (G2V), Level 1 Charger, Light Duty
[37] Full-bridge resonant 3.5 kW 8 C Soft switching
(G2V), 98.1 EV Applications
200 at (V2G)
start-up
Dual Level 2 Charger for Medium
[38] 30 kW 8 C hard-switching 20 -
voltage-fed Power EV
Level 1 Charger, Light Duty
[42] Half-full-bridge 1 kW 6 C Soft switching 100 95.8
EV Applications
Energies 2023, 16, 2503 17 of 33

Table 1. Cont.

Maximum Number of Switching Frequency

Ref. No Converter Topology Filter Switching Mode Efficiency (%) Applications
Power Switches (kHz)
Level 1 Charger, Light Duty
[43] Cascaded buck–boost 9 kW 4 LC hard-switching 20 91.61
EV Applications
Buck–boost (with
auxiliary EV Auxillary Load
[45] 500 W 2 LC hard-switching 10 <85
switching Applications
network)
Interleaved EV Auxillary Load
[46] 400 W 4 C hard-switching 20 >94
buck–boost Applications
97.7
(G2V), Level 2 Charger for Medium
[50] Full-bridge resonant 6.6 kW 8 LC Soft switching 50
97.3 Power EV
(V2G)
Level 1 Charger, Light Duty
[51] Full-bridge resonant 2.5 kW 10 C Soft switching 50 96
EV Applications
97.5
(G2V), Level 1 Charger, Light Duty
[52] Half-bridge resonant 3.3 kW 4 C Soft switching 100–200
97.3 EV Applications
(V2G)
95.7
(G2V), Level 1 Charger, Light Duty
[53] Half-bridge resonant 3.3 kW 4 LC Soft switching -
95.4 EV Applications
(V2G)
Energies 2023, 16, 2503 18 of 33

3. Conductive and Inductive Charger/Discharger

The use of the direct path for conductive charging and/or inductive discharging
systems for power to flow between the utility grid and the electric vehicle battery [58–65].
EV owners can employ these systems to charge their cars rapidly. However, the owner of
an electric vehicle (EV) must connect the cable every time needed to recharge or drain the
electric vehicle battery [54]. The next method to transfer energy from the utility grid to the
electric vehicle is to establish an inductive type network that uses resonance to send power
over a wireless network medium. Nikola Tesla invented wireless-type inductive power
transfer (IPT) in 1891. This idea was suggested for vehicle grid networks. This vehicle grid
works with IPT. The system setup stays ideal, except that the vehicle and the grid need to
install extra inductive charging and discharging circuitry.
An IPT system consists of a dual side, usually called pickup. It is isolated by [9] an
air gap and magnetically associated with each other. It initiates at the pickup side to the
average resonant frequency as it transfers to power at the primary side. The best part of
Inductive power transfer is IPT, which makes life easier by removing contact wires and
cords and isolating them from each other. Inductive systems also eliminate the chance of
shock during wet conditions and wear and tear on the connector [66]. Conductive charging
and inductive discharging systems can be neither built-in nor separate, and they might be
placed ON or OFF condition of the EV inductive-type charging and discharging systems
are usually non-integrated, which means that the pickup side is on an electric vehicle and
not on the primary side.
Because of the worst magnetic coupling and greater flux leakage, these systems have a
slow speed of charge and discharge, low power density, and poor efficiency, so they need
higher supply voltage [9]. In inductive power transfer IPT-based vehicles to grid systems,
current challenges such as reducing the amount of leakage flux and increasing the amount
of power that can be transferred to the normal supply voltage and current rating [67]. In
order to keep switching losses minimum, pulse width modulation technique control is
not a good choice for IPT systems [9]. Conversely, the phase-modulated square pulses
are utilized to regulate Inductive power transfer IPT systems to obtain both voltage v and
current waveforms that look like sine waves. The control system is even more complicated
by the availability of higher-frequency, higher-order resonance frequency systems because
the resonant frequency depends on tolerances and temperature changes [11]. Moreover,
in bidirectional type inductive power transfer IPT, the air gap needs two controlling
techniques, one at the utility side and the other at the EV side, and these controllers have to
be operated collaboratively [9]. However, the author [68] discusses only one controller on
the grid side, which makes it possible for IPT to work both ways between the utility grid
side and a single side of an electric vehicle EV.
Inductive charger/discharger systems also have a big problem between the primary
and pickup side inductive platforms, which creates an imbalance. This, in turn, alters the
magnetic coupling, which makes the change in resonant frequency and level of power
transfer. Self-tuning control strategies in Inductive power transfer systems groove the
converter operating frequency of the IPT systems at the resonant frequency, which removes
the problem described in [69–75].
In [9], the authors suggested a current-sourced-based bidirectional converter interface
that allows multiple EVs to be charged and discharged simultaneously through weak
magnetic coupling with an efficiency of about 80%. Figure 19 shows the inductive power
transfer of IPT-based vehicles to the grid V2G system that links in electric vehicles. Both the
primary side and the pickup side are the same. They both have a full-bridge converter and
an LCL resonant network connected in parallel. This makes the primary and pickup sides
galvanically isolated. In order to connect more than one EV to the primary coil, each electric
vehicle must have identical pickup coils, and the voltage in the primary side currently has
to produce a standard path. When the LCL network on the pickup side of each one of the
electric vehicles is synchronized to the path current frequency (20 kHz), the pickup side
converters are run either in the inverting or rectifier mode, which depends on the direction
 Energies 2023, 16, 2503 19 of 33

of the power flow. This creates a bidirectional power flow. The size and angle of the phase
difference between the voltages on the primary and pickup sides determine the direction
Energies 2023, 16, 2503 and amount of power flow. Power shifts from the pickup side to the primary side when 19 of
there is a leading phase angle. Moreover, the power shift is taken from the primary to the
pickup side when there is a trailing phase angle.

