AQUATIC CHEMISTRY

OBJECTIVES

1. Discuss the various

properties of water that
make it unique than other
liquids.
2. Define acidity and alkalinity.
3. Differentiate between
alkalinity and basicity.
4. Calculate the alkalinity of a
water body given the
required information on the
concentrations of CO32-,
HCO3- and pH.
UNIT 3. AQUATIC CHEMISTRY AND
WATER POLLUTION
OBJECTIVES

1. DISCUSS THE VARIOUS PROPERTIES OF WATER THAT MAKE IT

UNIQUE THAN OTHER LIQUIDS.
2. DEFINE ACIDITY AND ALKALINITY.
3. DIFFERENTIATE BETWEEN ALKALINITY AND BASICITY.
4. CALCULATE THE ALKALINITY OF A WATER BODY GIVEN THE
REQUIRED INFORMATION ON THE CONCENTRATIONS OF CO32-, HCO3-
AND PH.
5. DEFINE COMPLEXATION REACTIONS, STABILITY OF COMPLEXES
AND FORMATION CONSTANT.
6. CALCULATE THE EQUILIBRIUM CONCENTRATIONS OF SPECIES
INVOLVED IN COMPLEXATION REACTIONS IN WATER BODIES.
7. DESCRIBE THE PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PARAMETERS USED TO
DESCRIBE WATER QUALITY.
 WATER
• WATER IS THE MOST ABUNDANT COMPOUND ON EARTH
• ACCOUNTING FOR APPROXIMATELY 70% OF THE EARTH’S
SURFACE
• 97% OF THAT IS FOUND IN SEAS AND OCEANS
• ONLY 1.3% IS FRESH SURFACE WATER
• ALL LIVING ORGANISMS NEED WATER TO SURVIVE

• IT IS THE ONLY COMMON SUBSTANCE THAT EXISTS NATURALLY IN

ALL 3 STATES
WATER DISTRIBUTION IN THE
HYDROSPHERE
 UNIQUE PROPERTIES OF WATER
• THE POLAR NATURE OF WATER AND THE
EFFECTS OF HYDROGEN BONDING
EXPLAIN MOST OF WATER'S UNIQUE
PROPERTIES
• FORMATION OF HYDROGEN BONDS
• HYDROGEN BONDS ARE RELATIVELY
STRONG FORCES OF INTERMOLECULAR
ATTRACTION
• THEY ARE FORMED WHEN HYDROGEN IS
BONDED TO ATOMS OF O, N OR F
• ONE WATER MOLECULE IS ABLE TO FORM
4 HYDROGEN BONDS WITH OTHER WATER
MOLECULES
• THIS NETWORK OF HYDROGEN BONDS
GIVES WATER A HIGHER BOILING POINT
THAN EXPECTED
 UNIQUE PROPERTIES OF WATER

