MACRONUTRIENTS

Module 1: Aspects of Nutrition

Course 1
Presented by: Derek Strong, DC

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 Objectives

• Review carbohydrates, proteins,

and fats
• Outline human requirements
and food sources of each

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 Food is Energy

There are three basic elements in our

diets:
1. Macronutrients—the proteins, fats,
and carbohydrates that are the
building blocks of all food
2. Micronutrients—vitamins and
minerals
3. Phytonutrients—plant-derived
substances that have a positive
effect on health

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Macronutrients

P roteins

F ats/Oils

C arbohydrates

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 Macronutrients

Proteins
Fats/Oils
Carbohydrates

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 Proteins
Sources and chemical nature

Animal proteins can be generally divided into two kinds:

Fibrous proteins - primarily structural
• Used in connective tissue (Collagen, keratin, etc.)
Globular proteins – 3 main functions
• Enzymes
• Cellular messengers
• Molecular transporters

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 Proteins
Sources and chemical nature

Plant proteins (gluten) can be generally divided into two kinds:

1. Glutelins
• Glutenin – wheat
• Hordenin – barley
• Orzynenin – rice
2. Prolamines – insoluble in water
• Gliadin – wheat
• Hordein – barley
• Zein – corn

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 Functions of Dietary Proteins
Summary of essential key functions

• Growth and maintenance

• Proteins form integral parts of most body structures such as
skin, tendons, membranes, muscles, organs and bones. As
such, they support the growth and repair of body tissues.
• Enzymes
• Proteins facilitate chemical reactions.
• Hormones
• Proteins regulate body processes. (Some, but not all,
hormones are made of protein.)
• Antibodies
• Proteins inactivate foreign invaders, thus protecting the
body against diseases.

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 Functions of Dietary Proteins
Summary of essential key functions

• Fluid and electrolyte balance. Proteins help to maintain

the fluid volume and the composition of the body fluids.
• Acid-base balance. Proteins help maintain the acid-base
balance of body fluids by acting as buffers.
• Transportation. Proteins transport substances, such as
lipids, vitamins, minerals and oxygen around the body.
• Energy. Proteins provide some fuel for the body’s energy
needs.

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 Indispensable (Essential) Amino Acids
Essential amino acids, also called limiting amino acids, are those that cannot be
produced in our body and therefore have to be obtained from food sources.
Examples include:
• Tryptophan: Necessary for the synthesis of • Lysine: Component of muscle protein, and is
neurotransmitter serotonin. It helps relieve needed in the synthesis of enzymes and
migraine and depression. hormones. It is also a precursor for L-
carathine which is essential for healthy
• Tyrosine: Is precursor of dopamine, nervous system function.
norepinephrine and adrenaline. It enhances
positive mood. It is also antioxidant. • Methionine: Is an antioxidant and helps in
breakdown of fats and aids in reducing
• Valine: Essential for muscle development. muscle degeneration.
Side effects of high levels of valine in the
body include hallucinations. • Phenylalanine: Beneficial for healthy
nervous system. It boosts memory and
• Isoleucine: Necessary for the synthesis of learning. It may be useful against depression
hemoglobin, major constituent of red blood and suppressing appetite.
cells.
• Leucine: Beneficial for skin, bone and tissue
wound healing. It promotes growth hormone
synthesis.

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 Dispensable Non-Essential Amino Acids

• Serine: Constituent of brain proteins and aids in the synthesis of immune system proteins. It
is also good for muscle growth.
• Taurine: Necessary for proper brain function and synthesis of amino acids. It is important in
the assimilation of mineral nutrients such as magnesium, calcium and potassium.
• Threonine: Balances protein level in the body. It promotes immune system. It is also
beneficial for the synthesis of tooth enamel and collagen.
• Asparagine: It helps promote equilibrium in the central nervous system—aids in balancing
state of emotion.
• Aspartic acid: Enhances stamina, aids in removal of toxins and ammonia from the body, and
beneficial in the synthesis of proteins involved in the immune system.
• Proline: Plays role in intracellular signaling.
• L-arginine: Plays role in blood vessel relaxation and removal of excess ammonia from the
body.