M1

Battery
Converter 2
M2

Battery
Converter 1 Converter 3

Battery
M3
Converter 4

Figure
Figure 19.19. Multiple
Multiple EVsEVs charger.
charger.

The The LCLLCL network

network filters out all
filters outthe
allhigh-order
the high-order harmonics, both voltage
harmonics, both and current,
voltage and curren
from the output side. On the primary or pickup side, a
from the output side. On the primary or pickup side, a phase-modulated square-wav phase-modulated square-wave
voltage is made by the same control systems comprising a triangular generator and a PI
voltage is made by the same control systems comprising a triangular generator and a P
controller. The demerit of this mechanism is that the voltage at the primary side must
becontroller.
kept normal The atdemerit
all conditionsof thistomechanism is that the
maintain a constant voltage
track currently. at theIt primary
is impossibleside must b
kept normal
without properly atusing
all conditions
the controlto in maintain
the primary a constant
side voltagetrack currently.
to change It is impossible
the pickup output with
out properly using the control in the primary side voltage
power, but the only way to control this is to change the voltage on the pickup side. In the to change the pickup outpu
power, but
literature [76],thethere onlyis anway
IPTto control
based on V2Gthistopology
is to change with the voltage ondelta-connected
a three-phase the pickup side. In th
magnetic
literature field connected
[76], there istoan a delta-connected
IPT based on V2G three-phase
topologypickup
with through an LCL-resonant
a three-phase delta-connecte
type network.
magnetic field connected to a delta-connected three-phase pickup through an LCL-reso
nantA type
three-phase
network. circuit and the pickup side can be coupled with a star configuration.
This structure can quickly charge or discharge EVs because it uses weak magnetic coupling.
A three-phase circuit and the pickup side can be coupled with a star configuratio
This three-phase inductive power transfer IPT-based vehicle-to-grid system is superior to
This structure can quickly charge or discharge EVs because it uses weak magnetic cou
its single-phase counterpart because it uses fewer track currents to send the same quantity
ofpling.
[Link] The three-phase
benefits include inductive
sendingpower
more power,transfer IPT-based
being more efficient, vehicle-to-grid
and requiring system
a is su
perior
small filter. to its single-phase counterpart because it uses fewer track currents to send the sam
quantity
In [11],ofthe power.
IPT-basedThe benefits
V2G system include
utilizessending more power,
two identical being converters,
back-to-back more efficient, an
comprising of a utility
requiring a small filter. grid side converter and a primary IPT, to convert energy into two
[Link] In [11],
the G2V mode, the primary side IPT modulates
the IPT-based V2G system utilizes two identical back-to-back voltage level through DC-linkconverter
into a resonance frequency of 20 kHz. The grid side converter
comprising of a utility grid side converter and a primary IPT, to convert energy into tw works as a rectifier at the
frequency of 50 Hz; resonance frequency (20 kHz) together into DC voltage to recharge the
stages. In the G2V mode, the primary side IPT modulates voltage level through DC-lin
electrical device with the IPT pickup converter.
intoDuring
a resonance frequency of 20 kHz. The grid side converter works as a rectifier at th
V2G mode, the inductive power transfer and pickup converter converts the
voltage of the EV batteryresonance
frequency of 50 Hz; into AC voltagefrequencyat the (20 kHz) together
resonance frequency. into DC voltage
Moreover, to recharg
the grid
the electrical
converter functionsdevice as anwith the IPT
inverter forpickup
the primary converter.
power grid frequency, while the IPT
converter DuringconvertsV2Gthe mode, the inductive
AC voltage power transfer
level somewhere and pickup
at the resonant converter
frequency. Figureconverts
20 th
voltage
shows theof IPT the EV battery
system. Because into of AC
the voltage
tuned LCCL at the resonance
resonant system, frequency.
which isMoreover,
operating the gri
using the current
converter source,as
functions theanhigh input inductor
inverter is no longer
for the primary needed.
power grid This system is made
frequency, while the IP
up of L , C , and C on the primary side of the converter and
converter converts the AC voltage level somewhere at the resonant frequency. Figure 2
1 2 1 L 2 , C 3 , and C 4 on the pickup
side of the converter. The inductance path of Lp is magnetically connected through the
shows the IPT system. Because of the tuned LCCL resonant system, which is operatin
M to the pickup side coil L1 . This keeps the primary side and pickup sides from being
using the current source, the high input inductor is no longer needed. This system is mad
electrically connected.
up of L1, C2, and C1 on the primary side of the converter and L2, C3, and C4 on the picku
side of the converter. The inductance path of Lp is magnetically connected through the M
to the pickup side coil L1. This keeps the primary side and pickup sides from being ele
trically connected.
EnergiesEnergies
2023, 16,2023,
250316, 2503 20 of2033of 34

S7 S5 S3 S1 S9 S10
L1 C1 C3 L2

Battery
Vin
C2 C4

S8 S6 S4 S2 S11 S12

Figure 20. Bidirectional

Figure converters
20. Bidirectional convertersfed
fedthe
the IPT system.
IPT system.

