Sultanate of Oman.

Highway Design Standards 2010

14
Highway Design and Geotechnical
Considerations

14.1 Engineering Geology And Climate 14.3 Slope Stabilization Design Guidelines 14-15 14.7 Highways IN DUNE AREAS 14-28
In The Sultanate Of Oman 14-1 14.3.1 General 14-15 14.7.1 Introduction 14-28
14.1.1 Introduction 14-1 14.3.2 Practical Importance of Slope Movement 14-15 14.7.2 Sand Movements and Deposition 14-29
14.1.2 Geographical Setting 14-1 14.3.3 Slope Stability Problems and their Solutions 14-15
14.1.3 Climate 14-1 14.3.4 Typical Slopes in Cut and Fill for Various 14.8  lements Affecting Highway
E
14.1.4 The Major Geomorphic-Geological Features 14-1 Soil/Rock Materials 14-18 Design In Dune Areas 14-29
14.1.5 The Major Geological Units 14-2 14.8.1 Highway Location 14-29
14.1.6 The Main Rock Units 14-2 14.4 Retaining Walls Design Guidelines 14-19 14.8.2 Design Elements 14-29
14.1.7 The Plate Tectonic Setting of Oman 14-4 14.4.1 General 14-19 14.8.3 Design and Construction Considerations 14-30
14.1.8 Geological Overview of the Main Geological 14.4.2 Types of Retaining Walls 14-19 14.8.4 Dune Stabilization 14-31
Provinces of the Sultanate of Oman 14-4 14.4.3 Selection of Type of Retaining Wall 14-22 14.8.5 Dune Destruction 14-32
14.1.9 Groundwater Resources of the Sultanate of Oman 14-6 14.4.4 Retaining Wall Design Criteria 14-22 14.8.6 General Drawings 14-32
14.1.10 Geotechnical Properties of the Different Geologic 14.4.5 Design Against Serviceability States 14-23 14.8.7 References 14-32
Units in the Sultanate of Oman 14-6
14.1.11 Ground Subsidence 14-8
14.5 Reinforced Earth Walls 14-23 14.9 References 14-32
14.1.12 Seismicity 14-8
14.5.1 General 14-23
14.1.13 Materials 14-8
14.5.2 Types of Reinforced Earth Walls 14-24
14.5.3 Selection of Reinforced Earth Systems 14-25
14.2 Guidelines For Geotechnical
Investigation Studies 14-8
14.6 Geotechnical Hazards 14-25
14.2.1 General 14-8
14.2.2 Preliminary Surface Exploration 14-8 14.6.1 General 14-25

14.2.3 Geotechnical Input for Preliminary Design Phase 14-9 14.6.2 Sabkha 14-25

14.2.4 Geotechnical Input for Final Design Phase 14-10 14.6.3 Cavities 14-25

14.2.5 Planning a Site Investigation 14-12 14.6.4 Collapsing Soils 14-26

14.2.6 Field Work 14-13 14.6.5 Expansive Soils 14-26

14.6.6 Groundwater 14-27
14.6.7 Seismicity 14-27
14.6.8 Wind Blown Sands 14-27
14.6.9 Deleterious Minerals 14-27
List of Figures Figure [Link]: Segmental Block System and Anchored Table [Link]: Guidelines for Testing Requirements –
Earth System 14-25 Materials Sources 14-13
Figure [Link]: The Main Physiographic Features of Oman 14-1
Figure [Link]: Classification Chart for Swelling Potential 14-26 Table [Link]: Guidelines for Boring Requirements –
Figure [Link]: Geological Sketch Map of the Sultanate
Retaining Walls and Bridges 14-13
of Oman 14-2 Figure [Link]: Sand Dune General Shape 14-28
Table [Link]: Assumptions Concerning Interslice
Figure [Link]: Plate-tectonic Setting of Oman 14-4 Figure [Link]: Sand Dune Location within the Sultanate 14-28
Forces for Different Methods of Slices 14-17
Figure [Link]: Explanatory Sketches on Minimum Figure [Link]: Wind Speed vs. Quantity of Sand
Table [Link]: Typical Slopes in Cut and Fill for
Boring Depth According to Type of Foundation 14-13 Movement per Meter Square 14-28
Various Soil/Rock Materials 14-19
Figure [Link]: Example of Translational Slope Figure [Link]: Path of a Single Particle in Saltation 14-29
Table [Link]: Advantages and Disadvantages of
Movement (Wedge Method) 14-16 Figure [Link]: Sand Particles in Saltation 14-29 Different Types of Retaining Walls 14-22
Figure [Link]: Example of Rotational Slide Movement 14-17 Figure [Link]: Grain Size Related to Movement Mode Table [Link]: Qualitative Assessment of Collapse
Figure [Link]: Forces Acting on a Vertical Slice 14-17 with Percentages for each Mode 14-29 Potential 14-26
Figure [Link]: Slope Stability Analysis using Figure [Link]: Typical Schematic Embankment using
a Computer Program 14-17 Sand Dune Fill with Plating 14-30 drawings
Figure [Link]: Types of Retaining Walls 14-19 Figure [Link]: Sand Dune Fill – Embankment Plating 14-30 GD 14-10: Dune Treatment in Cut and Fill Sections 14-33
Figure [Link]: Stabilization of Rock Cuts Using Shotcrete 14-20 Figure [Link]: Dune acting as Sand Trap following GD 14-15: Typical Details - Row and Median Fence
Stabilization 14-31 in Dune Sand Areas 14-34
Figure [Link]: Stabilization of Rock Cuts Using Netting
and Rockfall Buffer Areas 14-21 GD 14-20: Dune Immobilization Methods (1 of 2) 14-35
List of Tables
Figure [Link]: Ultimate Limit States of External GD 14-21: Dune Immobilization Methods (2 of 2) 14-36
Instability for Gravity Retaining Walls 14-22 Table [Link]: Guidelines for Pit or Boring Requirements –
GD 14-22: Sand Fence Details 14-37
Highway Detailed Design 14-12
Figure [Link]: Elemental System 14-24
Table [Link]: Guidelines for Testing Requirements –
Figure [Link]: Full Height System and Wrap-around
Highway Detailed Design 14-13
System 14-24
 Sultanate of Oman. Highway Design Standards 2010