• THE UNIQUE PROPERTIES OF WATER INCLUDE

• COHESION
• ADHESION
• USE AS A UNIVERSAL SOLVENT
• UNUSUAL DENSITY AT FREEZING POINT
• HIGH HEAT OF FUSION AND VAPORISATION
• HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY
• ABILITY TO EXIST IN ALL THREE STATES
 UNIQUE PROPERTIES OF WATER
• COHESION & ADHESION
• COHESION REFERS TO THE ABILITY OF WATER MOLECULES TO STICK TO
EACH OTHER
• ADHESION REFERS TO THE ABILITY OF WATER MOLECULES TO STICK TO
OTHER SUBSTANCES
• WATER POSSESSES THESE ABILITIES BECAUSE OF THE POLAR NATURE OF ITS
MOLECULES WHICH MAKES WATER MOLECULES ATTRACT EACH OTHER AS
WELL AS OTHER SUBSTANCES
• COHESION GIVES WATER ITS HIGH SURFACE TENSION AS THE WATER
MOLECULES STICK TOGETHER IT MAKES THEM MORE RESISTANT TO STRESS
• PROPERTY MANIPULATED BY THE WATER STRIDER WHICH WALKS ON WATER
• THE COHESION & ADHESION OF WATER ALLOW WATER TO MOVE BY
CAPILLARY ACTION
• COHESION AND ADHESION PLAY IMPORTANT ROLES IN MANY WATER-BASED
PROCESSES, INCLUDING THE MOVEMENT OF WATER THROUGH THE ROOTS
OF PLANTS AND THE DRAINAGE OF TEARS FROM TEAR DUCTS IN THE
CORNERS OF YOUR EYES
 UNIQUE PROPERTIES OF WATER
• UNIVERSAL SOLVENT
• WATER IS ABLE TO DISSOLVE MORE SUBSTANCES
THAN OTHER CHEMICAL
• WATER IS A POLAR MOLECULE AND AS A RESULT IS
ABLE TO ATTRACT NEGATIVE AND POSITIVE ENDS
OF ATOMS OF OTHER SUBSTANCES
• WATER IS THEREFORE ABLE TO DISSOLVE
SUBSTANCES WHICH HAVE SOME DEGREE OF
POLARITY
• HOWEVER SOME SUBSTANCES DO NOT DISSOLVE
IN WATER AT ALL OR TO A SIGNIFICANT EXTENT
• WATER IS ABLE TO TRANSPORT SUBSTANCES TO
CELLS BECAUSE OF ITS SOLVENT PROPERTIES
 UNIQUE PROPERTIES OF WATER
• FREEZING POINT AND DENSITY OF WATER
• WATER IS ONE OF THE FEW SUBSTANCES WHOSE SOLID STATE CAN
FLOAT ON ITS LIQUID STATE
• WATER CONTINUES TO BECOME MORE DENSE UNTIL IT REACHES 4°C
• AFTER IT REACHES 4°C, IT BECOMES LESS DENSE
• WHEN FREEZING, MOLECULES WITHIN WATER BEGIN TO MOVE
AROUND MORE SLOWLY, MAKING IT EASIER FOR THEM TO FORM
HYDROGEN BONDS AND EVENTUALLY ARRANGE THEMSELVES INTO
AN OPEN CRYSTALLINE, HEXAGONAL STRUCTURE
• BECAUSE OF THIS OPEN STRUCTURE AS THE WATER MOLECULES ARE
BEING HELD FURTHER APART, THE VOLUME OF WATER INCREASES
ABOUT 9%
• SO MOLECULES ARE MORE TIGHTLY PACKED IN WATER'S LIQUID STATE
THAN ITS SOLID STATE
 UNIQUE PROPERTIES OF WATER
• IF WATER WAS MOST DENSE AT ITS
FREEZING POINT (0 °C) THEN IT WOULD
SINK TO THE BOTTOM, FREEZING A BODY
OF WATER FROM THE BOTTOM UP,
KILLING ALL OF THE ORGANISMS LIVING
WITHIN IT
• THIS PROPERTY ENSURES THAT THE
BOTTOM OF A BODY OF WATER WILL
REMAIN AT LEAST 4°C, AND THUS
UNFROZEN
• AS SURFACE WATER TEMPERATURE
APPROACHES THE MAXIMUM DENSITY
TEMPERATURE, IT SINKS AND IS REPLACED
BY WARMER, LIGHTER WATER
• THIS PROCESS CONTINUES UNTIL THE
WATER IS UNIFORMLY COOL
 UNIQUE PROPERTIES OF WATER
• HIGH HEATS OF FUSION AND VAPORISATION & HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT
CAPACITY
• HEATS OF FUSION AND VAPORISATION REFER TO ENERGY REQUIRED TO
CHANGE THE STATE OF WATER
• SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY REFERS TO THE AMOUNT OF ENERGY REQUIRED TO
RAISE THE TEMPERATURE BY 1OC
• THE HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY MEANS THAT WATER HEATS SLOWLY
• HELPS TO MAINTAIN CONSTANT TEMPERATURE OF LIVING ORGANISMS AND
ENVIRONMENT
• PREVENTION OF TEMPERATURE FLUCTUATIONS THAT ARE OUTSIDE THE RANGE
SUITABLE FOR LIFE
• WATER SURROUNDING OR NEAR CITIES TAKE LONGER TO HEAT UP AND LONGER
TO COOL DOWN THAN DO LAND MASSES, SO CITIES NEAR THE OCEANS WILL
TEND TO HAVE LESS CHANGE AND LESS EXTREME TEMPERATURES THAN INLAND
CITIES
• THE HIGH HEAT OF VAPORISATION MEANS THAT THE EVAPORATION OF
WATER FROM A SURFACE REMOVES EXCESS HEAT ENERGY
• THIS CAUSES THE COOLING EFFECT OF LEAVES, REMOVES BODY HEAT THROUGH
SWEATING
 UNIQUE PROPERTIES OF WATER
• ABILITY TO EXIST IN THREE STATES
• WATER IS THE ONLY NATURAL SUBSTANCE THAT CAN EXIST IN ALL THREE
STATES OF MATTER - SOLID, LIQUID, AND GAS - AT THE TEMPERATURES
NORMALLY FOUND ON EARTH
• MANY OTHER SUBSTANCES HAVE TO BE SUPER-HEATED OR -COOLED TO
CHANGE STATES
• WATER IN THE GASEOUS STATE HELPS TO MODERATE CLIMATIC AND
WEATHER CONDITIONS
• HELPING TO KEEP EARTH WARM
• PRECIPITATING WHEN NEEDED
• WATER IN THE SOLID STATE
• THE POLAR ICE CAPS IMPACT WEATHER AND CLIMATE DYNAMICS
• GLACIERS ARE ALSO EARLY INDICATORS OF CLIMATE CHANGES THAT WILL HAVE
A SOMEWHAT MORE DELAYED IMPACT ON OTHER PARTS OF THE EARTH SYSTEM
• GLACIERS’ WHITE SURFACES REFLECT THE SUN’S RAYS, HELPING TO KEEP OUR
CURRENT CLIMATE MILD
• GLACIERS PROVIDE A SURFACE TO REST FOR AQUATIC ANIMALS WHO REQUIRE
COLDER TEMPERATURES TO SURVIVE
 WATER POLLUTANTS