TheThe powerpower flowflow directionisiscontrolled

direction controlled by byan anopen
openloop loop control
control system
systemthatthat
accounts
accounts
for the phase shifting at pickup side converters. It needs
for the phase shifting at pickup side converters. It needs a high electrolytic capacitor a high electrolytic capacitor and and
a high inductor at the input side to reduce low-frequency ripples in the DC link. This
a high inductor at the input side to reduce low-frequency ripples in the DC link. This
increases the overall cost and system size and makes it less reliable. For a 1.1 kW design,
increases the overall cost and system size and makes it less reliable. For a 1.1 kW design,
the system always gives an efficiency of 87%. The system loses most of its power because
the system
of its copperalways lossgives
in the anL1 efficiency
and L2 inductorsof 87%. The system
connected loses
in series and most of its power
the cables, and due because
to
of its copper loss in the L
this reason, the average current value is higher, and the average value voltage is lower. The to
1 and L 2 inductors connected in series and the cables, and due
this grid
reason,
current thehas average
much current
harmonic value is higher,
distortion that isand verythe average
difficult value
to fix, and voltage
it is also is lower.
very
Thedifficult
grid currentto achieve hasamuch harmonic
unity power [Link]
The authorthat is very
in [11] suggesteddifficult to fix, and
an inductive it is also
charging
and discharging topology that uses the primary side of the
very difficult to achieve a unity power factor. The author in [11] suggested an inductive back-to-back converter [11] on
charging and discharging topology that uses the primary side of the back-to-backofcon-
the grid side and a half-bridge [77] converter on the pickup side to obtain a power factor
1 so[11]
verter thaton thethecurrent
grid andsidevoltage ripples on the[77]
and a half-bridge DCconverter
link side are onless.
the pickup side to obtain a
The semi-bridge converter works at a PWM frequency. In this topology, a DC capacitor
power factor of 1 so that the current and voltage ripples on the DC link side are less.
and pickup magnetic coupler are to be coupled in series to store or discharge energy to the
The In
load. semi-bridge
order to maintain converter worksstored
the energy at a PWM frequency.
or discharged from Inthe thiscapacitor,
topology, theavoltage
DC capac-
itor across
and pickup magnetic coupler are to be coupled
the semi-bridge is maintained constant by changing the duty cycle. in series to store or discharge energy
to the load. In order toIPT-based
A bidirectional maintain charging
the energy andstored or discharged
discharging system isfrom the capacitor,
described by using the
voltage across architecture
half-bridge the semi-bridge on theisgrid
maintained constant
side converter andby changing the
a voltage-fed duty
supply cycle.
half-bridge
method on the battery
A bidirectional side [78],
IPT-based as shown
charging andin discharging
Figure 21. The inductors
system L1 and L2 by
is described with using
the anti-paralleled coupled
half-bridge architecture on the grid side switches S and S
1 converter3 and S and
and
2 S at every
a voltage-fed
4 phase leg make
supply half-bridge up
the current-fed
method on the battery supply sideat [78],
the half-bridge
as shown converter
in Figureon [Link]
The grid side. Here,
inductors L1 andone Lpair of
2 with the
switches is turned ON, and the other switches and diode will create a free-wheeling path
anti-paralleled coupled switches S1 and S3 and S2 and S4 at every phase leg make up the
for current. The grid side IPT has a series-parallel combination of resonant tanks composed
current-fed
of Cp and supply
Lp . This at the
tankhalf-bridge
reduces theconverter
maximumon the grid
leakage from side.
theHere,
couplingoneinductor
pair of switches
and
is turned ON, and the other switches and diode will
reduces the switching stress on the grid-side converter. On the other side of the create a free-wheeling path for cur-
battery
[Link] grid side
a resonant tank,IPT has
i.e., LCamade
series-parallel
of Ls and C combination
s , which resonates of resonant
no matter tanks
how composed
much loadof Cp
andisLonp. This tank reduces
it. Mutual inductance theM maximum leakageasfrom
links the primary wellthe coupling
as pickup sidesinductor
[Link] reduces
In G2V
the mode,
switching the converter
stress onatthe thegrid-side
battery side functions
converter. On as the
a voltage-doubler
other side of the circuit, while
battery is the
a reso-
nantother
tank,converter
i.e., LC at madethe grid
of Lside
s and performs
Cs, which as aresonates
high-frequencyno matter [Link]
V2G mode, load is theon it.
converter
Mutual inductanceat the grid-side
M links functions
the primary as a current
as well doubler,
as pickup whilesides thetogether.
battery side In acts
G2Vasmode,a
high-frequency inverter. The variable switching frequency, 40–60 kHz, is modulated to
the converter at the battery side functions as a voltage-doubler circuit, while the other
change the duty cycle, which regulates the power flow in either mode, which can aid the
converter
device in at reaching
the gridZVS. side The
performs
full-load asefficiency
a high-frequency inverter.
of the converter In V2G
is above 90%.mode, the con-
verter atIn thethegrid-side
IPT system, functions
a matrixasconverter
a current doubler,
was utilizedwhile
[79] on thethebattery
primary side
[Link]
Theascost
a high-
frequency inverter. The variable switching frequency,
of the system can be reduced by changing AC frequency to HFAC at one stage and by 40–60 kHz, is modulated to change
the connecting
duty cycle,the which regulates
matrix-based the power
converter flow
on the gridinside
eitherandmode,
the primary [Link] aidvoltage
the device
level andZVS.
in reaching direction
Thecan also be efficiency
full-load changed byofadjusting
the converterthe magnitude
is aboveor90%. relative phase angle
of the primary side converter voltage and pickup side voltage. However, due to the lack of
a freewheeling path and increased complexity in the robust design, the application-based
systems become more complex. It was suggested in [69] that a matrix converter could
 Energies 2023, 16, 2503 21 of 33

