A Level Yr 2 Module 5:

Communication, Homeostasis and Energy

Module 5.2 Excretion

The Kidney

Name ________________

Target Grade ______

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 A Level Yr 2 Module 5:
Communication, Homeostasis and
Energy
Module 5 Excretion – The Kidney

Excretion as an example of homeostatic control: by the end of this chapter you should be able
to demonstrate and apply your knowledge and understanding of!
The term excretion and its importance To include reference to the importance of
in maintaining metabolism and removing metabolic wastes, including carbon
homeostasis dioxide and nitrogenous waste, from the body
(i) the structure and functions of the To include the gross structure and histology of
mammalian liver the liver
(ii) the examination and drawing of AND
stained sections to show the histology the roles of the liver in storage of glycogen,
of liver tissue
detoxification and the formation of urea (the
ornithine cycle covered in outline only)
(i) the structure, mechanisms of To include the gross structure and histology of
action and functions of the mammalian the kidney including the detailed structure of a
kidney nephron and its associated blood vessels
(ii) the dissection, examination and AND
drawing of the external and internal
the processes of ultrafiltration, selective
structure of the kidney
reabsorption and the production of urine
(iii) the examination and drawing of
stained sections to show the histology
of nephrons
The control of the water potential of To include the role of osmoreceptors in the
the blood hypothalamus, the posterior pituitary gland, ADH
and its effect on the walls of the collecting ducts
The effects of kidney failure and its To include the problems that arise from kidney
potential treatments failure including the effect on glomerular
filtration rate (GFR) and electrolyte balance
AND
the use of renal dialysis and transplants for the
treatment of kidney failure
How excretory products can be used To include the use of urine samples in diagnostic
in medical diagnosis tests, with reference to the use of monoclonal
antibodies in pregnancy testing and testing for
anabolic steroids and drugs

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The Urinary System

Label the diagram below of the urinary system

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 The kidney
Describe, with the aid of diagrams and photographs, the histology and gross structure of the
kidney

Below is a diagram showing the structures present in the human kidney that can be seen without the aid of a
microscope.

The kidney can be seen to have

two distinct regions, an outer
cortex and an inner medulla.

Blood is brought to the kidneys

by the renal arteries and is
taken away from the kidneys by
the renal veins. Inside the
kidney the arteries divide into
smaller blood vessels called
arterioles.

Inside the kidneys lie the

functioning units called
nephrons, part of each is in the
cortex and part in the medulla.

Your task: Look at the diagram for 5 minutes and then try to draw FROM MEMORY the diagram of the kidney
and label it– pass to your partner to check against the diagram above

The kidney can be seen to have two distinct regions, an outer ____________ and an inner _____________.

Blood is brought to the kidneys by the renal _______________ and is taken away from the kidneys by the
renal ______________. Inside the kidney the arteries divide into smaller blood vessels called
________________.

Inside the kidneys lie the functioning units called _______________ part of each is in the cortex and part in
the medulla

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YOUR TASK
DISSECT THE KIDNEY SO THAT YOU CAN OBSERVE THE CORTEX, MEDULLA, PYRAMIDS AND URETER,
MAKE A PLAN DIAGRAM OF THIS ON PLAIN PAPER

Label the following diagrams

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The Nephron

Describe, with the aid of diagrams and photographs the detailed structure of a nephron and
its associated blood vessels,
Each kidney contains over 1 million nephrons. It is the nephron that is the functional unit of the kidney and it
here that the blood is filtered, urea is removed and the level of salts and water in the body are regulated.

Each nephron is a minute tubule (small tube like structure) about 3cm long and divided into 6 distinct regions
each with a specific function.

 The nephron begins with a group of convoluted blood capillaries called the glomerulus.
 The glomerulus is surrounded by a cup shaped structure called the Bowman’s capsule (also referred to
as the renal capsule)
 The Bowman’s capsule then leads into the longest part of the nephron the proximal convoluted tubule
(proximal meaning near; convoluted meaning twisted)
 The proximal convoluted tubule then leads into the hairpin shaped structure called the Loop of Henle.
 The Loop of Henle then leads into the distal convoluted tubule (distal meaning far).
 The distal convoluted tubule leads finally into the collecting duct.