Highway Design and Geotechnical Considerations

14
14.1 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY AND CLIMATE IN THE SULTANATE OF OMAN 14.1.3 Climate
The climate in Oman has two distinct periods: the cooler winter months when most rain falls in northern Oman,
14.1.1 Introduction especially in the mountains, and the hot summer when a southwest monsoonal airflow affects most of the
The complex geologic and geomorphic history of the Sultanate of Oman has resulted in a large variety of ground country, with a significant deposition of fog moisture occurring in parts of the Dhofar highlands.
conditions many of which are potential foundation hazards if not recognized and identified.
Air circulation over Oman during the winter months is predominantly north westerly (the Shamal wind) bringing
Site investigation on many projects tend to be minimal. In certain circumstances, this has led to design of remnants of European cyclonic storms down the Gulf and widespread though sporadic precipitation to the
foundations that require unforseen corrective measures during construction. It is therefore important that the northern Al Hajar Mountains. During the summer months, the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone and the South
designer has a thorough appreciation of the ground conditions. East Trade winds are drawn northwards by a low pressure area over the Indo-Pakistan landmass. The resultant
south west monsoon generates heavy precipitation in the Asir Mountains of Saudi Arabia where the annual
This Section 14.1 is not intended to be a detailed account of the geological setting of Oman and geotechnical
average rainfall reaches 1000 mm in places and brings summer rain to the Qamar Mountains in Dhofar. The
properties of the country’s soils, but simply draws attention to the diversity of ground conditions that exist, and
South West monsoon is deflected by the Al Hajar Mountains resulting in occasional storms on their southern
provides some background information on the geology and groundwater hydrology and hydrogeology of the
flanks. Approximately 40% of the rain at Nizwa falls during the summer months whereas at Muscat and along the
Sultanate.
Batinah coast, which is effectively in the rain shadow of the SW monsoon, summer rain is negligible. The climate
is arid, characterized generally by high temperatures which range from 35 to 48oC during summer months and, 19
14.1.2 Geographical Setting
to 30oC during the winter months. The annual rainfall varies considerably; the mean annual rainfall is in the order
The Sultanate of Oman is located in the southeast of the Middle East, in the southeastern corner of the Arabian of 125 mm/year. Evaporation rates are much higher than the annual rainfall, so that there is little percolation of
Peninsula’s hot and tropical desert. However, Oman has a contrasting landscape characterized by two deeply water into the ground.
dissected narrow mountainous areas,
Cyclones and cyclonic storms generate over the Indian Ocean and Arabian Sea during the months of May, June,
one in the north of the country (Al Hajar
October and November. Some of these cyclones track over the eastern seaboard and occasionally up the Sea
Mountains) and the other in the south
of Oman. These storms hit the Arabian coast on average once every three years and occasionally result in very
(Dhofar mountains) and vast, generally
heavy precipitation (300mm of rain fell at Muscat in one day in June 1960).
flat, central plains, between 50 and 250 m
above sea level (Figure [Link] Adopted Variations in annual rainfall are considerable everywhere in Oman, but the most unreliable as well as the lowest,
from Clarke 1990). The northern Al Hajar occurs in the desert foreland (Badiyah). For example, an estimated 200 mm fell in 2 days at Haima in July of one
Mountains reach a maximum height of year, where the last rain was reputed to be eight years previously. The variability can be seen by considering the
3009 m at al Jabal al Akhdar (the Green data recorded at Muscat between 1893 and 1976 where the mean annual precipitation is 125 mm/year yet the
Mountain). minimum recorded value is 5mm and the maximum value is 265 mm. One of the reasons for this unpredictability
of rainfall is that Oman lies at the boundary between two meteorological regions (the Sahara Arabian desert and
The coastline extends for about 1800
the Indian Ocean Monsoon).
km, with a number of islands offshore,
the largest being Masirah to the east of The hottest months are June and July where the average maximum daily temperature in any one month may
central Oman. The physical features vary reach 40oC. The coldest month is January with an average daily minimum temperature of 19oC in Muscat.
considerably, from precipitous cliffs falling Evaporation rates are high and the annual pan evaporation is commonly in excess of 2500 mm. Humidity is
to depths of over 40 m close to the shore higher in coastal regions than inland and there is a noticeable change when crossing the mountains from Muscat
in Musandam, to shallow sandy beaches where the average maximum relative humidity in any month is in excess of 80%.
with scattered inlets and lagoons, some
of which support mangroves, along the 14.1.4 The Major Geomorphic-Geological Features
Batinah coast, to extensive sandy beaches
The northern and southern coastal regions of Oman are formed respectively by the Al Hajar Mountains chain and
along the coast of Central Oman, with
the mountainous Dhofar escarpment (see Figure [Link]).
areas of salt flats, especially the Barr Al
Hikman which joins the al Sharqiyah Sands The Al Hajar mountain range, extend about 700 km along the edge of the Sea of Oman from Musandam in the
opposite Masirah, and extensive high cliffs north, to Ras Jibsh in the south. The chain is arcuate in form, narrow (30-40 km) at its extremities, and 100-150 km
with some sandy beaches and tidal inlets wide in its central part. The mountains are made up of a wide range of sedimentary and crystalline rocks in Oman.
along the coast of Dhofar. The highest peaks are made up of hard and resistant sedimentary rocks which have been folded and buried, then
subsequently uplifted since the Miocene. These highlands constitute the main massifs of the axial zone of the Al
Hajar Mountains and are composed of essentially thick and dipping limestone strata. This axial zone culminates
Figure [Link] The Main Physiographic Features of Oman. in three massifs; al Jabal al Akhdar, the Saih Hatat massif and the Musandam massif.