have a single phase that should be self-tuned, and the primary side is equipped with a
matrix converter. The charging and discharging systems at the inductive grid side include
an LC resonant tank and four bidirectional switches. The lack of an intermediary DC
conversion stage and large capacitors at the DC bus means that it works at a resonant
frequency of 35 kHz, is dependable, and has power density. The system employs the
discrete-time sliding mode controlling [75] technique to manage the power flow and self-
tune the converter switching frequency into the IPT system resonant frequency. The power
electronic components are switched ON using the sliding mode control at resonant current
zero-crossing positions. However, the converter experiences an irregular charging current
at grid-side voltage zero-crossing places, which reduces the charging level. This erratic
charging current may shorten the battery’s working life. Based on the technique above, a
three-phase matrix converter-based charging and discharging system was discussed in [70].
The converter is installed, and the central grid side converter employs six bidirectional
switches, and each phase has two switches. The converter in dynamic IPT systems reaches
ZCS by self-tuning and tracking the 35 kHz resonant frequency, assuring excellent efficiency
of the inductive charging/discharging structure. The proposed converter exhibits the same
Energies 2023, 16, 2503 drawback as that of the battery, and it requires an LC filter at the output side to remove21 of 34
unwanted ripples.

S5
C
L1 L2
Lp Ls Cs

Battery
C2 C1 Cp
DC Bus

S1 S2 S6 C

S3 S4

Figure 21. Current fed bidirectional converter topology.

Figure 21. Current fed bidirectional converter topology.

In the IPTitsystem,
In [74], a matrix
is suggested converter
that an inductive was utilized [79] on system
charger/discharger the primaryutilizesside. The cost
a single-
of the system
phase matrixcan be reduced
topology. However,by the
changing
topology AC frequency
is the to HFAC
same as [69], at onefrequency
and resonant stage and by
tracking is
connecting theused to make this
matrix-based converteron
converter work
the consistently
grid side and with
thethe resonant
primary current.
side. It
The voltage
utilizes the quantum energy injection and regeneration concept to regulate
level and direction can also be changed by adjusting the magnitude or relative phase angle how much
energy
of the can beside
primary stored in the resonant
converter voltagetank
andand how side
pickup muchvoltage.
energy flows
However, betweenduegrid-to-
to the lack
vehicle and vehicle-to-grid modes. In this case, the resonant tank receives energy from the
of a freewheeling path and increased complexity in the robust design, the application-
grid, which is tuned to match the half cycles of the resonant current.
based systems
To makebecome
sure thatmore complex.
devices It was suggested
switch smoothly, in [69] that
they are operated at thea points
matrixwhere
converter
could have a single phase that should be self-tuned, and the primary
the resonant current crosses zero. The converter’s efficiency is more than 90% for high side is equipped
with a matrix
power converter.
transfer, which canThebecharging
a positive and discharging
indication. systems
Ref. [80] discusses at the
thebidirectional
inductive grid IPT side
include an LC
structure, resonant
which couldtank
holdand four
a huge airbidirectional
gap of 12–20 switches. The lack
cm. The system of anup
is made intermediary
of two
DCidentical
conversionfull-bridge BADCs
stage and on capacitors
large the primaryatsides
the and
DC pickup
bus meanssides,that
which are detached
it works by
at a resonant
a high-frequency transformer. These converters work at expected frequencies
frequency of 35 kHz, is dependable, and has power density. The system employs the dis- composed
crete-time sliding mode controlling [75] technique to manage the power flow and self-
tune the converter switching frequency into the IPT system resonant frequency. The
power electronic components are switched ON using the sliding mode control at resonant
current zero-crossing positions. However, the converter experiences an irregular charging
Energies 2023, 16, 2503 22 of 33

of self-inductance and resonating capacitance. For a maximum load of 6.4 kW, the power
transfer efficiency lies between 88.1% and 95.3% for an air gap of 12 to 20 cm. Bac et al.
glanced into a G2V power flow IPT system with a SiC-based matrix converter methodology.
The converter has a surprisingly low efficiency of 85% when the gap of the coil is as small
as 12 cm and delivers 300 W of power in the G2V mode [81].