Below are two diagrams. The diagram on the left shows the structure of a nephron; the one on the right shows
the position of nephrons within the kidney.

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Below is another diagram of a nephron, this one is a bit more complicated but its aim is to show you the
positions of the blood capillaries around the different parts of the nephron.

Your task; Draw and label on a plain piece of paper a simple diagram of a nephron and annotate with what
happens at each stage. Your diagram must include the following:

 Glomerulus
 Bowman’s capsule
 Proximal convoluted tubule (PCT)
 Loop of Henle
 Distal convoluted tubule (DCT)
 Collecting duct

Processes
 ultrafiltration
 reabsorption of glucose, water and salts
 osmoregulation

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Summary – label the following diagram

High power TS of cortex showing section

through 2 glomeruli

YOUR TASK
Observe a section of the nephron from a prepared slide and identify the Glomerulus, Bowman’s
Capsule, proximal convoluted tubule and distal convoluted tubule and draw an ANNOTATED
diagram of this on plain paper.

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The nephron is the structural unit of the kidney. It comprises a cup-shaped structure called

the ……………………………………………..that contains a knot of blood vessels called the

…………………………….

which receives its blood from a vessel called the ……………………………..….. arteriole. The inner wall
of

this cup-shaped structure is lined with specialised cells called ………………………………., and from it

extends the first, or ……………………………………………….convoluted tubule whose walls are lined with

……………………………….. epithelial cells that have …………..…………………………… to increase their surface

area. The next region of the nephron is a hairpin loop called the
……………………………………………………..,

which leads onto the second, or ……………………………………..convoluted tubule. This in turn leads
onto

the …………………………………, which empties into the renal pelvis. Around much of the nephron is a

dense network of blood vessels called the ……………………………………………………..capillaries

Questions
1. 8-10 litres of blood pass through the kidney each hour, why does so much blood need
to pass through the kidneys?

2. Suggest why the PCT and DCT are convoluted?

3. Explain why each nephron is surrounded by capillaries

4. How will you tell the difference between the cells of the PCT and DCT?

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 Ultrafiltration and selective reabsorption

Describe and explain the production of urine, with reference to the processes of
ultrafiltration and selective reabsorption

Kidneys produce urine in a two stage process:

 Firstly small molecules and ions are filtered out of the blood in the glomerulus and into the Bowman’s
capsule.
 Any of the ions and molecules that are required by the body are taken back from the nephron and
moved back into the blood, a process called reabsorption.

Filtration of the blood takes place between the glomerulus and the Bowman’s capsule. It is known as
ultrafiltration because it filters out molecules which are much smaller than the particles that are separated by
filters such as filter paper.

Ultrafiltration occurs because:

 The capillaries of the glomerulus are more permeable than capillaries elsewhere in the body; therefore
they allow more of the blood to filter through.
 The blood pressure in the glomerulus is high which helps to force molecules out of the blood into the
Bowman’s capsule.

Creating High Blood Pressure in the Glomerulus

The blood pressure in the glomerulus is high because the diameter of the afferent arteriole (the blood vessel
bringing blood to the glomerulus) is much greater than the diameter of the efferent arteriole (the blood vessel
taking blood away from the glomerulus).

 Have a look at the picture of the first diagram of the nephron.

The capillaries that make up the glomerulus are a lot more permeable than other capillaries due to the presence
of numerous pores or fenestrations. Below the capillary wall is a layer that is known as the basement
membrane; it is the basement membrane that acts as a molecular sieve. It only allows molecules with a RMM
of less than 69,000 to pass through. This means that all large blood proteins and cells remain in the blood
and do not get filtered into the Bowman’s capsule.

