 There are some changes in systematic learning of a language.

In another word,
instability in learners’ linguistic systems.
42- Series Method
 Language teaching method created by Gouin, in which learners practiced a
number of connected “series” of sentences, which together formed a
meaningful story or sequence of events.
43- Nature or nurture
 In the context of the nature vs. nurture debate, “nature” refers to
biological/genetic predispositions' impact on human traits, and nurture
describes the influence of learning and other influences from one's
environment. [15]

Chapter Three: Age and Acquisition

44- Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH)

 The claim that there is a biological timetable before which and after which
language acquisition, both first and second, is more successfully
accomplished.
 From birth up to 15 years old, a period a life that you can learn a language
faster or more efficiently. [2]
45- Lateralization
 The assigning of specified neurological functions to the left hemisphere of the
brain, and certain other functions to the right hemisphere.
 The process by which functions of brain are assigned or divined to different
hemispheres. For an instance the functions of thinking, logic, math, and
language reside in the left hemisphere; and the functions of emotions,
drawing, and poems reside in right hemisphere. [2]
46- World Englishes
 English users are well acquainted with this concept in which many native
speakers of English are perceived as having “foreign” accents.
47- Intellectual development stages of a child; Piaget’s view

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  Sensorimotor stage (birth to two): abstract knowledge cannot be learned, only
senses and movement.
 Preoperational stage (two to seven): physical learning from the outside world.
 Operational stage (seven to sixteen): learning physical and concrete matters.
 Concrete operational stages (seven to eleven): learning physical and concrete
matters alongside with preliminary abstract matters.
 Formal operational stage (eleven to sixteen): learning abstract matters, fully in
mind.
48- Implicit learning
 Acquisition of linguistic competence without intention to learn and without
focal awareness of what has been learned.
 In children, like while they are playing, they listen and learn without direct
attention. [2]
49- Explicit learning
 Acquisition of linguistic competence with conscious awareness of, or focal
attention on, the forms of language, usually in the context of instruction.
 Learning in adulthood, people are willing and want to learn. [2]
50- Equilibration
 Progressive interior organization of knowledge in stepwise fashion; moving
from states of doubt and uncertainty (disequilibrium) to stages of resolution
and certainty (equilibration).
51- Rote learning
 The process of mentally storing facts, ideas, or feelings having little or no
association with existing cognitive structure; for an instance, memorization
like a parrot (ALM). [2]
52- Meaningful learning
 Anchoring and relating new items and experiences to knowledge that exists in
the cognitive framework.
 Making a connection between the materials and the abstract knowledge in
mind, learning with purpose. [2]
53- Egocentricity

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  Characteristic of very young children in which the world resolves around
them, and they see all events as focusing on themselves.
 E.g. everything is me, I am of the most importance, and my ego is the center
of everything. [2]
54- Inhibition
 Apprehension over one’s self-identity or fear of showing self-doubt, learning
to building mechanisms of protective self-defense.
55- Language ego
 The identity a person develops in reference to the language he or she speaks.
56- Second identity
 An alternate ego, different from one’s first language ego, that develops in
reference to a second language and/or culture.
57- Attitude
 A set of personal feelings, opinions, or biases about races, culture, ethnic
groups, classes of people, and languages.
 It is clear that negative attitudes can certainly affect success in learning a
language. [2]
58- Peer pressure
 Encouragement, often among children, to conform to the behavior, attitudes,
language, etc., of those around them.
59- Bilingualism
 Relatively equal simultaneously proficiency in two languages.
 Compound bilingualism refers to the use of two languages in one context, with
one meaning set; there is one system for both L1 and L2 in mind. [2]
 Coordinate bilingualism refers to using two languages in two separate
contexts (e.g. home and school), and a presumed separate storage and
meaning; two different linguistic systems for two languages. [2]
 Additive bilingualism refers to the knowing one language, then learning
second and even third language, the first language will not disappear. [2]
 Subtractive bilingualism refers to proficiency in two languages in which
learners rely more and more on a second language, which eventually
diminishes their native language; learning L2 but losing L1. [2]

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 60- Code-switching
 In bilinguals, the act of inserting words, phrases, or even longer stretches of
one language into the other; switch between languages.
61- Heritage language
 A language of one’s parents, grandparents, or family lineage, usually acquired
(or learned through instruction) by individual raised in homes where the
dominant language of the region, such as English in the United States, is not
spoken or not exclusively spoken in that home.
62- Common order of acquisition among children
1. Present progressive (-ing);
2. [And 3.] in, on;
3. Plural (-s);
4. Past irregular;
5. Possessive (-‘s);
6. Uncontractible copula (is, am, are);
7. Articles (a, the);
8. Past regular (-ed);
9. Third person regular (-s);
10. Third person irregular (does, has, goes, etc.).
63- Total Physical Response (TPR)
 A language teaching method relying on physical or kinesthetic movement
accompanied by language practice.
64- Natural approach
 A language teaching method that simulates child language acquisition by
emphasizing communication, comprehensible input, kinesthetic activities, and
virtually no grammatical analysis.