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Highway Design and Geotechnical Considerations

In the heart of al Jabal al Akhdar, erosion has cut deeply into the ridge of the fold, creating large depressions. The 14.1.5 The Major Geological Units
softer sedimentary rocks are more thinly bedded and intensely folded and form smaller, dissected mountain chains
[Link] The Autochthonous and
and elongate hills, characteristic of the southern side of the Al Hajar Mountains. Crystalline rocks, essentially from
Allochthonous Units: The geological
the Cretaceous Samail Ophiolite (or Nappe), form large, deeply dissected massifs along the axial zone and at the
units present are made up of successive
foot of the higher limestone massifs.
layers of rock that form the upper part of
Along the coast, the narrow Batinah coastal plain lines the northern edge of the mountains. On the southern and the continental crust of Oman. The oldest
western sides, a vast piedmont zone with gentle slopes characterizes the foreland of the mountain chain. Large rocks exposed in Oman are the gneiss and
alluvial fans made up of sand and gravel debris derived from erosion of the mountains have been accumulating granites created approximately 800 million
in this area. years ago. Figure [Link] (Adopted from

To the south of the country, the Dhofar Mountains (escarpment) form a large tilted homocline made up of BRGM, 1995) is a geological sketch map of

essentially flat-bedded Mesozoic and Tertiary limestone, culminating at an altitude of almost 2000 m in the south the Sultanate of Oman and summarizes the

overlooking the narrow Salalah coastal plain that is usually swept by monsoon wind. The Dhofar Mountains geological units exposed in Oman.

dip gently to the north beneath the sands of the Rub’ al Khali desert, forming a natural barrier that forces the These old rocks constitute the Crystalline
monsoon winds to release their load of moisture. Basement which serves as the bedrock to

The northern slope of the Dhofar range decreases in topography and altitude towards the north. In the south, the a thick pile of sedimentary rocks, largely

mountains are deeply incised by a dense wadi system resulting in gorges; to the north, the lower courses of the wadis marine in origin. Most lithostatigraphic

spread out through the associated bajadas (alluvial-fan complexes) made up of recent sand and gravel deposits. units are sequences of sedimentary rocks
that were deposited where they now
[Link] The Central (Desert) Plains: Located between the two mountain ranges, the central plains of Interior outcrop; accordingly these units are termed
Oman form more than half of the surface area of the country. These are essentially flat areas with an altitude autochthonous.
ranging between 50 and 250 m and are underlain by limestone rocks of Miocene age, with a sub-horizontal
The subsurface of most of the south and
stratification. The area forms a vast pediplain partially covered by a layer of rock debris. Jiddat al Harasis is the
the centre of Oman is made up of stacked,
largest of these uniform limestone plains, outcrops extensively around Haima region and has almost no drainage
thick lithostratigraphic units corresponding
network.
to several sedimentary successions,
In the western and southwestern regions of Oman, these limestone plains are variably covered by aeolian sand overlying the ancient Crystalline Basement.
dunes that form ramlats in the north of Dhofar. In the west of the central plains lies a vast inland depression, A very recent sedimentary cover overlies
the Umm as Samim Sabkha, a temporary lake upon which a superficial salt crust formed through continued these allochthonous units. Figure [Link] Geological Sketch Map of the Sultanate of Oman
evaporation.
On the other hand, and in the northern Al Hajar Mountains, a group of nappes or allochthonous units overlie an
The uniform landscape of the central plains is interrupted by the Haushi-Huqf Uplift along the edge of the Arabian autochthonous substratum. These nappes were tectonically stacked onto the autochthon between Musandam
Sea coast where Tertiary, Mesozoic and Palaeozoic rocks crop out in concentric rings around the massive, resistant and the Masirah Island. Two nappes are distinguished:
Proterozoic old core.
1. The Sumeini and Hawasina Nappes that are made up essentially of sedimentary in addition to
A significant part of the present day, shallow and fairly flat continental shelf was during the Quaternary a dry volcanic rocks. These rocks represent deep marine deposition and are characteristic of a passive
land; aeolian sand dunes developed as a southward extension of the al Sharqiyah Sands. continental margin.
2. The Samail and Masirah Nappes are made up of igneous, essentially plutonic and volcanic in
[Link] Variations in Sea Level: During the Late Tertiary about 5 to 2 million years ago, sea level was higher than
origin. These are two distinct fragments of the ancient oceanic lithosphere thrust across the Oman
at present. Marine coastal erosion cut into the limestone forming flat terraces and coastal cliffs along the eastern
continent, and they are commonly referred to as «Ophiolites».
slopes of the Al Hajar Mountains bordering the Sea of Oman. Such features are clearly visible between Quryat
and Ras al Hadd inland from the present-day coastline where five main stepped levels exist; 15 m, 50 m, 110 m, Clasts derived from the erosion of these nappes characterize the detrital Juweiza Formation, which represents the
150 m and 190 m respectively. These levels represent the successive coastline positions from the end Tertiary first layer of the post-nappe deposits. This formation occurs at the base of the neoautochthonous sedimentary
(Pliocene) to the recent Quaternary times. succession known in Oman as the Sedimentary Cover.

The presence of the paleoterraces is the result of a recent phase of movement following uplift and creation of the
14.1.6 The Main Rock Units
Al Hajar Mountains which began in the Miocene, about 16 million years ago.
[Link] The (Proterozoic) Crystalline Basement: The Crystalline Basement crops out only along the eastern
[Link] The Submarine Profile: Narrow shelves are located at the foot of the two mountain ranges in the north
edge of Oman between Qalhat in the north and in Dhofar along the coast between Marbat and Hasik in the south,
and south of Oman, whereas the shelf is considerably wider along the central part of Oman.
and on the Halaaniyaat Islands. It consists of gneiss and micaschist that are intruded by various plutonic rocks,

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 Sultanate of Oman. Highway Design Standards 2010

such as quartz diorite; these are the oldest known rocks in Oman. The complex as a whole is intruded by dyke
Highway Design and Geotechnical Considerations