The walls of the Bowman’s capsule are made up of a special type of epithelial cell called podocytes (‘footed
cells’). These form extensions that wrap around the capillaries. In between these extensions are small gaps
known as filtration slits through which filtered components of the blood pass through and enter the Bowman’s
capsule.

Below is a diagram showing the fenestrated capillary wall, basement membrane and podocyte.

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 Look carefully at the diagrams below showing the glomerulus and Bowman’s capsule in detail.
 Label the diagram fully

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Your task:
1. Using the building materials provided, make a model of the glomerulus and Bowman’s capsule and EXPLAIN to
the other groups how ultrafiltration takes place.
2. Make an annotated diagram for your notes explaining clearly what happens at each stage

Past paper question

The first stage in the formation of urine is glomerular filtration. This results in the production
of glomerular filtrate in the Bowman’s (renal) capsules. Below is a diagram that shows the
structures and forces involved in the filtration process.

afferent arteriole
efferent
arteriole

glomerular
capillaries
capsular fluid
hydrostatic
pressure
2.7 kPa blood
hydrostatic
pressure
8 kPa
Bowman’s
(renal)
capsule water
potential
of blood
–4 kPa
A

proximal convoluted tubule

(a) The normal blood hydrostatic pressure in other capillaries is 3.3 kPa.

(i) Using the diagram, explain why the blood pressure in the glomerular capillaries
is considerably higher than in other capillaries.

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[2]

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 (ii) Using the data given in the diagram, calculate the effective filtration pressure.

Answer = ........................................kPa
[2]

(b) The presence of protein molecules in the urine of an individual is a sign of kidney
disease or kidney damage.

(i) Explain why it is unusual for protein molecules to appear in the urine.

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[2]

(ii) Explain why protein in the urine is often a symptom of chronic high blood
pressure.

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[2]

(c) A complex barrier exists between the blood plasma in the glomerular capillaries and
the fluid in the renal capsule.

Describe in detail the structure of the region labelled A on the diagram above.

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 Selective Reabsorption

The fluid which enters the Bowman’s capsule is known as the glomerular filtrate (i.e. the substances that have
been filtered through from the glomerulus). This filtrate then passes into the proximal convoluted tubule.
Studies have shown that all the glucose, amino acids and most of the water and salt (sodium and chloride
ions) are reabsorbed in the proximal convoluted tubule.

Structure of the tubule cells (cells of the proximal convoluted tubule)

Below is a diagram illustrating the structure of the some of the cells lining the proximal convoluted tubule.

Your Task: A blood capillary runs right next to the base of the cells and the basement membrane. Draw this
onto the diagram and label it.

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1. How is the edge of the cells next to the glomerular filtrate adapted to the reabsorption of substances
from the filtrate?

2. What do the presence of numerous mitochondria suggest about the transport processes that will be
involved in the reabsorption of substances from the filtrate?

3. The basal ends of the cells have folds called basal infoldings. How will these help in the reabsorption of
substances from the tubular cells into the blood capillary?

4. There are also numerous endocytotic vesicles present in the cells.

 Label some of these on the diagram.

5. What is endocytosis and what sort of things will be reabsorbed from the filtrate by pinocytosis?

There are also numerous intercellular spaces between the cells. These allow substances to move from the
tubular cells into the tissue fluid surrounding the cells and then into the blood capillaries.

Reabsorption from the Proximal Convoluted Tubule

 Sodium ions are actively transported from the filtrate into the tubule’s cells. Once inside the cell they
diffuse to the basal end of the cell. At the basal end of the cell they are actively pumped out of the
cell into the surrounding tissue fluid. From the tissue fluid the sodium ions diffuse into the blood
capillary.
By actively transporting sodium ions out of the tubule cells this maintains the concentration gradient
for the diffusion of sodium ions across the tubule cells.

 Glucose is transported into the tubule cells by two different mechanisms.

In the first mechanism it is co-transported (at the same time as) into the tubule cells with the sodium
ions. The active transport of the sodium ions provides enough of a pull to bring the glucose ions with it.
In the second mechanism glucose is actively transported into the tubule’s cells.
Once the glucose is inside the tubule cells it diffuses to the basal end of the cell, from there it is
actively transported out of the cell and then diffuses into the capillary.