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 Some amino acids are essential in particular conditions:

• For growth in infants, histidine is also needed.

• For antioxidant defense and detoxification, cysteine requirement cannot
be met due to diminished trans sulfuration capacity. Thus, cysteine is
considered a conditionally essential amino acid.
• Methionine can be converted to SAM to be used as a methyl donor for
genetic SNP variances.
• During episodes of infection, inflammation other type of catabolic stress
and malnutrition, glutamine is considered as a conditionally essential
amino acid.
• Taurine is postulated as an indispensable substrate and potent
antioxidant during catabolic stress.

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 Recommendations for Protein Intake
RDA for protein is:
.8 grams per kg of body weight
.36 X lbs
Example: 165 lbs X .36 = 59 grams

National Academy of Sciences recommend:

10%-30% of calories per day

Protein. The Nutrition Source. [Link] Published August 9, 2016.

The Protein Myth. Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine. [Link] Published November 15, 2016.
Sienkiewicz Sizer F, Whitney E. Nutrition Concepts & Controversies. 12th ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning; 2011.

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 Hypoproteinemia
Protein deficiency

Our body has little capacity to store protein

Must be able to digest and absorb
Must get adequate amounts, based on our needs

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 Protein Deficiency

Absorption can vary:

• Stomach acid
• Enzymes
• Bacteria
• Gut function
• Age
• Liver

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 Protein Deficiency Symptoms

• Increased infection and illness

• Decreased muscle mass (sarcopenia)
• Swelling in legs
• Slower wound healing
• The current Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) for protein is defined as the
minimum amount required to prevent lean body mass loss

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 Protein Deficiency

A 2016 study concluded that older adults should eat more protein than is currently
recommended to promote healthy aging.
Higher protein intakes may help prevent age-related sarcopenia, the loss of muscle mass, and
strength that predisposes older adults to frailty, disability, and loss of autonomy

Appl. Physiol. Nutr. Metab. 41(5): 565–572 (2016) [Link]

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 Sources of Proteins
Animal Proteins Proteins from animal sources are considered to be “complete” proteins, because they
contain all of the amino acids your body needs to get from food (known collectively as
essential amino acids). Animal proteins include meat, poultry, eggs, fish, and shellfish.

Plant Proteins Most plant proteins are considered to be “incomplete”, because they do not contain all
of the essential amino acids. High-protein vegetables include dark leafy greens (collard
greens, spinach, mustard greens, etc.), asparagus, Bok choy, broccoli, Brussels sprouts,
and cauliflower. Foods like tofu, tempeh, and spirulina are also plant proteins.
Protein Powders Protein powders are usually added to smoothies and other blended foods for an extra
protein boost. They can be an inexpensive and convenient addition to a balanced diet,
especially for athletes, the elderly, or people with digestive issues. Protein powders are
made from either animal protein (whey, casein, beef, or eggs) or plant protein (soy, rice,
pea, hemp, or sprouted grains).
Beans and Legumes Beans and legumes are good sources of both protein and carbohydrates. They also
contain other vitamins and minerals like folate (vitamin B9), potassium, iron, and
magnesium.
Dairy Products Dairy products like milk and yogurt are good sources of both protein and carbohydrates.
Cheese is also a good protein source, but is low in carbohydrates. Note that not everyone
can digest dairy properly, and dairy is not necessary to include in a balanced diet. For
those who choose to consume dairy, full-fat and organic sources are preferred.
Nuts and Seeds Nuts and seeds are sources of both protein and fat. They also contain many other
vitamins an
minerals like magnesium, zinc, selenium, and copper.
Macronutrients: Proteins. 2017. The Institute for Functional Medicine.