Chapter Four: Human Learning

65- Classical conditioning

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  Psychological learning paradigm associated with Pavlov, Thorndike, Watson,
and others which highlights the formation of associations between stimuli and
responses that are strengthened through rewards.
66- Unconditioned response
 In behavioral learning theory, a natural biological response to a stimulus, not
elicited by an outside agent.
 Unconditioned refers to natural, classical conditioning of Pavlov. [2]
67- Conditioned response
 In behavioral learning theory, a response to a stimulus that is learned or
elicited by an outside agent.
 Conditioned refers to unnatural, operant conditioning of Skinner, where we
should achieve our favorite response. [2]
68- Stimulus
 In behavioral learning theory, an agent that directly evokes a behavior
(activity, emotion, thought or sensory excitation).

69- Response
 In behavioral learning theory, any elicited or emitted behavior by an
organism.
70- Behaviorism
 The study of human behavior using strictly scientific, empirical evidence,
often linked with conditioning, stimuli-response, and reinforcement
paradigms. (for more see 350)
71- Law and Effect
 Thorndike’s theory hypothesizing that stimuli that occur after a behavior have
an influence on future behaviors.
72- Neo-behaviorism

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  Behavioral psychological school of thought associated with Skinner and
others that asserted the importance of emitted behavior and operant
conditioning.
73- Respondent conditioning
 In behavioral learning theory, behavior that is elicited by identifiable stimuli.
74- Operant conditioning
 See 19.
75- Operant
 A response (e.g. an utterance of some kind) emitted without prior elicitation or
stimulation.
76- Reinforcement
 In behavioral learning theory, events or stimuli that follow a response or
behavior and serve to reward the response or behavior.
77- Punishment
 Withdrawal of a positive reinforcer or presentation of an aversive stimulus.
78- Rote learning
 See 45.
79- Meaningful learning
 See 46.
80- Subsumption
 The process of relating and anchoring new material to relevant established
entities in cognitive structure; related to meaningful learning.
81- Proactive inhibition
 Failure to retain material because of interfering effects of similar material
learned before the learning task.
82- Retroactive inhibition
 Failure to retain material because of interfering effects of similar material
learned after the learning task.
83- Systematic forgetting
 Rearranging information from specific to general. This is the reason that most
of the time, we will remember a topic or subtopic but the details are blurry. [3]

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 84- Cognitive pruning
 The elimination of unnecessary clutter and a clearing of the way for more
material to enter the cognitive field.
 Eliminating the details to benefit the general. [2]
85- Automaticity
 The act of processing input and giving output without deliberation or
hesitation in real-time speed.
86- Language attrition
 Language attrition is the process of losing a native or first, language. This
process is generally caused by both isolation from speakers of the first
language (L1) and the acquisition and use of a second language (L2), which
interferes with the correct production and comprehension of the first. [4]
87- Cognitive linguistics
 A theoretical position that asserts that language is not an autonomous faculty,
but rather is interwoven into conceptualization, knowledge, and language use.
88- Rogers
 His view on human psychology emanated from his classic work “client-
centered therapy”, an analysis of human behavior in terms of a
“phenomenological” perspective, a perspective in sharp contrast to his
contemporary, Skinner.
 Rogers saw the “whole person” as a physical and cognitive, but primarily
emotional being.
 “Fully functioning persons”, according to Rogers, live at peace with all of
their feelings and reactions; they are able to reach their full potential.
 Rogers was not concerned about the actual cognitive process of learning
because, he felt, if the context for learning is properly created with due
attention to students’ affective states, then they will learn everything they need
to.
89- Paolo Freire
 He vigorously objected to traditional “banking” concepts of education in
which teachers think of their task as one of “filling” students “by making
deposits of information which [they] consider to constitute true knowledge;

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 deposits which are detached from reality”. Instead, he argued, students should
be allowed to negotiate learning outcomes, to cooperate with teachers and
other learners in a process of discovery, and to relate everything they do in
school to their reality outside the classroom.
 It was the need to help students to engage in this real-world reality that gave
him the impetus to pen his seminal work, “pedagogy of the oppressed”, which
has since inspired millions of teachers worldwide.
90- Lev Vygotsky
 For him the key to understanding higher forms (beyond simply physical
reflexes) of human mental activity lay in mediation of symbols, signs, and
language.
 In his view, the task for psychology is “to understand how human social and
mental activity is organized through culturally constructed artifacts and social
relationships”.
91- Perspectives on human learning
Behavioral Cognitive Social-constructivist
 Conditioning  Language-cognition  Learner autonomy
 Rewards connection  Whole-person
 Stimulus-response  Meaningful  Empowerment
connections learning  Social interaction
 Reinforcement  Subsumption  Language as
 Emphasis: physical  Systematic mediation
forgetting  Emphasis: socio-
 Emphasis: mental affective