 Chloride ions follow the movement of the sodium ions.

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 Water - the movement of glucose, sodium ions and chloride ions which are all dissolved substances that
were in the filtrate, causes the osmotic movement of about 70% of the water moving from the filtrate
into the tubule cells and then into the blood capillary.

 Urea - due to the movement of the large quantity of water, about 50% of the urea also diffuses back
into the blood capillaries surrounding the tubule.

1. What is a co-transporter protein and what is its function?

2. Explain how and why water is reabsorbed into the blood from this region of the nephron.

3. Which molecules are reabsorbed from the filtrate by endocytosis?

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Complete the table summarising the transport mechanisms taking place in the reabsorption of sodium ions,
chloride ions, water, glucose and urea.

Mechanism of Mechanism of
Mechanism of Mechanism of
transport from transport into
Substance transport across transport out of
filtrate into the blood
the tubule cells the tubule cells
tubule cells capillary

Glucose

Sodium ions

Chloride ions

Water

Urea

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Your task: use the statements to number them and place them in the correct order, check these with your
partner and then if correct copy the order below

order
A This lowers the concentration of sodium ions in the cells of the proximal
convoluted tubule

B This increase the concentration of glucose or amino acids in the cells of the
proximal convoluted tubule

C Water then enters the blood by osmosis down a water potential gradient

D Due to sodium ions, glucose and amino acids entering the cells of the proximal
convoluted tubule the water potential decreases

E Due to a reduction in water potential in the cells of the proximal convoluted

tubule water enters by osmosis

F Sodium ions enter the cells of the proximal convoluted tubule via a co-
transporter protein which also transports a glucose molecule or an amino acid

G Glucose and amino acids diffuse out of the cells of the proximal convoluted
tubule into the blood due to a diffusion gradient

H The diffusion gradient between the cells of the proximal convoluted tubule
and the blood is maintained due to the blood continually carrying the solutes
away.

I Sodium ions enter the cells of the proximal convoluted tubule from the
filtrate down their diffusion gradient

J Sodium ions are pumped out of the cells of the proximal convoluted tubule

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Your Task: Complete the summary table below using all of the facts that you have learned.

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Questions
1. Explain why reabsorption from the nephron must be selective

2. Why is it essential that most of the water is reabsorbed from the urine?

3. What is ultrafiltration?

4. Explain why it is not correct to say that the pressure in the glomerulus is raised?

5. Explain why the glomerular filtrate contains no large proteins

6. Explain why the concentrations of glucose and amino acids are the same in the glomerular
filtrate as the blood plasma.

7. Explain why the concentration of proteins in urine is higher than the glomerular filtrate.

8. What may happen if water isnt absorbed from the nephron?

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 Past paper questions

1. Blood enters the kidneys through the renal arteries and the human kidneys process
1200 cm3 of blood every minute. This 1200 cm3 of blood contains 700 cm3 of plasma. As
this blood passes through a glomerulus, 125 cm3 of fluid passes into the renal tubule.

(i) Name the process by which the fluid passes from the glomerulus into the renal
tubule.

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[1]

(ii) Calculate the percentage of plasma that passes into the renal tubule.

Show your working and give your answer to one decimal place.

Answer = ................................................ %
[2]

[Total 3 marks]

2. The figure below is an electron micrograph of a transverse section of part of a proximal

convoluted tubule.

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(i) Name the tissue that lines the proximal convoluted tubule.

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[1]

(ii) Name the structures indicated by X.