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 Protein Utilization

Eggs 48%
Meat/Fish 32%
Dairy/Whey 17%
Soy 17%

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 Fundamentals of
Functional Nutrition

Macronutrients
Proteins
Fats/Oils
Carbohydrates
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 Fats/Lipids

The lipids of physiological importance for humans exert the following major functions:

1. They serve as structural components of biological membranes.

2. They provide energy reserves, predominantly in the form of triglycerides.
3. Lipids and lipid derivatives serve as biologically active molecules exerting a wide
range of functions.
4. Lipophilic bile acids aid in emulsification, digestion and absorption of dietary
lipids as well as being a form of bioactive lipids.

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 Lipid Subclasses

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 Fatty Acids

Organic compounds that are made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen

Most concentrated source of energy in foods
Come in liquid or solid form
Can be called very saturated or very unsaturated depending on their proportions

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 Fatty Acids Functions

Raw materials that help in the control of blood pressure, blood clotting, inflammation,
and other body functions
Storage & insulation
Promote proper growth of skin, hair and nails
Fat helps in the absorption, and transport through the bloodstream of the fat-soluble
vitamins A, D, E, and K
Behavior/mood
Supply fuel (kcals) to the body

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 Fatty Acid Classification

According to chain length:

• Short chain FA: 2-4 carbon atoms
• Medium chain FA: 6 –10 carbon atoms
• Long chain FA: 12 –26 carbon atoms

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Fatty Acid Families
Essential Fatty Acids (EFAs)
• Linoleic Acid (Omega-6) from plants or
vegetable oils
• ALA (Omega-3) from
flaxseed/oil/eggs/walnuts
• EPA & DHA (Omega-3) from cold water
fish

Non-essential Fatty Acids

• Saturated fatty acids (SFAs) from dairy
and meats
• Monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs)
from avocados and olives
• Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs)
from nuts and seeds
• Trans-fatty acids (TFAs) from processed
foods

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 Sterols

Sterols are a subgroup of the steroids and occur naturally in plants, animals, and fungi,
and can be also produced by some bacteria.

The most familiar type of animal sterol is cholesterol, which is vital to cell membrane
structure, and functions as a precursor to fat-soluble vitamins and steroid hormones.

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 Cholesterol Synthesis

The cellular supply of cholesterol is maintained at a steady level by three distinct

mechanisms:

1. Regulation of HMGR activity and levels

2. Regulation of excess intracellular free cholesterol through the activity of sterol

O-acyltransferases, SOAT1 and SOAT2 with SOAT2 being the predominant
activity in liver.

3. Regulation of plasma cholesterol levels via LDL receptor-mediated uptake and

HDL-mediated reverse transport.

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 How much fat should we eat?

The dietary reference intake (DRI) for fat in adults is 20%-35% of total calories from
fat.

That is about 44 grams to 77 grams if you eat 2,000 calories a day

• Monounsaturated fat: 15% to 20%
• Polyunsaturated fat: 5% to 10%
• Saturated fat: less than 10%
• Trans fat: 0%
• Cholesterol: less than 300 mg per day

[Link]
,Total%20fat,because%20they%20provide%20health%20benefits.

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 Bad Data and New Data

For decades fat has been blamed for heart disease

According to an article titled “Fat, Sugar, Whole Grains and Heart Disease: 50 Years of
Confusion” published in the National Library of Medicine….
There is an almost complete absence of evidence from RCTs regarding the effect of
replacing dietary fat with carbohydrates on the incidence of CHD.

Temple NJ. Fat, Sugar, Whole Grains and Heart Disease: 50 Years of Confusion. Nutrients. 2018;10(1):39. Published 2018 Jan 4. doi:10.3390/nu10010039

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 Bad Data and New Data

A study in the British Journal of sports medicine states that “Saturated fat does not
clog the arteries: coronary heart disease is a chronic inflammatory condition, the risk
of which can be effectively reduced from healthy lifestyle interventions”

Malhotra A, Redberg RF, Meier P. Saturated fat does not clog the arteries: coronary heart disease is a chronic inflammatory condition, the risk of which can
be effectively reduced from healthy lifestyle interventions British Journal of Sports Medicine 2017;51:1111-1112.

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 How much fat should we eat?