• WATER POLLUTION IS ANY CHEMICAL, PHYSICAL OR BIOLOGICAL

CHANGE IN THE QUALITY OF WATER THAT HAS A HARMFUL EFFECT
ON ANY LIVING THING THAT USES OR LIVES IN IT
• POINT SOURCES
• REFERS TO POLLUTANTS THAT ARE TRACED TO A SINGLE SOURCE
• EG. EFFLUENT FROM A PLANT

• NON-POINT SOURCES
• REFERS TO POLLUTANTS THAT CANNOT BE TRACE TO A SINGLE
SOURCE BUT ORIGINATES FROM MULTIPLE SOURCES
• EG. STORM WATER RUNOFF THAT IS COMES FROM SEVERAL FARMS
 WATER POLLUTANTS
POINT SOURCE NON-POINT SOURCE

Fairly steady volume and quantity Occurs at random intervals

Most severe impacts occur during Most severe impacts occur during
low-flow periods and after storm events
Enters receiving waters at Entry points cannot be identified;
identifiable ports, usually through typically arises from extensive
pipelines and channels land areas
Primary water quality Primary water quality
parameters: BOD, dissolved parameters: heavy metals,
oxygen, nutrients and suspended sediments, nutrients
solids
 WATER POLLUTION FACTS
• VIRTUALLY ALL GOODS-PRODUCING ACTIVITIES GENERATE POLLUTANTS AS
UNWANTED BY-PRODUCTS.
• THE MOST IMPORTANT WATER CONTAMINANTS CREATED BY HUMAN
ACTIVITIES ARE MICROBIAL PATHOGENS, NUTRIENTS, OXYGEN-CONSUMING
MATERIALS, HEAVY METALS AND PERSISTENT ORGANIC MATTER, AS WELL AS
SUSPENDED SEDIMENTS, NUTRIENTS, PESTICIDES AND OXYGEN-
CONSUMING SUBSTANCES, MUCH OF IT FROM NON-POINT SOURCES
• HEAT, WHICH RAISES THE TEMPERATURE OF THE RECEIVING WATER, CAN
ALSO BE A POLLUTANT
• POLLUTANTS ARE TYPICALLY THE CAUSE OF MAJOR WATER QUALITY
DEGRADATION AROUND THE WORLD
• GLOBALLY, THE MOST PREVALENT WATER QUALITY PROBLEM IS
EUTROPHICATION, A RESULT OF HIGH-NUTRIENT LOADS (MAINLY
PHOSPHORUS AND NITROGEN), WHICH SUBSTANTIALLY IMPAIRS BENEFICIAL
USES OF WATER
 WATER POLLUTION FACTS
• PROJECTED FOOD PRODUCTION NEEDS AND INCREASING
WASTEWATER EFFLUENTS ASSOCIATED WITH AN INCREASING
POPULATION OVER THE NEXT THREE DECADES SUGGEST A 10%-15%
INCREASE IN THE RIVER INPUT OF NITROGEN LOADS INTO COASTAL
ECOSYSTEMS
• MORE THAN 80% OF SEWAGE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES IS
DISCHARGED UNTREATED, POLLUTING RIVERS, LAKES AND COASTAL
AREAS
• MANY INDUSTRIES – SOME OF THEM KNOWN TO BE HEAVILY
POLLUTING (SUCH AS LEATHER AND CHEMICALS) – ARE MOVING FROM
HIGH-INCOME COUNTRIES TO EMERGING MARKET ECONOMIES
• DESPITE IMPROVEMENTS IN SOME REGIONS, WATER POLLUTION IS ON
THE RISE GLOBALLY
 WATER POLLUTANT SOURCES
• INDUSTRIAL WASTE
• INDUSTRIES PRODUCE HUGE AMOUNT OF WASTE WHICH CONTAINS
TOXIC CHEMICALS AND POLLUTANTS
• THESE CAN INCLUDE HEAVY METALS AS WELL AS OTHER HARMFUL
CHEMICALS
• MANY INDUSTRIES DO NOT HAVE PROPER WASTE MANAGEMENT
SYSTEM AND DRAIN THE WASTE IN THE FRESH WATER WHICH GOES
INTO RIVERS, CANALS AND LATER IN TO SEA
• THIS WASTE HAS THE ABILITY TO
• CHANGE THE COLOUR OF WATER
• INCREASE THE AMOUNT OF MINERALS (EUTROPHICATION)
• CHANGE THE TEMPERATURE OF WATER
• POSE SERIOUS HAZARD TO WATER ORGANISMS
 WATER POLLUTANT SOURCES
• SEWAGE AND WASTE WATER
• SEWAGE AND WASTE WATER PRODUCED BY HOUSEHOLD AND
INDUSTRIES HAVE CONSIDERABLE CONCENTRATION OF
BIODEGRADABLE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS EITHER IN SUSPENDED OR
DISSOLVED FORM
• ORGANIC MATTER PRESENT IN THE WASTEWATER RESULT DEPLETION
OF THE DISSOLVED OXYGEN WHICH WILL ADVERSELY AFFECT
AQUATIC LIFE
• SEWAGE WATER CARRIES HARMFUL BACTERIA AND CHEMICALS THAT
CAN CAUSE SERIOUS HEALTH PROBLEMS
• SEWERS CARRY PATHOGENS AND THEREBY DISEASES.
MICROORGANISMS IN WATER ARE KNOWN TO BE CAUSES OF
SOME VERY DEADLY DISEASES AND BECOME THE BREEDING
GROUNDS FOR OTHER CREATURES THAT ACT LIKE CARRIERS
 WATER POLLUTANT SOURCES
• MINING
• MINING ACTIVITIES RELEASE HARMFUL CHEMICALS AND CAN INCREASE
THE AMOUNT OF TOXIC ELEMENTS WHEN MIXED UP WITH WATER
WHICH MAY RESULT IN HEALTH PROBLEMS
• MINING ACTIVITIES EMIT METAL WASTE WHICH CAN BE DEADLY TO
AQUATIC ANIMALS AS WELL AS ACCUMULATE UP THE FOOD CHAIN
POSING FURTHER HARM TO ANIMALS AND HUMANS