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[1]

(iii) The table below shows the approximate concentration of some of the substances in
the blood plasma, the glomerular filtrate and the urine leaving the collecting duct.

concentration in concentration in
concentration in
glomerular urine leaving
substance blood plasma
filtrate collecting duct
(g dm–3)
(g dm–3) (g dm–3)

amino acids 0.50 0.50 0.00

glucose 1.00 1.00 0.00

inorganic ions 7.30 7.30 15.60

nitrogenous waste
(not including 0.03 0.03 0.28
urea)

protein 80.00 0.00 0.00

urea 0.30 0.30 21.00

Some of the changes observed between the glomerular filtrate and the urine are as a
result of activity in the proximal convoluted tubule.

With reference to the table above, explain how these observed changes in
concentration are brought about by the proximal convoluted tubule.

In your answer, you should use appropriate technical terms, spelt correctly.

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[Total 6 marks]

Roles of the loop of Henle, medulla, collecting duct and ADH in

maintaining the water balance of the blood.

Explain, using water potential

terminology, the control of the water
content of the blood, with reference to
the roles of the kidney, osmoreceptors in
the hypothalamus and the posterior
pituitary gland,

Most of the nephrons in a human kidney have very

long loops of Henle dipping far down into the
medulla of the kidney. Loops of Henle make it
possible to excrete urine that is more
concentrated than the blood.

The role of the loop of Henle is to create a very

high concentration of salts in the tissue fluids of
the medulla.

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The loop of Henle has two regions – an ascending limb and a descending limb both running parallel to each other
and surrounded by blood capillaries. The top parts of both limbs are thicker than the bottom parts.

 Label the ascending and descending limb on the loop of Henle.

The descending limb of the loop is permeable to water but not Na + and Cl- ions. The ascending loop is permeable
to Na+ and Cl- ions but not to water.

 Clearly label this fact onto the diagram.

[Link]

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The loop of Henle creates a very high concentration of solutes in the tissue fluids of the medulla. To
understand how this is created the key is to look at what is happening in the ascending limb.

 At the top part of the ascending limb, sodium and chloride ions are actively pumped out into the
surrounding tissue fluids of the medulla.

 This creates a high solute concentration in the tissue fluids of the medulla.

 The descending and ascending limbs are running parallel and very close to each other.

 As the filtrate moves down the descending limb, water is drawn out of the filtrate by osmosis.

 As the filtrate descends the loop of Henle it becomes more and more concentrated because of all the
water that is leaving the filtrate.

 This water is relatively quickly removed by the capillaries surrounding the loop of Henle.

 When it reaches and turns the hairpin bend, the concentration of solutes in the filtrate is very high.

 Na+ and Cl- ions leave the filtrate by diffusion therefore further increasing the concentration of salt
ions in the tissue fluid of the medulla.

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Below is a diagram illustrating these processes:

1. Describe what happens to the concentration of the filtrate as it passed down the descending limb of the
loop of Henle:

2. Describe what happens to the concentration of the filtrate as it passes up the ascending limb of the loop of
Henle:

In summary the loop of Henle has not significantly made the filtrate any more concentrated but it has
created an area of high solute concentration in the medulla region of the kidney.

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Describe what is happening at each of the numbered points on the diagram

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Number on What is happening at this point?
diagram
1

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1 Fig. 6.1.4 shows the loop of Henlé and the events that occur there.

Fig. 6.1.4

Na+ and Cl– ions diffuse out of this concentrated solution in the lower part of the
ascending limb.
This raises the concentration of Na+ and Cl– in the tissue fluid lowering the water
potential.
The water is carried away by blood in the capillaries.
This in turn causes the loss of water from the descending limb.
Na+ and Cl– are actively transported out of the ascending limb.
The loss of water concentrates Na+ and Cl– in the descending limb.

a) Sequence the events that occur throughout the loop of Henlé and match each to the numbers on
the diagram.
b) Explain why camels and gerbils, both animals that live in arid regions, have very long
loops of Henle.

c) Why is it beneficial for mammals living in arid regions to have a higher salt
concentrations in their medullas

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 Loop of Henlé and water reabsorption