These are:
14
swarms of rhyolite, basalt and dolerite. The basement is known to exist in the subsurface throughout Oman as a 1. The Sumeini Nappes, essentially consisting of carbonate sedimentary rocks with continental slope
result of several geophysical exploration campaigns made in relation to oil exploration. facies.
2. The Hawasina Nappes principally composed of continental rise and basin deposits that are overlain
[Link] The (End-Proterozoic to Early Permian) Sedimentary Basement: The Sedimentary Basement crops out
by volcanic rocks.
on the eastern edge of Oman, at Al Hota to the west of Salalah and in the core of the Al Hajar Mountains. It is
principally exposed in the NNE-SSW orientated Haushi-Huqf Uplift. To the southwest, it is exposed in the Marbat, 3. The Samail Ophiolite with a Metamorphic Sole at the base, overlain by mafic to ultramafic crystalline

Ain Sarit and Al Hota areas of the Dhofar Mountains. In the northeast of the country, there is a small exposure rocks (basalt, gabbro and peridotite) representing the obducted oceanic lithosphere.

near the village of Ystin to the northwest of Jabal Ja’alan. In the Al Hajar Mountains, the sedimentary basement Within this pile, each nappe is separated from the one overlying it by a tectonic contact consisting of a large-
constitutes the core of inliers of al Jabal al Akhdar and Saih Hatat massifs. To the west and northwest of the scale, low-angle thrust fault or an overthrust. The basal contact of the nappe pile on the autochthonous terrain of
Haushi-Huqf Uplift, it crops out in six (salt) diapir structures. the Arabian Platform is tectonic, formed by a basal thrust fault which can be clearly observed in the flanks of al

The sedimentary cover consists of sedimentary, volcano-sedimentary and purely volcanic rocks that are well Jabal al Akhdar.

bedded. These include mainly sandstone, siltstone, conglomerate, limestone, dolomite and greywacke, and in Along the Samail Gap between Khadirah and Muti for example, the basal thrust fault separates the Late Cretaceous
addition to volcanic rocks. autochthonous Muti Formation from the overlying Permian-Triassic or Jurassic allochthonous Marbat Formation

The Sedimentary Basement constitutes the second layer of rocks with a thickness ranging from 1 to 5 km, and is or Guwayza Formation of the Hawasina Nappes. Thus, and as a result of thrusting, the older rocks are found to

overlying the Crystalline Basement in the Oman continental crust. overlie the younger rocks, as is the case within the Al Hajar Mountains.

[Link] The (Late Permian to Late Cretaceous) Arabian Platform: Deposits of the Arabian Platform were In addition, the Al Hajar Mountains also display two main thrust related features. These are:

essentially deposited as marine sediments on the wide continental shelf that existed in the region over a period 1. The Hawasina tectonic window, where erosion of the ophiolite thrust sheet (Samail Nappe) has
of 180 million years. These deposits outcrop in the northern and eastern parts of Oman. They are principally exposed a large area of rock belonging to the underlying Hawasina and Sumeini nappes.
exposed in the Al Hajar Mountains: the Musandam Peninsula, al Jabal al Akhdar, Saih Hatat, Salakh Arch and 2. On the southwestern flank of the autochthonous al Jabal al Akhdar massif, the Dar Sawda klippe is
Jabal Madar, where they are referred to as the “Hajar Unit” because they constitute the autochthonous or in situ an erosional remnant (inlier) of the Hawasina Nappes composed of Triassic Kawr Group volcanic and
structural unit of the Al Hajar Mountains which was subsequently overthrust by the allochthonous nappes. carbonate rocks surrounded by autochthonous Late Cretaceous sedimentary rocks of the Arabian

In eastern Oman, the Arabian Platform is well-exposed on the western flank of the Haushi-Huqf Uplift. To the Platform (Muti Formation). This feature is displayed respectively on the 1:100,000 and 1:250,000

southwest, it reappears in the cliffs of the Dhofar Mountains, in Jabal Samhan, Jabal Qara, and Jabal al Qamar. scale geological maps of Rustaq.

Petroleum exploration campaigns have revealed that the Arabian Platform extends throughout almost the entire On Masirah Island and at Ras al Madrakah, two additional allochthonous units are present:

subsurface of Oman, with the exception of the Dhofar-Huqf-Ja’alan High. This axial zone trends NE-SW along the 1. The Shi’inzi Unit, which is a very distinct part of the Hawasina Nappes. This unit is made up of
Oman coast and extends from Jabal Ja’alan through the Haushi-Huqf area, down to Marbat. volcanic rocks and carbonates in the southeastern part of Oman.

The Arabian Platform deposits are almost entirely composed of marine carbonate sedimentary rocks, (limestone, 2. The Masirah Ophiolite Unit, which is older than the Samail Ophiolite, is also made up of crystalline

dolomite and marl), with sparse intercalations of clastic sedimentary rocks including sandstone and siltstone, in rock (peridotite, gabbro and basalt) characteristic of the oceanic lithosphere. Two main ophiolite

addition to local intrusions of volcanic rocks. sequences separated by a sub-horizontal thrust fault can be identified on the island.

It is worth mentioning that the sedimentary column does not reflect continuous deposition and is divided into The Allochthonous Units constitute the fourth layer of rocks within the Oman continental [Link] layer, however,

groups and rock formations separated by breaks representing periods of non-deposition and/or erosion (or does not extend across the whole country, but rather forms an irregular wedge of rock, which, where present,