4. Comparison of Different Charging/Discharging Systems

The different kinds of charging and discharging systems for vehicle-to-grid are dis-
cussed in the above sections. In order to obtain the ideal system for vehicle-to-grid ap-
plications, it is essential to compare these systems. The difference between the different
types of charging lots is shown in Table 2; for charger/discharger systems, it can be hard to
establish the specific condition for making the analysis among all the available systems. A
few of these criteria have been proposed, and Table 3 compares the different systems based
on these criteria. It should be emphasized that there is significant conductive overlap. Such
systems have been eliminated from the discussion and non-integrated structures with other
classes.

Table 2. Cohesive operation of different types of charger and dischargers lots.

Discharging
On-board Off-board Integrated Non-integrated Conductive Inductive
On-board Yes No Yes Yes Yes -
Charging

Off-board No Yes No Yes Yes -

Integrated Yes No Yes No Yes No
Non-integrated Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes
Conductive Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No
Inductive - - No Yes No Yes

Table 3. Comparison based on different types of charging and discharging systems.

Capacity of Efficiency of
Cost, Weight, and Practical
Infrastructure Charging and Charging and
Volume Challenges
Discharging Discharging
On-board and Less cost, weight,
Huge Less Medium Huge
non-integrated and volume
Off-board Less Huge Huge Huge More risk
Generation of flux
Integrated Less Less Huge Medium
can be produced
Less capability
Inductive Huge Huge Less Less
of power transfer

When the various systems are compared using the suggested criteria, it becomes
clear that integrated charger/discharger systems now represent the most affordable option
for V2G applications. The issue of electromagnetic flux creation, though used in the
V2G and G2V modes, results in an idle driving torque electric vehicle, which must be
appropriately responded to. System reconfiguration has been used to address these issues
by employing multi-phase motors with auxiliary switches, which makes the system more
expensive and complex. Only if the challenges posed by their poorer efficiency and power
transfer performance are overcome will inductive systems compete with their conductive
counterparts in V2G applications.
Furthermore, it is essential to carefully position the primary and pickup coils to
increase the power transmission rate, raising doubts about the practicality of inductive
Energies 2023, 16, 2503 23 of 33

charging/discharging system arrangements. Systems with off-board can be designed to

enable quick charging and discharging of electric vehicles because they are less constrained
by size than on-board systems. However, to implement V2G via off-board devices, the
government organization or utility grid must construct the supplied equipment throughout
all of the cities and towns in a given state or country, which would necessitate a substantial
investment. Due to this, since most electric vehicles are plug-in hybrid electric vehicles
(PHEVs) with medium-sized batteries, for the on-board, it appears that a non-integrated
charging and discharging system is, due to its ease, the ideal choice for V2G applications. It
offers versatility and a respectable charging and discharging speed. The current study aims
to increase the ability to lower the cost of achieving S.A.E. Level-3 compliance for on-board
systems Size and price.

5. Energy Management in EV
This section discusses the features of the proposed electric vehicle charging and
discharging scheduling algorithm, together with the energy management scheme of the
microgrid. It is presumed that each electric vehicle has access to a bidirectional EV charger
coupled with a PV-based charging station and may either charge or discharge its battery.
The two-way electric vehicle charger allows the user to control the connected EV’s ability
to switch between discharging and charging operations. Depending on the fluctuating
patterns of the local load profile and PV power output, the maximum amount of electricity
that can be discharged from parked electric vehicles is made available. According to the
EV’s data, any parked electric vehicle becomes a potential participant in a charging or
discharging process. Then, depending upon the EV charging/discharging candidates, a
“charging”, “discharging”, or “idle” action is given to the transfer function of each parked
EV using the multi-objective process. The switching feature of each electric vehicle is
applied to the multi-objective optimization in order to simultaneously take into account
the operating cost of PV-based charging stations, PV power usage, grid reliance, utilization
of EVs, current state of charge (SOC) values of EVs, and the residual parking time of
EVs. Figure 22 demonstrates the flowchart of (V2G and G2V, RES and no EV) to obtain
the estimated result of various successful EV outcomes while integrating 10 EVs. This is
performed in order to gain knowledge of how each EV will interact with one another.
 Energies2023,
Energies 16,2503
2023,16, 2503 24 24
ofof3433

Start

T = Constant

Read PV
hourly data

Set the initial state of charge (SOC)

SOCmax = 100%
SOCmin = 20%

Create the random SOC data for EVs

Implement the uniform distributions

for EVs

Analyse the system for the following 3

cases
1. G2V
2. V2G
3. No EVs

NO
T > Constant

Yes

Obtain the impact on load under the

following cases
1. Discharge (V2G)
2. Charge (G2V)
3. No EV integrated
4. RES to vehicle
5. Battery to vehicle

End

Figure
Figure22.
[Link]
Flowchartofof(V2G
(V2Gand
andG2V,
G2V,RES
RESand
andno
noEV)
EV)totoobtain
obtainthe
theestimation
estimationresult
resultofofvarious
various
successful EV outcomes.
successful EV outcomes.