92- Types of learning applicable to SLA

 Signal learning: attending to something in one’s environment (music, animal
sounds, human voices, etc.), typical of Pavlovian classical conditioning.
 Stimulus-response learning: the learner makes a response to a “discriminated”
stimulus, a specific attendance to a single element in one’s perceptual
environment.
 Chaining: learning a chain of two or more stimulus-response connection.
 Verbal association: attaching meaning to verbal/nonverbal chains,

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  Multiple discrimination: learning to make different responses to many varying
stimuli, which may resemble each other.
 Concept learning: learning to make a common response to a class of stimuli
even though the individual members of that class may differ widely from each
other.
 Principle learning: learning a chain of two or more concepts, a cluster of
related concepts.
 Problem solving: previously acquired concepts and principles are combined in
a conscious focus on an unresolved or ambiguous set of events.
93- Transfer
 The carryover of previous performance or knowledge to previous or
subsequent learning.
 It can also apply to the effect of a current act of learning on previously learned
material, which is known as retroactive transfer.
 Positive transfer occurs when the prior knowledge benefits the learning task,
that is -when a previous item is correctly applied to present subject matter.
 Negative transfer occurs when previous performance disrupts or inhibits the
performance of a second task.

94- Interference
 Negative transfer in which a previous item is incorrectly transferred or
incorrectly associated with an item to be learned.
95- Overgeneralization
 The process of generalizing a particular rule or item in the second language,
irrespective of the native language, beyond conventional rules or boundaries.
 Inappropriate extension of a rule (e.g. I comed to your office). [2]

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 96- Inductive reasoning
 One of the polar aspects of generalization, refers to recalling a number of
specific instances in order to induce a general law or rule or conclusion that
governs or subsumes the specific instances.
97- Deductive reasoning
 One of the polar aspects of generalization, refers to moving from a
generalization to specific instances in which subsumed facts are inferred from
a general principle.
98- Language aptitude
 Inherent ability, either learned or innate, and separate from knowledge of a
particular language, to acquire foreign languages.
99- Context-reduced language
 language forms and functions that lack a set of embedded schemata within
which the learner can operate, as in traditional test items, isolated reading
excerpts, and repetition drills. Context reduced is the language of the
classroom in which there are fewer non-verbal cues and the language is more
abstract. [16]
100- context-embedded language
 language forms and functions that are embedded in a set of schemata within
which the learner can operate, as in meaningful conversations, real-life tasks,
and extensive reading. Context embedded means that the conversation is often
face-to-face, offers many cues to the listener such as facial expressions,
gestures, concrete objects of reference. [16]
101- Multiple intelligences:
 Associated with Gardner, the hypothesis that intelligence is not unitary, but
has multiple modes. Following are Gardner’s eight multiple intelligences: 1.
Linguistic 2. Logical-mathematical 3. Musical (the ability to perceive and
create pitch and rhythmic patterns) 4. Spatial (the ability to find one’s way
around an environment, to form mental images of reality, and to transform
them readily) 5. Bodily-kinesthetic (fine motor movement, athletic prowess) 6.
Naturalist (sensitivity to natural objects (plants, animals, clouds)) 7.
Interpersonal (the ability to understand others, how they feel, what motivates

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 them, how they interact with one another) 8. Intrapersonal intelligence (the
ability to see oneself, to develop a sense of self-identity).
102- Emotional intelligence:
 associated with Goleman, a mode of intelligence that places emotion, and/or
the management of emotions, at the seat of intellectual functioning

Chapter Five: Individual Differences

103- Learning strategies

 Strategic options relating to input, processing, storage, and retrieval, or taking
in messages from others.
104- Cognitive style
 The way a person learns material or solves problems.
105- Learning style
 Cognitive, affective, and psychological traits that are relatively stable
indicators of how learners perceive, interact with, and respond to the learning
environment.
106- Reflective style
 The tendency to take relatively long time to make a decision or solve a
problem, sometimes in order to weigh options before making a decision.
107- Impulsive style
 The tendency to make quick decisions in answer to problems; sometimes, but
not always, those decisions involve risk-taking or guessing.
108- Field independence
 Ability to perceive a particular a particular, relevant item or factor in a “field”
of distracting items.
109- Field dependence
 The tendency to be “dependent” on the total field so that the parts embedded
in the field are not easily perceived, although that total field is perceived more
clearly as a unified whole.
110- Field sensitivity
 The same as field dependence, with an emphasis on positive aspects of the
style.

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