unconformity). can reach a maximum thickness of several kilometers. Furthermore, the Allochthonous units are restricted to the
northern and the eastern parts of the Oman continent where they were thrust across the Arabian Platform some
The Arabian Platform represents the third layer of rocks within the continental crust of Oman. This layer reaches 80-90 million years ago.
a thickness of 2500-3000 m in the Al Hajar Mountains and the subsurface of Interior Oman, but it abruptly thins
towards the Dhofar-Huqf - Ja’alan High areas. In outcrop, it unconformably overlies the Sedimentary Basement, [Link] The End-Cretaceous and Tertiary Sedimentary Cover: The Sedimentary Cover is the most extensive
except to the northeast of Marbat area in the cliffs of Jabal Samhan, where it unconformably rests on the lithostratigraphic unit outcropping in Oman covering nearly two thirds of the country, and is exposed around
Crystalline Basement. the older Al Hajar Mountains and the Haushi-Huqf structure. In the Al Hajar Mountains, it partially covers both
the nappes and their autochthonous substratum and represents the Post-Nappe Units. This sedimentary cover
[Link] The Allochthonous Units (The Nappes): The nappes crop out extensively from the Musandam Peninsula comprises a succession of sediments and sedimentary rocks that unconformably overlie the older and folded units
to Ras Jibsh on the Batain Coast. They are also exposed on Masirah Island and at Ras al Madrakah. The limit of that were occasionally metamorphosed and peneplaned before the deposition of the sedimentary deposits.
the outcrops to the west and the south almost coincides with the line of thrust-front advancement across the
Arabian Platform. To the east however, their extent is poorly known below the al Sharqiyah Sands. In the Al In Oman, the Sedimentary Cover is made up of marine sedimentary rocks deposited during the End Cretaceous-

Hajar Mountains, three main tectonically emplaced units can be distinguished in the nappe sequences, from the Early Miocene, represented by the Aruma, Hadhramaut and Dhofar groups. These are overlain by very shallow-

bottom to the top. marine to continental deposits from the Miocene-Pliocene, represented by the Fars Group. Carbonate rocks in

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 Ministry of Transport & Communications . DGRLT

Highway Design and Geotechnical Considerations

general, and mainly fossiliferous shelf limestones prevailed until the Oligocene. In addition, the occurrence of [Link] Overview of the Geology of Northern Oman and the Muscat Area: The regional geology of the northern
marl and chalk, with other deeper marine deposits such as turbiditic calcarenite and calcirudite, has also been Oman is dominated by the presence of Al Hajar Mountains that are geologically different form the rest of the
identified in the sedimentary layers deposited. Arabian plate. In this respect, three major tectonostratigraphic successions can be distinguished from the geologic
maps (1/250,000) representing the northern Oman region. The lowermost one is an autochthonous (of Pre-Permian
Towards the top of the succession, the Miocene-Pliocene deposits are composed of lacustrine limestone, and
age) sequence followed by an allochthonous sequence that is overlain by a younger autochthonous sedimentary
terrigenous clastic sediments that form the uppermost part of the Sedimentary Cover. Among these continental
cover.
deposits are thick fans of molasse, laid down in the piedmont zones of the Al Hajar Mountains, are also present.
Extensive folding, domal uplift and subsequent erosion have resulted in exposures and geological windows
The Sedimentary Cover constitutes the fifth layer of rocks and forms the uppermost part of the continental crust
throughout the total succession of sedimentary and igneous rocks down into the underlying the metamorphic
with a moderate but variable thickness across Oman.
and crystalline basement.
[Link] The Quaternary Surficial Deposits: The Quaternary Surficial Deposits are well represented in Oman,
The autochthonous sequence is exposed in the central part of the Al Hajar Mountains and is made up of three
both in the mountain piedmont zones in northern and southern Oman and in the sand deserts of the Rub’ al Khali
main rock types as follows. The first one is the crystalline basement complex exposed in Jabal Ja’alan and Qalhat
and the al Sharqiyah Sands. The deposits form a surficial and discontinuous cover of variable thickness, and are
districts. The second type is made up of the metamorphic rocks exposed in Saih Hatat. The third type includes the
made up of unconsolidated loose continental material. The multitude of depositional environments is reflected
clastic rocks and the platform carbonates that crop out in the al Jabal al Akhdar and Jabal Nakhl. This sequence is
in the lithological diversity of the sediments. These sedimentary environments include coastal and marine zones
unconformably overlain by the shallow marine shelf carbonates of the Hajar Supergroup that may locally reach
(the Batinah and Batain coastal stretches), the alluvial wadi systems, the piedmont zones, the sabkhas and aeolian
a thickness of about 3000 m.
sand-dominated environments. The principal constituents of the surficial deposits are derived from sub-aerial
weathering and erosion of the al Jabal al Akhdar and Dhofar mountains. The dominant method of transport is The second sequence (of Late Cretaceous age) is allochthonous and is made up of a thick sequence of oceanic
directly related to the climatic conditions prevailing. lithospheric material together with the marine sediments on top that were thrust onto the adjacent continental
margin of the southeastern Arabian sub-plate from an ocean to the north of Oman around 90 million years ago.
The Quaternary Surficial Deposits unit constitutes a discontinuous cover of unconsolidated continental sediments
These sequences or nappes consist of the Hawasina Complex and the Samail Ophiolites. The Hawasina nappe is
that partially cover the older underlying rocks.
made up of deep sea sediments including radiolarian chert and carbonate turbidites and is overlain by the tectonically
obducted Samail Ophiolites which are the structurally highest of all the Al Hajar Mountains. These are made up of a
14.1.7 The Plate Tectonic Setting Of Oman
series of mafic and ultramafic rocks including peridotites, gabbros, sheeted dikes, and basaltic pillow lavas. Variably
Oman is located at the eastern edge of the Arabian tectonized peridotites, mainly harzburgite, cut by numerous pyroxenite dykes are the major ophiolite rock types.
plate, and lies within the tectonic setting of convergence
In the Muscat area, the Samail Nappe is exposed on Jabal Bardah and at the toe of Jabal Laqab scarp where
between the Arabian and Eurasian plates Figure
the ophiolites are represented by a basal of tectonite peridotite and a little cumulate gabbro. These rocks layers
[Link] (Adopted from BRGM 1995).
are extensively fractured and weathered, with the serpentinized peridotite clearly thrust over the Hawasina
Three types of plate boundaries exist along edge of sedimentary deposits. Secondary faulting can be seen in the basal thrust of the Samail Nappe. The peridotites
the Arabian Plate: layers are unconformably overlain by the Tertiary to present sedimentary cover present in the area.