[Link]
RecentTrends
Trends
Integrating
IntegratingV2G
V2Gnetworks
networksintointoelectricity
electricitygrids
gridsisisa adifficult
difficulttask
taskinincharging
chargingstations.
stations.
According
AccordingtotothetheV2G
V2Gtheory,
theory,electric
electricvehicle
vehicleowners
ownershavehavetotocharge
chargetheir
theircars
carsatatoff-peak
off-peak
timesand
times anddischarge
dischargethem
thematathigh
highpeaks
peakstotoassist
assistthe
thegrid
gridutility
utilityfunction.
[Link],
However,this this
chargingand
charging anddischarging
discharging assumption
assumption is frequently
is frequently disregarded
disregarded by byEVEV owners,
owners, leading
leading to
antoerratic
an erratic pattern
pattern of EVofcharging
EV charging and discharging
and discharging in a V2G in asystem.
V2G system. This results
This results in insta-in
instability
bility in voltage,
in voltage, powerpower restrictions,
restrictions, disturbances
disturbances in harmonics,
in harmonics, distribution
distribution losses inlosses
the
in the low-voltage grid, and a shorter operational life span of cables and distribution
Energies 2023, 16, 2503 25 of 33

transformers [82]. When compared to V2G, the issue is worse in G2V mode. Employing
renewable resources such as solar systems and wind energy in an intelligent grid-based
future architecture can relieve the issues above [82–110].
Grid-tied energy storage devices are usually necessary for intermittent renewable-fed
electric grids to provide a steady power supply. The concept behind connecting vehicle-
to-grid systems with renewable sources-fed grids is to temporarily store fluctuating elec-
tricity produced during off-peak hours by renewable sources in the batteries of numerous
connected electric vehicles. This reduces or eliminates the requirement for expensive grid-
coupled energy storage devices and aids in boosting the electric vehicle without affecting
the grid’s operation. Through V2G, the grid is fed with the battery capacity of numerous
linked electric vehicles during peak hours to make up for any energy shortages. As a result,
the grid’s stability, dependability, and efficiency are restored [82]. The grid is employed
to provide power to charge linked electric vehicles. The power supplied from renewable
energy sources is insufficient to satisfy those demands.
The grid-side energy demand will be significantly decreased because renewable
energy can be produced locally. Refs. [83–85] offer a comprehensive analysis of the effects
of connecting V2G networks and renewable energy sources. Solar photovoltaic (PV) is
one of the most recommended nonconventional sources for its integration into charging
and discharging systems. Refs. [86,87] examined a variety of system topologies for electric
vehicles and photovoltaic hybrid charging and discharging. For connecting photovoltaic
arrays and electric vehicles to the AC grid through a common bus, multiport convert-
ers are typically used in integrated renewable sources-based charging and discharging
stations [88–90].
This system allows for connecting numerous PV arrays and EVs using a single in-
dependent multiport converter. A significant high-power BADC supplied by numerous
multiport transforms the DC bus voltage. Converters convert from grid voltage to AC
power. If the case common bus is AC, the isolated multiport converter can contain the
BADC for connecting the utility grid, increasing the system’s control flexibility and fault
tolerance. The requirement of one BADC increases the cost of the system under this architec-
ture for each multiport converter. It has also been suggested that multiplexing EV chargers
and dischargers could lower the infrastructure for charging and discharging systems. A
single EV charger/discharger is used to charge/discharge several long-parked EVs [91].
PV array power is in the form of DC, and the voltage obtained is less than the DC-bus
voltage. Therefore, a UDC must be used to boost the DC voltage because it cannot be used
directly to charge the EV battery. Additionally, PV converters use MPPT [92] algorithms
to regulate the sporadic power produced by PV arrays to match the constant DC voltage.
Because of its high gain in voltage and a low number of components, non-isolated boost
UDC with maximum power point tracking provides the most recommended PV converter
methodology [86,93,94]. In [95], a three-phase interleaved boost UDC with MPPT based
on SiC was studied to implement in PV converters. In [93], a boost UDC and a Z source
network are employed to exhibit improved voltage gain. Here, the BDC is eliminated by
directly connecting the EV battery to a three-phase full-bridge BADC on one side and the
PV converter on the other.
The charging/discharging system in [96] was evaluated using a quasi-Z-source net-
work, which showed an increasingly wider range of input–output voltage at a greater
price and larger size. Authors in [89,94,97,98] and in [86,89,91,93,97–99] suggested a non-
isolated buck–boost BDC and single-phase or three-phase full-bridge BADC, both used in
integrated renewable EV charging/discharging systems. The charging and discharging
system suggested in [94] was recommended to use a four-legged unidirectional voltage
inverter topology. Its major function is to change the DC voltage output of the PV converter.
The major drawback is that the usage of two inverters increases the cost of the system.
In [97,98], the systems for high power transfer employ a buck–boost-based BDC with two
interleaved phases that are not isolated.
Energies 2023, 16, 2503 26 of 33