• MARINE DUMPING
• THE GARBAGE PRODUCED IN THE FORM OF PAPER, ALUMINIUM, RUBBER,
GLASS, PLASTIC & FOOD COLLECTED AND DEPOSITED INTO THE SEA
• THESE ITEMS TAKE FROM 2 WEEKS TO 200 YEARS TO DECOMPOSE
• WHEN SUCH ITEMS ENTER THE SEA, THEY NOT ONLY AFFECT WATER
QUALITY BUT ALSO HARM ANIMALS IN THE SEA
 WATER POLLUTANT SOURCES
• ACCIDENTAL OIL SPILL
• OIL SPILL POSE A HUGE CONCERN AS LARGE AMOUNT OF OIL ENTERS
INTO THE SEA AND DOES NOT DISSOLVE WITH WATER
• VARYING DAMAGE TO SPECIES IN THE OCEAN DEPENDING ON THE
QUANTITY OF OIL SPILL, SIZE OF OCEAN, TOXICITY OF POLLUTANT

• CHEMICAL FERTILIZERS AND PESTICIDES

• CHEMICAL FERTILIZERS AND PESTICIDES ARE USED BY FARMERS TO
PROTECT CROPS FROM INSECTS AND BACTERIA
• WHEN THESE CHEMICALS ARE MIXED UP WITH WATER THEY PRODUCE
HARMFUL SUBSTANCES TO AQUATIC LIFE
• WHEN IT RAINS, THE CHEMICALS MIXES UP WITH RAINWATER AND FLOW
DOWN INTO RIVERS AND CANALS WHICH POSE SERIOUS THREATS TO
AQUATIC LIFE
 WATER POLLUTANT SOURCES
• RADIOACTIVE WASTE
• PRODUCTION OF NUCLEAR ENERGY USES URANIUM WHICH IS HIGHLY
TOXIC CHEMICAL
• THE NUCLEAR WASTE THAT IS PRODUCED BY RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL
NEEDS TO BE DISPOSED OFF TO PREVENT ANY NUCLEAR ACCIDENT.
NUCLEAR WASTE CAN HAVE SERIOUS ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARDS IF NOT
DISPOSED OFF PROPERLY

• LEAKAGE FROM LANDFILLS

• LANDFILLS CAN POSE A SERIOUS THREAT TO WATER RESOURCES
• WHEN IT RAINS, THE LANDFILLS MAY LEAK AND THE LEAKING LANDFILLS
CAN POLLUTE THE UNDERGROUND WATER WITH LARGE VARIETY OF
CONTAMINANTS
 POLLUTANT IMPACT
Organic pollutants  depletion of the dissolved oxygen (DO) will be a serious
• Oxygen Demanding problem adversely affecting aquatic life
wastes  most of these compounds are toxic and biorefractory
• Synthetic organic organics
pollutants  it also make water unfit for different uses
• Oil  responsible for endangering water birds and coastal
plants due to coating of oils which adversely affecting the
normal activities and which cause reduction of light
transmission and photosynthesis