1. The western and southeastern boundaries The autochthonous sedimentary cover (Late Cretaceous to Early Tertiary) consists mainly of conglomerates and
are extensional domains (Red Sea and shallow marine limestones. The middle Tertiary sediments of this sequence include large boulders of ophiolite
Gulf of Aden spreading ridges) some of which have been weathered into expansive clays due to severe chemical weathering.
2. The northwestern boundary represented
[Link] Overview of the Geology of the Haushi-Huqf Uplift: The Haushi-Huqf Uplift is an anticlinal dome
by Dead Sea Transform and the eastern
oriented NNE-SSW, almost parallel to the adjacent coastline. The core of the structure is composed mainly of an
boundary represented by the Owen
Infracambrian-Cambrian sedimentary succession and minor Late Proterozoic granitic rocks. This main structure
Fracture zone. These are major strike-
is rimmed by Palaeozoic and Cenozoic formations. It is bounded on its eastern side by the Masirah Trough and
slip faults along which the Arabian plate
ophiolite belt. The different formations exposed in the uplift are covered by the recent sedimentary deposits to
slides against the African and Turkish Figure [Link] Plate-tectonic Setting of Oman
the north, south and west.
plates in the northwest, and against the Indian oceanic lithosphere, respectively.
3. To the northeast of the Arabian plate, the recent Zagros and Makran Mountains were produced In the Haushi-Huqf Uplift, the outcrop of the Crystalline Basement consists essentially of the Al Jobah Granodiorite
from the collision between Arabia and the Eurasian continent, as a result of the counterclockwise which is affected by fracturing and intruded by dyke swarms.
convergence of Arabia towards central Asia. The rate of convergence is about 3-5 cm per year. From the end of the Proterozoic until the beginning of the Permian, sedimentary successions were deposited
across the eroded and peneplaned basement and make up the «Pre-Late Permian Sedimentary Basement».
14.1.8 Geological Overview of the Main Geological Provinces of the Sultanate of Oman
The early Cambrian volcanism erupted ignimbrite and rhyolite that were overlain by breccias and sedimentary
The following geological synopses are based on the review of geological maps 1:250,000 of Oman. conglomerate of the Halfayn Formation. Sedimentary conditions then enabled the deposition of the thick Huqf
Group. This group makes up the first sedimentary megasequence and begins with the Abu Mahara Formation
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 Sultanate of Oman. Highway Design Standards 2010

with successive palaeoenvironments of shallow-marine, flood plain and then tidal flat conditions. This was
Highway Design and Geotechnical Considerations

The last marine transgression to flood the eastern half of Interior Oman deposited the Gubbarah Formation
14
succeeded by deposition of shallow-marine carbonates of the Khufai Formation. Final emergence contributed to (of the Middle Fars Group) shallow-marine limestones, rimmed by a belt of lacustrine limestone, the Ghaba
the formation of karstic deposits, as a result of dissolution under aerial conditions. Formation, in the north and the Montasser Formation in the southwest.