The loop of Henlé is shaped like a ………………………………………………………… and extends into

the …………………………………………….. of the kidney. Although its role is to absorb water
from the collecting duct most water is actually reabsorbed into the blood from the
……………………………………….. The loop of Henlé has a descending and an ascending limb. The
……………………………………………….. limb has thinner walls. Of the two limbs, the
…………………………………… one is much more permeable to water. The loop of Henlé
operates by pumping sodium and chloride ions out of the …………………………………….. limb
thereby creating a …………………………………………….. water potential in the interstitial
region.
As a result water is drawn out of the descending limb by …………………………………………. and
passes into the blood capillaries by the same process, There is a gradient of water
potential in the filtrate in the loop of Henlé so that water potential is at its
……………………………………….. at the tip of the loop. The arrangement of the loop of Henlé
means that the filtrate flows in opposite directions in its two limbs. This ensures
that more water is reabsorbed than if the flow was in the same direction. This
arrangement is referred to as ………………..................………………… The distal convoluted
tubules makes final adjustments to salt and water reabsorption and controls the
…………………………………………………….. of the blood. To aid this reabsorption, the cells in its
wall have both ………………………………… and ……………………………….

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The Role of the Collecting Duct and ADH

The collecting duct runs parallel to the loop of Henle. The collecting duct has an
important role in osmoregulation. If the water content of the blood is too low,
the pituitary gland releases the hormone e ADH (anti-diuretic hormone). This
hormone makes the cells of the collecting duct develop membrane channels
called aquaporins, making the collecting duct permeable to water.

As the filtrate passes down the collecting duct due to the high concentration of solutes in the medulla most of
the water is reabsorbed back into the blood by osmosis.

This leads to a small concentration of concentrated urine being produced.

3. If the water content of the blood suddenly then becomes too high explain what will happen:

Below is a diagram summarising what happens at the collecting duct:

Your Task: Annotate the diagram below with the stages of how ADH leads to changes in permeability of the
collecting duct

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 Osmoregulation

The diagram shows the events that occur during water reabsorption, from collecting ducts
of nephrons, into the blood.

a) Sequence the events and match each one with a number on the diagram.

Vesicles that are surrounded with membrane containing water

channels move towards the cell surface membrane
ADH binds to receptors in the cell surface membrane of the cells
lining the collecting duct
Vesicles fuse with the cell surface membrane
Water molecules move through the channels in the membrane, down
the concentration gradient, into the tissue fluid (low water potential)
of the medulla and then into the blood plasma of the vasa recta
(capillaries)
A series of enzyme controlled reactions is activated, culminating
(ending) with the activation of a phosphorylase enzyme

b) Complete the following by filling in the gaps.

The kidneys play an important role in h___________________ by regulating

the concentration of water in the body fluids. This is known as

o__________________.

The amount of water in the blood is constantly monitored by cells called

o_____________ in the h______________. When the water content of

the blood is low these cells lose water and their volume shrinks. This triggers

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 stimulation of nerve cells in the h____________. These cells produce a 9

amino acid polypeptide called ADH or a___________ h__________. ADH is

made in the cell bodies of nerve cells in the h______________ and passes

to the p___________ lobe of the p______________ gland. From here it is

released into the b_______ and passes all over the body. It acts on plasma

membranes of the cells making up the walls of the collecting ducts in the

kidneys, making these membranes more permeable to water. As a result of

ADH activity, the amount of u_______ which flows from kidneys to the

b__________ will be smaller and the u______ will be more

c_____________.

c) What effect would each of these have on the production of ADH?

i) drinking large amounts of water.

ii) engaging in strenuous physical exercise for an hour but not increasing fluid intake.

d) Explain why the cells of the collecting ducts do not respond immediately to a reduction
in ADH output by the hypothalamus/posterior pituitary gland.

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 e) Construct a flow diagram to show how blood water concentration is controlled. Clearly
identify stimulus, receptors and effectors and show how negative feedback is involved.

f) Why must ADH be broken down?

g) Suggest where ADH is broken down.

h) Explain why negative feedback is an important part of osmoregulation (link to cell

signalling topic)

i) Describe how aquaporins are inserted into the plasma membrane of cells in the collecting
duct.