Pathogens  number of diseases transmitted by pathogens available in

wastewater
Nutrients  when these are disposed in aquatic environment, it can
lead to growth of algae, which deplete DO and impact
light penetration of water
 when discharged on land causes groundwater pollution
Thermal pollutants  when organic matter is also present, the bacterial action
increases due to rise in temperature; hence, resulting in
rapid decrease of DO
 it also results in thermal stratification which alters spectrum
of organisms
 POLLUTANT IMPACT
radioactive pollutants  these isotopes are toxic to the life forms
 they accumulate in the bones, teeth and can
cause serious disorders
suspended solids and  presence of suspended solids can block the
sediments sunlight penetration in the water, which is
required for the photosynthesis by bottom
vegetation
 finer suspended solids such as silt and coal dust
may injure the gills of fishes and cause
asphyxiation
inorganic pollutants  these pollutants include mineral acids, inorganic
salts, trace elements, metals, metals compounds,
complexes of metals with organic compounds,
cyanides, sulphates, etc.
 they have adverse effect on aquatic flora and
fauna and may constitute a public health
problem
 WATER QUALITY
• WATER QUALITY DESCRIBES THE CONDITION OF THE WATER,
INCLUDING CHEMICAL, PHYSICAL, AND BIOLOGICAL
CHARACTERISTICS, USUALLY WITH RESPECT TO ITS SUITABILITY FOR A
PARTICULAR PURPOSE
• THE QUALITY OF WATER IS DEPENDENT ON ITS PURPOSE BECAUSE
WHAT MAY BE SUITABLE FOR ONE SITUATION WILL NOT BE SUITABLE
FOR ANOTHER
• EG. WATER USED FOR IRRIGATION PURPOSES MAY NOT BE SUITABLE FOR
DRINKING PURPOSES

• IN ASSESSING WATER QUALITY THE NATURE OF THE WATER (OR

WATER BODY) HAS TO BE TAKEN INTO ACCOUNT
• EG. MARINE WATER QUALITY WOULD BE DIFFERENT FROM FRESHWATER
 WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS
• WATER QUALITY IS ASSESSED BASED ON A SET OF PARAMETERS
WHICH GENERALLY CONSIDER BIOLOGICAL, PHYSICAL AND
CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE WATER
• PHYSICAL
• TEMPERATURE
• TURBIDITY AND CLARITY
• COLOUR
• SUSPENDED SOLIDS & DISSOLVED SOLIDS