Depends on your calorie requirements for weight loss or maintenance. It’ll also be
based on your eating style and diet.
• Ketogenic diet
• Mediterranean diet
• Types of fats
• Ability to digest fats

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 How much fat should we eat?

2020-2025 Dietary Guidelines for Americans no longer specifies an upper limit for how
much total fat you should consume.

U.S. Department of Agriculture and U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2020-2025. 9th Edition.
December 2020. Available at [Link].

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 Symptoms of too little fat in diet

• Hunger – fat provides satiety

• Dry skin – fats help absorb vitamins D and A
• ADEK are all fat-soluble vitamins
• Mental fatigue – omega-3 improves cognition
• Menstrual cycle problems – fats are needed to make hormones

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 Summary of Lipid Benefits

Support metabolism
Cell signaling
Health of various body tissues
Anti-inflammatory
Hormone production
Absorption of nutrients
Hunger Satiation

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 Fundamentals of
Functional Nutrition

Macronutrients
Proteins
Fats/Oils
Carbohydrates
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 Carbohydrates Classes

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 Carbohydrate Starch

Starch is a homopolysaccharide formed by units of glucose and the storage form of

carbohydrates in plants.
Present into vegetable cells and contains two types of homopolysaccharides, amylose
and amylopectin.
It is synthesized by the most part of vegetable cells and stored especially in seeds (e.g.
cereals and legumes), tubers (e.g. potatoes), roots (e.g. those of carrots) and some
fruits (e.g. green banana).

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 Classification of Starch

Depending on the different velocity and degree of hydrolysis by alpha-amylase, starch

can be classified in three classes:

1. Rapidly digestible starch

2. Slowly digestible starch
3. Resistant starch

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 Resistant Starch

Evidence suggests that SCFAs may benefit us in many ways. Examples include:

• Stimulate blood flow to the colon

• Increase nutrient circulation
• Inhibit the growth of pathogenic bacteria
• Assist in mineral absorption
• Help prevention of absorbing toxic/carcinogenic compounds

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 Dietary Fiber
Dietary fiber or “roughage” is the indigestible portion of food derived from plants. It
has two main components:
1. Soluble fiber
2. Insoluble fiber

Examples include:
• Legumes
• Oats, rye, chia, and barley
• Some fruits (including figs, avocados, plums, prunes, berries, ripe bananas, and
the skin of apples, quinces and pears)
• Certain vegetables such as broccoli, carrots, and Jerusalem artichokes
• Root tubers and root vegetables such as sweet potatoes and onions (skins of
these are sources of insoluble fiber also)
• Psyllium seed husks (a mucilage soluble fiber) and flax seeds
• Nuts, with almonds being the highest in dietary fiber

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 Glycemic Index

The glycemic index (GI) is a measure of the blood glucose-raising potential of the
carbohydrate content of a food compared to a reference food (generally pure
glucose). Carbohydrate-containing foods can be classified as high- (≥70), moderate-
(56-69), or low-GI (≤55) relative to pure glucose (GI=100).

Consumption of high-GI foods causes a sharp increase in postprandial blood glucose

concentration that declines rapidly, whereas consumption of low-GI foods results in a
lower blood glucose concentration that declines gradually.

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 Glycemic Load

The concept of glycemic load (GL) was developed by scientists to simultaneously describe the
quality (GI) and quantity of carbohydrate in a food serving, meal, or diet.

The GL of a single food is calculated by multiplying the GI by the amount of carbohydrate in

grams (g) provided by a food serving and then dividing the total by 100:

Glycemic Load Food =

(GI food x amount (g) of available carbohydrate food per
serving)/100

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 How many carbohydrates per day?

• The Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) for carbohydrate is 130 grams per day
for everyone over the age of one year
• Carbohydrates are not essential
• Parts of our brain and heart muscles do need glucose
• Gluconeogenesis is the pathway by which glucose is formed

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 Carbohydrate Benefits

• Fast energy source

• Prebiotic
• Colonic food
• SCFA
• FOS
• Inulin
• Resistance starch

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 Thank you!

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