The safety reasons for HF isolation between the utility grid and the electric vehicle is
desirable [86]. However, the non-isolated buck–boost converter mentioned falls under this
criterion. According to standards [100], isolation between linked EVs is desirable when
connecting numerous EVs. As a result, researchers also investigated transformers with
multi-winding, which has only one winding on one side but more windings on the other
side. Care should be taken while designing the transformer and the complex controller.
However, standards are not required for isolating between the AC or DC bus and the
photovoltaic system. The bi-directional power flow is discussed in [88].
A three-phase transformer with one winding on one side charges or discharges a
battery bank by the six-legged structure of BADC. The other side of the transformer has
two windings that connect the AC network through a three-phase matrix converter and
an electric vehicle battery through a three-full-bridge-based BADC to make a multiport
converter, which was proposed in [101]. This high-power multiport converter can connect
through V2G without incorporating renewable energy systems. Additionally, the network
is quite expensive due to the heavy use of switching devices.
A three-port SiC-based high power-density charging/discharging system connecting
photovoltaic, EVs, and the grid, was suggested in [90]. There has been the use of a three-
phase interleaved boost structure for a three-phase full-bridge architecture has been utilized
in the PV boost converter. It is employed for the grid-tied BADC, whereas the EV-side
BDC has a single interleaved four-stage flyback topology. In [99], the author described the
structure where a grid and EV are connected through a quasi-Z-source boost converter.
The charging/discharging system incorporates a double-winding HF isolated transformer,
where each PV converter’s winding is linked to a half-bridge on the PV side of the BDC.
An integrated charger and discharger used for on-board charging stations were studied
by Hsu et al., in addition to the AC grid using an off-board boost converter [102]. The vehicle
on-board non-isolated buck–boost based BDC, which has the capability of regenerative
braking and feeds the permanent magnet DC motor. The interconnected charger/discharger
system uses a full-bridge BADC, and the motor windings are used as energy storage
inductors that were added externally as grid interfacing to enable the power flows from
G2V and V2G [105].
Due to geographical limitations, wind energy conversion systems (WECS) and electric
vehicle combinations have not received as much research as photovoltaic solar arrays [103].
Common parts of a WECS include a turbine, a generator, a converter, and a maximum
power point controller. WECS-integrated smart grids that facilitate V2G have been the
subject of some literature studies [92,104,105]. The wind-powered system for discharging
and charging described in [92] employs a leading, high-power, three-phase full-bridge
BADC and 15 separate DAB BDCs. to enable the continuous charging/discharging of
15 EVs.
Solar and wind-powered hybrid charging and discharging systems that work with
EVs have been documented in [106,107]. A hybrid PHEV [108] with a photovoltaic array
and a small wind power turbine is suggested in place of the internal combustion engine.
The PHEV allows G2V and V2G, which makes the weight of the electric vehicle. IPT
for integration of renewable charging and discharging systems, which offer the essential
separation between the EV and the grid and numerous linked electric vehicles, have also
been examined. These works use converters on the primary and pickup sides comparable
to those suggested in [9].
Currently, research is concentrated on innovative electric vehicle charging and dis-
charging, which is anticipated to impact the creation of global energy regulations sub-
stantially. The EV can be continuously charged and discharged from a renewable energy
source, and the integrated grid is emphasized by the notion that charging and discharging
allow the power consumption to be monitored and regulated in line with the requirements
of the grid [83,109,110]. In this case, estimates for optimization methods and renewable
energy will be used to determine how closely EV charging patterns should mimic low-cost
energy sources, including renewable power generation and off-peak hours [84,91,104].
Energies 2023, 16, 2503 27 of 33

This idea will also minimize the grid impact of large-scale EVs charging and discharging
simultaneously. It will help additional renewable sources obtain adoption by offering a
significant amount of energy storage for erratic renewable energy.
Additionally, V2G enables the assurance of other services such as frequency control,
compensation of reactive power, the possibility of load balancing, peak load shaving,
voltage control, active power management, and reactive power adjustment [7,104]. It will
enhance the performance and functioning of the smart grid integration in the future for
renewable energy. The global energy economy will change due to the lower cost of EV
charging of the integrated EV and renewable energy smart grid in the future [104].