• CHEMICAL
• PH
• DISSOLVED OXYGEN, BOD & COD
• NUTRIENTS (INCLUDING NITROGEN AND PHOSPHORUS)
• ORGANIC AND INORGANIC COMPOUNDS (INCLUDING TOXICANTS)
 WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS
• TURBIDITY & CLARITY
• TURBIDITY IS AN OPTICAL DETERMINATION OF
WATER CLARITY
• BASED ON THE AMOUNT OF LIGHT SCATTERED BY
PARTICLES IN THE WATER COLUMN
• THE MORE PARTICLES THAT ARE PRESENT, THE MORE
LIGHT THAT WILL BE SCATTERED
• CLARITY IS DETERMINED BY THE DEPTH THAT SUNLIGHT
PENETRATES IN WATER
• TURBIDITY IS A MEASURE OF WATER CLARITY
• THE TRANSPARENCY OF WATER IS AFFECTED BY THE AMOUNT
OF SUNLIGHT AVAILABLE, SUSPENDED PARTICLES IN THE
WATER COLUMN AND DISSOLVED SOLIDS
 WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS
• TURBID WATER WILL APPEAR CLOUDY, MURKY, OR OTHERWISE
COLORED
• SUSPENDED SEDIMENT SUCH AS SILT OR CLAY, INORGANIC
MATERIALS, OR ORGANIC MATTER SUCH AS ALGAE, PLANKTON AND
DECAYING MATERIAL OR COLORED DISSOLVED ORGANIC MATTER
(CDOM) CAN CAUSE TURBIDITY
• EFFECTS
• DEPEND ON THE NATURE OF THE MATERIALS CAUSING THE
TURBIDITY
• TURBIDITY CAN ALSO INHIBIT PHOTOSYNTHESIS BY BLOCKING
SUNLIGHT
• INCREASE IN TURBIDITY CAN ALSO INDICATE INCREASED
EROSION OF STREAM BANKS
• CAN OFTEN INDICATE POTENTIAL POLLUTION
 WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS
• TEMPERATURE
• TYPICAL TEMPERATURES ARE DEPENDENT ON
• TYPE OF WATER BODY
• DEPTH
• SEASON
• LATITUDE
• SURROUNDING ENVIRONMENT
• CAN IMPACT THE FOLLOWING WATER QUALITY
PARAMETERS
• METABOLIC RATES AND PHOTOSYNTHESIS PRODUCTION
• FOR MOST FISH, A 10°C INCREASE IN WATER TEMPERATURE
WILL APPROXIMATELY DOUBLE THE RATE OF PHYSIOLOGICAL
FUNCTION
• TEMPERATURES ABOVE 35°C CAN BEGIN TO DENATURE, OR
BREAKDOWN, ENZYMES, REDUCING METABOLIC FUNCTION
 WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS
• TEMPERATURE
• CAN IMPACT THE FOLLOWING WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS
• COMPOUND TOXICITY
• MORTALITY RATES FOR SOME METALS ARE SIGNIFICANTLY HIGHER AT
TEMPERATURES ABOVE 25°C THAN AT TEMPERATURES BELOW 20°C
• OCCURS BECAUSE TISSUE PERMEABILITY, METABOLIC RATE AND
OXYGEN CONSUMPTION ALL INCREASE WITH INCREASED
WATER TEMPERATURE
• DISSOLVED OXYGEN AND OTHER DISSOLVED GAS
CONCENTRATIONS
• SOLUBILITY OF OXYGEN AND OTHER GASES WILL DECREASE AS
TEMPERATURE INCREASES
• pH
• AS THE TEMPERATURE INCREASES OR DECREASES, THE ION
CONCENTRATIONS WILL ALSO SHIFT, THUS SHIFTING THE pH VALUE
 WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS
• pH
• MOST NATURAL CHANGES OCCUR DUE TO INTERACTIONS WITH SURROUNDING ROCK
(PARTICULARLY CARBONATE FORMS) AND OTHER MATERIALS
• pH CAN ALSO FLUCTUATE WITH PRECIPITATION (ESPECIALLY ACID RAIN) AND
WASTEWATER OR MINING DISCHARGES
• CO2 CONCENTRATIONS CAN INFLUENCE pH LEVELS
• EFFECTS
• IF THE PH OF WATER IS TOO HIGH OR TOO LOW, THE AQUATIC ORGANISMS LIVING WITHIN IT
WILL DIE
• pH CAN ALSO AFFECT THE SOLUBILITY AND TOXICITY OF CHEMICALS AND HEAVY METALS IN THE
WATER
• THE MAJORITY OF AQUATIC CREATURES PREFER A PH RANGE OF 6.5-9.0, THOUGH SOME CAN
LIVE IN WATER WITH PH LEVELS OUTSIDE OF THIS RANGE
• pH VALUES GREATER THAN 11 CAN CAUSE SKIN AND EYE IRRITATIONS, AS DOES A pH BELOW 4
WHILE A pH VALUE BELOW 2.5 WILL CAUSE IRREVERSIBLE DAMAGE TO SKIN AND ORGAN
LININGS
• pH LEVELS OUTSIDE OF 6.5-9.5 CAN DAMAGE AND CORRODE PIPES AND OTHER SYSTEMS,
FURTHER INCREASING HEAVY METAL TOXICITY
• A SLIGHT CHANGE IN THE pH OF WATER CAN INCREASE THE SOLUBILITY OF PHOSPHORUS AND
OTHER NUTRIENTS
 WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS
• TASTE
• TASTE IS A PARAMETER WHICH CAN LEAD TO SEVERE REACTION BY
INDIVIDUALS WHICH MAY NECESSITATE THE CONDEMNATION OF A WATER
SUPPLY
• STRONG TASTES CAN BE CAUSED BY THE PRESENCE OF EXCESSIVE AMOUNTS
OF METALS OR DISSOLVED SALTS, THERE ARE OFTEN OTHER MORE SERIOUS
PROBLEMS WHICH ARISE IN SUCH CASES
• DECAYING ALGAE CAN RELEASE TO THE WATER TRACE ORGANIC
COMPOUNDS WHICH PRODUCE OFFENSIVE TASTES AFTER CHLORINATION
DURING TREATMENT