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j) How are neurosecretory cells different from ordinary nerve cells?

Past paper question

1. The hypothalamus produces anti-diuretic hormone (ADH) that is released by the posterior
pituitary gland into the blood.

Brain damage can occur due to trauma to the head. Traumatic brain injury (TBI) can cause
many and varied malfunctions of parts of the brain. One condition that can arise from TBI
is a lack of ADH in the blood.

Suggest the symptoms you would expect in a person with a lack of ADH.

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[3]

2. Coffee contains the drug caffeine, which inhibits the release of ADH.

Describe and explain the effect of drinking coffee on the volume and concentration
of urine produced.

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Summary of the differences in the concentration of proteins, glucose and urea between blood plasma,
glomerular filtrate and urine.

The renal vein arises from all of the capillaries surrounding the nephron so it will contain all the products that
have been reabsorbed from the glomerular filtrate back into the blood.

A Table to Show the composition of blood in the Renal Artery and Vein

Content (mg per 100ml of blood)

Component Renal Artery Renal Vein

Glucose 90 90

Urea 30 24

Proteins 740 740

Sodium ions 900 720

1. What has been completely reabsorbed back into the blood?

2. What has been partially reabsorbed back into the blood?

3. What never left the blood?*look below for a hint

A Table to Show the Composition of Blood in the Glomerular Filtrate and Urine

Content (mg per 100ml of blood)

Component Glomerular Filtrate Urine

Glucose 90 0

Urea 30 2000

Proteins 0 0

Sodium ions 900 1200

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Past Paper Question

The following table shows the concentrations of glucose and urea in the renal artery and renal
vein.

concentration / mg 100 cm–3 plasma

renal artery renal vein

glucose 90 80

urea 30 16

Both substances are present in lower concentration in the renal vein than in the renal
artery. However, urea appears in the urine of a healthy individual but glucose does not.

Explain why this is so.

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[Total 5 marks]

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 Concentration of urea, sodium ions and glucose as the filtrate passes
through the nephron
Describe and explain the shape of each of the graphs.

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Past Paper question

An investigation was conducted into the filtration and reabsorption of glucose in the kidney of a
mammal. The glucose concentration in the plasma of the renal artery was increased. The glucose
concentrations were measured in the following fluids:

• glomerular filtrate

• urine.

From the measurements obtained, the concentration of glucose in the fluid reabsorbed
from the glomerular filtrate was calculated. The results of this investigation are shown
below.

glomerular
12 filtrate

10
glucose urine
concentration
mg cm–3
8

4
calculated
glucose
2 reabsorption
from
glomerular
filtration
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
renal artery plasma glucose
concentration/ mg cm–3

Use the data in the figure above to answer the following questions.

(i) Describe the relationship between plasma glucose concentration in the renal artery
and the concentration of glucose in the glomerular filtrate.

.........................................................................................................................

.........................................................................................................................
[1]

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(ii) State the plasma glucose concentration in the renal artery above which the kidney is
unable to reabsorb all the glucose from the glomerular filtrate.

Answer = .................... mg cm-3

[1]

(iii) Explain why plasma glucose concentrations in the renal artery greater than the
figure you have given in (ii) would result in the presence of glucose in the urine.

.........................................................................................................................

.........................................................................................................................

.........................................................................................................................

.........................................................................................................................

.........................................................................................................................

.........................................................................................................................
[3]

[Total 5 marks]

44
 Kidney Failure

Outline the problems that arise from kidney failure and discuss the use of renal dialysis and
transplants for the treatment of kidney failure,

Renal Dialysis

A dialysis machine is a machine designed to remove waste s from the blood. It is used when
the kidneys fail, or when blood pH changes, or urea or potassium levels increase much above
normal. In kidney dialysis blood flows through a system of tubes composed of partially
permeable membranes. Dialysis fluid (dialysate) has a composition similar to blood except
that the concentration of wastes is low. It flows in the opposite direction to the blood on the
outside of the dialysis tubes. Consequently, waste products like urea diffuse from the blood
into the dialysis fluid, which is constantly replaced. The dialysis fluid flows at a rate of
several 100cm3 per minute over a large surface area. For some people dialysis is an ongoing
procedure, but for others dialysis just allows the kidneys to rest and recover from injury or
the effects of drugs or other metabolic disturbance.