7. Inferences from the Review

The electronic switches include silicon carbide and gallium nitride. They have proper-
ties such as high breakdown voltage, band gap, saturation velocity, and thermal conductiv-
ity, which result in huge power handling capacity but are smaller in size and produce fewer
losses, which are of both unidirectional and bidirectional conducting nature. GaN devices
are used for low-power applications (<600 V) and provide excellent switching performance.
For the eight-switch topology, the BADC is operated as an active rectifier when operated
during G2V mode and as a regulated source during V2G mode, which can contribute
to maintaining the power factor of the grid. Two different modes of operation could be
set as inverter and rectifier under motoring mode and regenerative mode, respectively.
The structure can improve reliability by decreasing the THD level. Thus, the system can
produce an efficiency of not less than 97% in both modes of operation when choosing a
wide range of voltage, even though the applications of BADC suffer from more conduction
loss. In three-level topology, the BADC functions as an active rectifier when it is set to the
G2V mode. When operating in the V2G mode, BADC operates as a regulated source of
current that contributes power to the utility grid for maintaining the power factor.
In single-stage topology, variable dependent load frequency is maintained with the
frequency ranges from 20 kHz to 120 kHz, but the frequency level is maintained less during
low load conditions. However, the half-bride topology is replaced by the full-bride topology
on the input side, leading to increased power devices. Topology based on a matrix converter
is typically for power frequency to AC grid voltage conversion into high-frequency ac
grid voltage; it requires the AC voltage to DC voltage and DC to AC conversion stages,
and more extensive and pricier capacitors are required. However, these large and costly
components are eliminated by matrix converters.
In isolated topologies, galvanic isolation, the flexibility of control, the soft-switching
capability of soft-switching, less stress in voltage, higher efficiency, high capability of
power, density, symmetrical, expandable design, enhanced bidirectional type DC-DC
converters (BDCs), and a capacity of power flow are some of the key benefits of the DAB
architecture. Because of the absence of the high-frequency isolation transformer, the benefits
of non-isolated methodology are fewer switches and passive components, lesser costs, and
a minimum footprint than isolated methodology. For non-isolated type topologies, it
has been reported that a FB type of bidirectional converter linked with a non-isolated
buck–boost converter can regulate both real power and reactive powers. In resonant
topologies, researchers are investigating substantially larger attention to resonant-type
DC-DC converters for a large range of voltage applications. As they do not require clamp
or snubber circuitry, they provide incredibly high operation on high frequency, outstanding
efficiency, minimal electromagnetic interference, and lesser components. Additionally, the
bidirectional DC-DC converter has a sluggish overvoltage response.

8. Conclusions
A thriving technology called vehicle-to-grid (V2G) enables EVs to function as dis-
tributed resources that may store or release energy whenever required, enabling a bidirec-
tional power transfer between the grid and the EV. This increases the overall capacity for
power generation while simultaneously improving the grid stability, dependability, and
Energies 2023, 16, 2503 28 of 33

efficiency. Bi-directional electronic converters are commonly incorporated to enable the

power flow between G2V and V2G. These converters have been successfully developed
and applied in V2G systems. This work examined the different BADC and BDC topolo-
gies used in any V2G systems. Additionally, a comparative investigation is made and
determined the best architecture for V2G applications. For the V2G applications, different
charger/discharger system designs, including on-board and off-board, integrated and
non-integrated, and conductive and inductive, were examined.
According to the review, a typical V2G connection bidirectional charging and discharg-
ing mechanism should conform to the following: (a) prompt response to a momentary
requirement of load; (b) manipulation of the grid and EV; (c) efficient high power transfer;
(d) high density for fast charging; (e) reducing losses due to switching, device stress, and
EMI by simple power switching; (f) fewer components and high-frequency operation to
reduce size and price; (g) a straightforward and effective control excellent reliability for
widespread deployment and system; (h) correction of the power factor grid’s stability and
low harmonic distortion; and (i) must meet the standards and specifications for connectivity.
In contrast to modern EVs that use huge batteries, the majority of bidirectional con-
verters created for V2G connections have a rated power below 10 kW, which is noticeably
low. One of the critical reasons for this low power rating is a restriction of power. Of
course, one way to raise the converter power rating is to connect power devices in parallel,
which increases the system cost and footprint. SiC and GaN are the two wide bandgap
semiconductors that have opened up new possibilities for developing highly efficient
bidirectional converters that can quickly discharge or charge EV batteries. The recent
research on intelligent EV charging and discharging can also improve the functionality and
performance of the planned framework for an intelligent grid integrated with renewable
energy sources.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, S.P. and P.V.; methodology, N.R.; software, M.B.; valida-
tion, S.P., N.R. and P.V.; formal analysis, V.B., L.P. and S.M.; investigation, M.B.; resources, L.P.; data
curation, V.B.; writing—original draft preparation, S.P., P.V. and N.R.; writing—review and editing,
S.P., P.V. and N.R.; visualization, M.B., V.B., L.P. and S.M.; supervision, V.B.; project administration,
L.P.; funding acquisition, V.B., L.P., S.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: This paper was supported by the following projects: TN02000025 “National Centre for
Energy II”, and project CK04000060 “Developing analytical tools for an effective transition to elec-
tromobility” and Government of India, Department of Science and Technology (DST) Science and
Engineering Research Board (SERB) Core Research Grant C.R.G./2020/004073.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Nomenclature

V2G Vehicle–grid
EV Electric vehicle
G2V Grid–vehicle
DC Direct current
AC Alternate current
ICE Internal composition engine
PHEV Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle
IC Internal composition
RES Renewable energy sources
THD Total harmonic distortion
PV Photo voltaic
Energies 2023, 16, 2503 29 of 33

SiC Silicon carbide

BADC Bidirectional AC-DC Converter
V2H vehicle-home
FB Full bridge
PRC Proportional resonant controller
PSO Particle swarm optimization
FOC Field-oriented control
PFC Power factor correction
ZVS Zero-voltage switching
SPWM Sinusoidal pulse width modulation
PWM Pulse width modulation
PLL Phase-locked loop
VA Voltage ampere
EMI Electromagnetic interference
DAB Dual active bridge
BDC Bidirectional DC-DC converters
ZCS Zero current switching
HV High voltage
LV Low voltage
MOSFET Metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor
IPT Inductive power transfer

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