• ODOUR
• A STRONG ODOUR FROM A WATER BODY CAN BE OFFENSIVE TO
INDIVIDUALS
• ITS CAUSE IS NORMALLY DISSOLVED VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
• IN POLLUTED RIVERS A VERY COMMON CAUSE IS THE PRESENCE OF
HYDROGEN SULPHIDE GAS PRODUCED FROM THE REDUCTION OF SULPHATES
IN THE ANAEROBIC CONDITIONS WHICH CAN PREVAIL AFTER A HEAVY
ORGANIC DISCHARGE TO THE WATER
 WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS
• COLOUR
• NATURAL COLOUR REFLECTS THE PRESENCE OF COMPLEX ORGANIC
MOLECULES DERIVED FROM VEGETABLE (HUMIC) MATTER SUCH AS
PEAT, LEAVES, BRANCHES
• ITS EFFECT CAN BE ENHANCED BY THE PRESENCE OF SUSPENDED
MATTER BUT THIS IS NORMALLY ELIMINATED BY FILTRATION
• TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS (TDS)
• THE SUM OF ALL ION PARTICLES THAT ARE SMALLER THAN 2 MICRONS
• DERIVED FROM CONDUCTIVITY MEASUREMENTS
• HIGH CONCENTRATION MAY RESULT IN AN UNPLEASANT TASTE, ODOR,
OR COLOR AND MAY ALSO IMPACT THE HEALTH OF INDIVIDUALS
• DEPENDING ON TYPE MATTER PRESENT HIGH CONCENTRATION CAN BE
TOXIC TO FISH AND CAN AFFECT THE CELL DENSITY OF AQUATIC
ORGANISMS
 WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS
• TOTAL SUSPENDED SOLIDS (TSS)
• ARE PARTICLES THAT ARE LARGER THAN 2 MICRONS
• MOST SUSPENDED SOLIDS ARE MADE UP OF INORGANIC MATERIALS,
THOUGH BACTERIA AND ALGAE CAN ALSO CONTRIBUTE TO THE
TOTAL SOLIDS CONCENTRATION
• REDUCED LIGHT PENETRATION DUE TO SUSPENDED SEDIMENT CAN
OBSCURE AQUATIC ORGANISMS’ VISION, REDUCING THEIR ABILITY
TO FIND FOOD
• SUSPENDED PARTICLES CAN ALSO CLOG FISH GILLS AND AFFECT
GROWTH RATES
• ORGANIC SUSPENDED SOLIDS ARE ALSO MORE LIKELY TO DECREASE
DISSOLVED OXYGEN LEVELS AS THEY ARE DECOMPOSED
 WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS
• PHOSPHORUS
• NORMALLY DETERMINED AS PHOSPHATE
• USED AS AN INDICATION OF EUTROPHICATION
• PHOSPHORUS OCCURS WIDELY IN NATURE IN PLANTS, IN MICRO-ORGANISMS, IN
ANIMAL WASTE
• IS WIDELY USED AS AN AGRICULTURAL FERTILISER AND AS A MAJOR CONSTITUENT
OF DETERGENTS, PARTICULARLY THOSE FOR DOMESTIC USE
• RUN-OFF AND SEWAGE DISCHARGES ARE THUS IMPORTANT CONTRIBUTORS OF
PHOSPHORUS TO SURFACE WATER

• NITRATE
• USUALLY PRESENT BECAUSE OF OXIDATION OF AMMONIA OR AGRICULTURAL
FERTILISER RUN-OFF
• SEWAGE IS RICH IN NITROGENOUS MATTER HENCE THE PRESENCE OF NITRATE IN
GROUND WATERS IS CAUSE FOR SUSPICION OF PAST SEWAGE POLLUTION
• HIGH NITRATE LEVELS IN WATERS CAN BE HAZARDOUS TO INFANTS
• ANOTHER MAIN CONTRIBUTOR OF EUTROPHICATION
JAMAICA AMBIENT FRESHWATER STANDARDS
 • pH is the measurement of hydrogen ion (H+) activity
• pH is usually expressed as – log [H+]
• it tells us whether a solution is acidic, alkaline (basic)or neutral
• it does not tell us how much acid or alkali is present
• pH is a critical measurement
• for instance, human blood is basic with a pH between 7.3
ACIDITY, and 7.5
• if the blood pH drops < 7.3, acidosis occurs
ALKALINITY • if blood pH rises > 7.5, alkalosis occurs
AND • below 7.0 and above 7,8, death occurs
BASICITY • acidity (low pH) and basicity (high pH) are directly
related to pH measurements
• alkalinity, however, is a measure of buffering capacity
• buffers are substances that resist changes to pH
 • alkalinity is the defined as a body of water’s ability to react with
the acidic proton
• the natural buffering system of water is based on the presence
of the carbonate ion
CO2(aq) + H2O(l) ↔ H2CO3(aq)
H2CO3(aq) ↔ HCO3-(aq) + H+(aq)
HCO3-(aq) ↔ CO32-(aq) + H+(aq)

• alkalinity of natural waters is due primarily to the presence

ALKALINITY of weak acids

• addition of CO2 reduces the pH of a system
• removal of CO2 increases the pH of a system
• bicarbonates represent the major form of alkalinity in natural
waters; its source being the partitioning of CO2 from the
atmosphere and the weathering of carbonate minerals in
rocks and soil
• other salts of weak acids, such as borate, silicates, ammonia,
phosphates, and organic bases from natural organic matter,
may be present in small amounts
ALKALINITY AND ACIDITY OF WATER
 • alkalinity, by convention, is reported as mg/L
CaCO3 since most alkalinity is derived from the
weathering of carbonate minerals
• neither alkalinity nor acidity, have any known
adverse health effects
• nonetheless, highly acidic and alkaline waters are
considered unpalatable