The second megasequence comprises Shuram Formation subtidal to intertidal marine deposits overlain by the The northeastern part of Interior Oman is underlain by the widespread continental molasse facies of the Middle
shallow-marine to supratidal Buah Formation deposited in an arid climate with an adjacent landmass undergoing Miocene – Pliocene Barzaman Formation. These include terrigenous fluviatile and minor lacustrine sediments
weathering and erosion. accumulated in the southern piedmont zone of the Al Hajar Mountains which underwent compressive upfolding
and simultaneous erosion since the Burdigalian.
At the base of the terrigenous deposits of the Thumaylah Formation, kaolinitized siltstone fills the karstic
depressions in the underlying Huqf Group carbonate. Continental sedimentation continued with flood plain and Notable also is the presence of the Umm as Samim Sabkha which covers a surface area slightly greater than
aeolian deposits of the Amin Formation at the base of the Cambrian-Ordovician Haima Group. 5000km2, including a zone covered by dunes. It forms the inland watershed of the al Jabal al Akhdar, where the
wadis and fans drain the waters southeastwards into the great dry salt lake. As the water vaporizes, the salt will
These sedimentary megasequences are overlain by the shallow-marine deposits marking the end of the Cambrian
be deposited as a polygonal shaped crust several meters thick. Constant evaporation desiccates the Sabkha
and the beginning of the Ordovician (Andam Formation). The Haushi Group crops out in the western flank of the
area which later turns into skins of salt that can be treacherous and dangerous, as they are potentially unstable.
Haushi-Huqf Uplift, and is made up of the glacio-fluvial deposits of the Al Khlata Formation and the thin shallow-
Alternations of evaporite deposits (mainly gypsum and salt) and windblown silt are commonly found in sabkhas.
marine deposits of the Saiwan Formation.
The surface layer of the sabkhas is usually brownish and more or less blistered as a result of the recrystallization.
The Haushi Huqf geological map also shows Sabkha expanses that are associated with wadis. These are fed Local mud cracks can also be encountered.
by small discharges of saline springs issuing form the crystalline basement, and by flashfloods during storms.
Theses mostly occur in the central part of the uplift and extend to the north and south, where their extent narrows. [Link] Overview of the Geology of Dhofar Mountains: Metamorphic and plutonic rocks of the Late Proterozoic
Sabkhas are also exposed along the coastline, where they encroach upon the sand dunes, especially in the Barr al Crystalline Basement outcrop the southeastern border of Dhofar, in the coastal Marbat-Hasik area and in Al
Hikman peninsula. Coastal lagoons are also present, some of which are still connected to the sea. Halaaniyaat Islands where the crystalline Basement is made up of mafic and felsic orthogneiss (Sadh Gneiss,
Juffa Gneiss, Al Halaaniyaat Gneiss) in which calcalkaline plutons can be identified; the Fusht, Hadbin and Murbat
It is also worth noting that at the end of the Early Permian uplift and emergence affected the whole of Oman.
plutons in the Marbat-Hasik area, and the offshore Al Halaaniyaat granite.
Neo-Tethyan extensional tectonics brought about the formation of the Arabian Platform upon which a thick
Block faulting which accompanied the uplift of the basement, brought with it the intrusion of mafic and felsic dyke
Permian-Cretaceous carbonate succession developed consisting of fossiliferous limestone, dolomite and silt.
swarms along with the Wadi Shiliyarn granite stock.
From the end of the Cretaceous to the end of the Tertiary, sedimentation was confined to the rim of the Haushi-
Glacial to periglacial sedimentary deposits, that underlie the isolated fluviatile and shallow-marine deposits of
Huqf area which formed an emergent uplift. As a result of this uplift, different structural features can be indentified
the Murbat Formation (of the lower Huqf Group), were deposited on the peneplaned basement. The greywacke
on the Haushi Huqf geologic map 1:250,000. These include the NNW-SSE trending Haushi-Nafun Fault, and a NS
and shale of the EI Hota Ain-Sarit Formation are assigned to the upper Huqf Group and represent the exposed
trending major anticlinal structure that is sub-parallel to the Haushi-Nafun Fault. In addition, a series of smaller
Dhofar High running NE-SW along the southern Oman coast.
NE-SW trending anticlinal structures and normal faults can also be identified in the south of the Haushi Uplift,
attesting to the uplifted nature of the region. Younger sedimentary rocks are represented by the Early Cretaceous Qishn Formation of the Thamama Group,
with a thin and lower member of mixed terrigenous sandstone and clay, shallow-marine dolomitic limestone,
[Link] Overview of the Geology of Interior Oman: The interior Oman is a vast desert zone which extends from and a thick upper member of marl and massive limestone. The Middle Cretaceous is represented by alternating
the Al Hajar Mountains in the north to the Dhofar region in the south. It represents an extension of the Rub’ al marl and limestone, of the Kharfot and Dhalqut Formations of the Wasia Group. A regional thickening from NE-
Khali desert which is centered in Saudi Arabia. SW can be observed with a variable thickness of the Wasia Group ranging from 250 m in Jabal Sarnhan to 1,200
The geological substrate is relatively uniform and the outcropping rocks are mainly Tertiary sedimentary rocks, m in Jabal al Qamar near the Yemen border.
commonly covered in the west by aeolian sand of the Rub’ al Khali. Six small outcropping diapirs expose carbonate The thin continental interval (silty, bauxitic, smectitic and sandy claystones) of the Qitqawt Formation corresponds
and local rock salt (salt diapirs) of the Cambrian Ara Formation that pierced through the Miocene sediments. to a long period of emergence of the whole of Dhofar that commenced in the early Turonian and ended during
Among the oldest sedimentary rocks are those of the middle Hadhramaut Group represented by the shallow- the early Campanian.
marine limestone of the Dammam Formation. Their outcrops form a western and southwestern belt at the edge The end-Cretaceous sedimentary succession (Aruma Group) is made up of two shallow-marine limestone
of Interior Oman from Umm as Samim in the north to Shuwaymiah in the south. sequences with rudists; the first sequence is the Samhan Formation which is unconformably overlain by the Late
Most of the deposits outcropping in Interior Oman are the late Early Miocene - Pliocene sedimentary rocks of the Maastrichtian Sharwayn Formation. These two essentially carbonate deposits are both characterized by basal
Fars Group. The shallow-marine carbonates and evaporites of the Dam Formation (lower Fars Group) occupy the members of terrigenous siliciclastics.
western part of the area extending from Ghaba and Lekhwair in the north to Amal and Muqshin in the south. These The Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary corresponds to a regional break in sedimentation, above which the thick and
represent shallow-marine (marine transgression) conditions during the Late Burdigalian. On the southeastern edge essentially carbonate sediments of the lower Hadhramaut deposited across Dhofar. This unit comprises the
of Interior Oman, and along the Arabian Sea coast, limestone and debris-flow deposits of the Warak Formation shallow-marine marly limestone, massive limestone and dolomitic limestone of the Umm er Radhuma Formation
(lower Fars Group) correspond to another marine transgression restricted to the southeastern narrow Arabian plate that are conformably overlain by the Rus Formation dolomitic tidal-flat and evaporate deposits.
margin.

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Highway Design and Geotechnical Considerations