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1. In kidney dialysis, explain why the dialysing solution is constantly replaced rather than
being recirculated.

2. Explain why ions such as potassium and sodium, and small molecules like glucose do not
diffuse rapidly from the blood into the dialysing solution along with urea.

3. Explain why the urea passes from the blood into the dialysing solution.

4. Describe the general transport process involved in dialysis.

5. Give a reason why the dialysing solution flows in the opposite direction to the blood.

6. Explain why a clot and bubble trap is needed after the blood has been dialysed but before
it re-enters the body.

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7. Explain why renal dialysis must be combined with a carefully monitored diet and what
components of the diet must be monitored?

8. Explain why the dialysis fluid must be

 changed regularly

 kept at 370C

 Sterile

9. Complete the following table of advantages and disadvantages of renal dialysis for kidney
failure
Advantages Disadvantages

47
 Past papers question

When the kidneys cease functioning or fail to work effectively, renal dialysis may be
necessary.

Fig. 1 outlines the procedure of haemodialysis, a type of renal dialysis.

stage 1 stage 2
blood (fromblood vessel L blood flowin the machine
in the body) enters dialysis regulated by a pump and
machine anticoagulant added

stage 4 stage 3
‘cleaned’ blood returns to blood is bathed in dialysis
blood vessel Min the body fluid (dialysate)
fromdialysis machine

Fig. 1

Fig. 2 shows further detail of how stage 3 is achieved.

dialysate in

direction of blood flow inside cellulose acetate membrane

dialysate out

Fig. 2

(i) State the types of blood vessel represented by L and M in Fig. 1.

L ....................................................................................................................

M ....................................................................................................................
[1]

(ii) Suggest why it is necessary to add an anticoagulant to the blood in stage 2.

.........................................................................................................................

.........................................................................................................................
48
 [1]

(iii) Suggest why no anticoagulant is added to the blood towards the end of a dialysis
session.

.........................................................................................................................

.........................................................................................................................
[1]

(iv) State the process by which molecules and ions, other than water, will move from the
blood into the dialysate.

.........................................................................................................................
[1]

(v) Suggest why the direction of flow of the blood and the dialysate is as shown in Fig.
2.

.........................................................................................................................

.........................................................................................................................
[1]

[Total 5 marks]

49
 Urine Testing

Describe how urine samples can be used to test for pregnancy and detect misuse of anabolic
steroids.

Using page 39 of the text book to make summary notes on how urine samples can be used to
test for pregnancy and detect misuse of anabolic steroids

Anabolic Steroids

Pregnancy

50
Past paper question

The presence of CG in the urine can be used in pregnancy testing. Information about a
pregnancy testing kit is given below and in the figure.

• An absorbent membrane is dipped into urine.

• The membrane contains free antibodies that are specific to CG.

• The free antibodies are attached to coloured markers.

• There is a line of immobilised antibodies above position A.

• A positive result is shown by a coloured line at position A.

immobilised
antibody

position A

free
antibody
attached to absorbent
coloured membrane
marker

CG

urine sample
containing CG
Reproduced with the permission of Nelson Thornes Ltd from
‘New Understanding Biology for Advanced Level’ Fourth Edition
by Glen Toole and Susan Toole (978-0-7487-3957 -8), first published in 1999.

51
Using information from the figure, explain how the presence of CG in the urine results in a
coloured line at position A.

..................................................................................................................................

..................................................................................................................................

..................................................................................................................................

..................................................................................................................................

..................................................................................................................................

..................................................................................................................................

..................................................................................................................................

..................................................................................................................................
[Total 4 marks]

52