ALKALINITY • turbidity is frequently removed from drinking water

by coagulation and flocculation
• this process releases H+ into the water
• alkalinity must be present in excess of that destroyed by the H+
released for effective and complete coagulation to occur
 • hard waters are frequently
softened by precipitation methods
• the alkalinity of the water must be known in
order to calculate the lime (Ca(OH)2) and soda
ash (Na2CO3) requirements for precipitation

• alkalinity is important to control

corrosion in piping systems
ALKALINITY • bicarbonate (HCO3-) and
carbonate (CO32- ) may complex
with other elements and
compounds, altering their toxicity,
transport, and fate in the
environment
 ALKALINITY

CLASSIFICATION ALKALINITY (mg CaCO3/L)

critical below 2
endangered between 2 and 5
highly sensitive between 5 and 10
sensitive between 10 and 20
not sensitive above 20
 CALCULATING ALKALINITY
• based on the carbonate buffer system
Total Alkalinity = [HCO3-] + 2[CO32-] + [OH-] - [H+]
• when measured in mg/L CaCO3
Total Alkalinity = [HCO3-] + [CO32-] + [OH-] - [H+]
• the determination of alkalinity is done by titrating the water sample
against H2SO4 using phenolphthalein and methyl red indicators
• total alkalinity is measured by titration with a methyl red indicator
which changes colour at pH 4.5
• phenolphthalein changes colour at pH 8.3
• pH range above 8.3
• OH- + H+ → H2O
• CO32- + H+ → HCO3-
• pH range between 8.3 and 4.5
• HCO3- + H+ → H2CO3
 ALKALINITY
• if carbonate (CO32-) is present in your sample, CO32- will
consume one H+ when the solution is titrated to pH 8.3, and
it will consume another H+ during further titration from pH
8.3 to pH 4.5
• if the volume of acid required to get pH 8.3 is equal to the
volume of acid used from pH 8.3 to pH 4.5, your sample
contained only CO32- (no OH-) as the major alkalinity
component
• if the pH of your sample is below 8.3, and a certain amount
of acid is required to reach pH 4.5, your sample contained
only HCO3- (no OH- and CO32-)
• if your sample requires a certain amount of acid to reach
pH 8.3, but no acid is required from pH 8.3 to pH 4.5, your
sample contained only OH-.
GROUP TITRATION HYDROXIDE CARBONATE BICARBONATE
RESULT
A P=0 0 0 T (initial pH <
8.3)
B P = 0.5T 0 2P 0

C P=T T 0 0

D P < 0.5T 0 2P T-2P

E P > 0.5T 2P-T 2(T-P) 0

 CALCULATING ALKALINITY

• alkalinity is usually measured in mg/L CaCO3

• determination of alkalinity by titration is done using the following formula
Total alkalinity (in mg/L as CaCO3)
= Titre volume (ml) × Normality of acid (eq/L) ×50,000 mg CaCO3
volume of sample (ml)
 QUESTION 1
Calculate the alkalinity (in mg/L CaCO3) of a water
sample if 12.64 mL of 0.02 M HCl are needed to titrate
250 mL of the water sample to pH 4.5.

ALKALINITY
QUESTIONS
 QUESTION 2
Calculate the phenolphthalein and total alkalinities of
following sample: a 50-mL sample required 5.3 mL 0.02 N
sulfuric acid to reach the phenolphthalein end point, and
total of 15.2 mL to reach the methyl-orange end point.

ALKALINITY
QUESTIONS
 QUESTION 3
A water sample contains 100 mg/L CO32- and 75 mg/L
HCO3- at a pH of 10. Determine the alkalinity of the water
sample.

ALKALINITY
QUESTIONS
 ALKALINITY QUESTIONS
QUESTION 4
For the following samples, calculate the alkalinity as well as the hydroxide, carbonate and
bicarbonate concentrations. The sample size is 100 mL, 0.02 N sulfuric acid is used as the
titrant and the water temperature is 25 oC.
Sample pH Total mL titrant to reach end point
Phenolphthalein Methyl-orange
A 11 10.0 15.5
B 7 0 12.7
C 11.2 8.2 8.3
 LINKS

VIDEO
• HTTPS://[Link]/SERIES/THE-HABITABLE-PLANET-A-SYSTEMS-
APPROACH-TO-ENVIRONMENTAL-SCIENCE/WATER-RESOURCES/
• HTTPS://[Link]/TALKS/BALSHER_SINGH_SIDHU_ARE_WE_R
UNNING_OUT_OF_CLEAN_WATER?UTM_CAMPAIGN=TEDSPREAD&UT
M_MEDIUM=REFERRAL&UTM_SOURCE=TEDCOMSHARE