The Middle Eocene succession is made up of the widespread thick shallow-marine deposits of the Dammam perfect water reservoir and supplies the fertile agricultural terraces of the mountainous Saiq region. Some of the
Formation comprising basal shale and marl, and is overlain by a thick massive limestone interval at the top. limestone aquifers also yield significant quantities of fresh water. Many of the villages on and around the base of
This regressive trend is particularly marked to the northwest of Marmul area and to the north of the Shisr, where al Jabal al Akhdar and its eastward extension rely on spring discharge. The springs around the base are notably
lacustrine and marshy deposits of the Qitabit formation are developed. The limestones of shallow marine Aydim hot (e.g. Baushar, Misfah) suggesting fairly deep groundwater circulation.
Formation of the upper Hadhramaut Group are limited to a coastal fringe less than 50 km wide.
The springs discharging from the Peridotite hard rock areas are commonly alkaline. The Tertiary limestones near
The Late Eocene - Middle Miocene Dhofar Group deposits are of limited extent and are restricted to down- Muscat have proved to be practical but short term aquifers. Higher quantities and higher discharges are generally
warped zones along the southern margin of Dhofar, the subsidence of which accelerated during the Late Eocene. found where there is good recharge from the overlying alluvium. Away from the wadi necks, where recharge is
In the grabens and on adjacent narrow shelves, lacustrine limestone of the Zalumah Formation grade upwards poor, excessive abstraction can result in widespread saline intrusion (Lansab and Azaiba).
into a thick succession of marine beds of the Ashawq Formation, with a sequence of marl, bioclastic limestone
The Umm er Radhuma Formation is the main aquifer supplying the interior region of Oman and most of the
and sandstone overlain by shelf limestone and dolomite. At the end of the Early Oligocene, the collapse of Dhofar
southern Arabian peninsula. In Oman, this artesian aquifer is partly recharged from the Dhofar Mountains, and
margin led to the deposition of calcareous turbidite that form the 700 m thick Mughsayl Formation.
partly from the runoff originating from rainfall on al Jabal al Akhdar. The groundwater flow eventually reaches
In northern Dhofar, the lacustrine limestones of the Dawkah Formation were deposited in the Shisr area, near the Umm as Samim area where it slowly discharges and evaporates. The excessive evaporation forms the salt
the southwestern shore of the Dam Formation Sea. The shallow marine limestones and conglomerates of the crusted Sabkha expanse present in the area.
Adawnib Formation were restricted to the coastal area around Raysut and Taqah.
Groundwater in much of the central desert is saline, and brines with salinities of over 100,000 ppm have been
Moreover, a lacustrine belt with deposition of the Montasser Formation limestones flanked the marine gulf of the encountered. Limited accumulations of fresh water have formed where surface runoff has been concentrated
Gubbarah Formation to the west. into depressions and wadi beds. Wells tapping these deposits have proved to be unreliable (e.g. Haima). The
increase in vegetation suggests that rainfall is significantly higher towards the east coast where small quantities
During the Late Miocene-Pliocene, the floodplain and marsh deposits of the Marsawdad Formation formed sheets
of brackish water are extracted from scattered hand dug wells.
80-100 m thick of fine-grained alluvial deposits on the southern margin of the Rub’ al Khali.
Significant recharge to the limestone aquifers of the southern province occurs as a result of high rainfall on Jebel
In the Shisr area, to the South, the fluviatile clastic molasse deposits of the Shisr Formation indicate a clastic
Qamar. The groundwater flows away from the mountains towards the desert foreland becoming increasingly
detritus supply from the uplifted Dhofar Mountains. At the same time, the alluvial fan conglomerates of the Nar
sulphurous as a result of migration through gypsiferous formations (Rus Formation). To the north the aquifer is
Formation were deposited at the southern collapsed margin of Dhofar, progressively overlapping the limestone
confined and there are a number of artesian wells at Dawkah and Montasser and further east around Marmul.
of the Adawnib Formation.
In a study done on the northern Batinah area in 2006, it was concluded that the flow of water is drained from
It should be note also that a major normal fault zone has affected the edge of the Dhofar Mountains resulting in
the hills towards the coastal area. It was further concluded that the groundwater levels are dropping in most of
the formation of graben structures that are clearly seen on the geologic maps of the Dhofar.
the project area catchments, and that these are expected to have a water balance deficit with more exploitation
[Link] Overview of the Coastal Sabkhas and Khabras : Refer to sub section 14.6.2 of the coastal aquifers. The largest falls of groundwater levels were recorded in the different wadis of Fizh, Suq,
Shafan, Hawasina and Mashin. Any further development in the project area would result in the mining of the
14.1.9 Groundwater Resources of the Sultanate of Oman groundwater reserves, as the fresh groundwater is sitting on top of the saline water that is extending into the
central part of the coastal plain.
Although much of the comparatively high annual rainfall that falls on the mountain chain is lost by evaporation,
occasional storms of sufficient intensity will result in infiltration, and surface run off from the hard rock areas.
14.1.10 Geotechnical Properties of the Different Geologic Units in the Sultanate of Oman
These flash floods recharge the shallow alluvial aquifers of the piedmont and bajada. The most exploitable
concentration of fresh water occurs in these alluvial aquifers where traditional water extraction is by the falaj, an [Link] Geotechnical Properties: Pre-Tertiary Formations: The pre-Tertiary formations including the Hajar
irrigation system introduced into the country by the Persians some 2500 years ago. limestone, basement metamorphic rocks, Samail ultramafic rocks and the Hawasina cherts, generally form areas
The groundwater flow through the bajada is essentially away from the mountain axis becoming increasingly saline of high relief with consequently little superimposed development. Exceptions can be found around Muscat,
towards the desert [Link] peripheral ring of Tertiary and Late Cretaceous anticlines act as barriers concentrating Muttrah and Ruwi. These rocks though jointed are competent, and generally form sound foundations. Fairly
groundwater and surface now through the intervening necks and permitting further falaj extraction of water. steep rock slopes are possible; though benching is often required as a precaution against minor rock falls. Joint
orientations may locally be unfavorable, especially in the ultramafic rocks, and joint surveys are recommended
The wadi alluvium of the northern bajada thickens considerably away from the mountains and the water table
prior to slope design.
rapidly falls off to sea revel where it becomes too deep to permit extraction by the falaj system. The northerly flow
of fresh groundwater is forced to the surface by the coastal saline wedge. The accessible shallow groundwater The small potholes found in the peridotite outcrops around Muscat appear to be superficial features and are not
has permitted the development of an extensive agricultural belt along the coast, originally by extracting it from seen in excavations so far.
hand dug wells. Karstification is limited in the limestones of the Hajar group. The surface of outcrops is fairly rich in residual
The high peaks of al Jabal al Akhdar cause the precipitation of rainwater that percolates downwards into the clay and the rock tends to be more fractured (probably by insulation). The travertine occurrence is to be given
fractured limestones of the Hajar Group. Wherever the limestones are bounded by impermeable material, special attention, as the host limestone are indeed very porous and present significant discontinuities in their
water will issue at the contact as springs. Accordingly, the small syncline on the crest of the mountain forms a rock mass

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 Sultanate of Oman. Highway Design Standards 2010

Although no geotechnical problems have been reported with these older formations, it must be appreciated that
Highway Design and Geotechnical Considerations
14
The other tertiary lithologies are generally sound and high allowable bearing pressures can usually be adopted.
to date the available data is limited. Thin red/brown hard lateritic clays are locally present at the junction between Karstification in some of the limestone beds seems to be fairly well developed and small sinkholes can occasionally
the basal Tertiary deposits and the underlying Peridotite. These are characteristically slickensided (by the fault be found. Joints are locally filled with red/brown residual soil which is commonly rich in sulphates.
movement) and are possibly expansive.
[Link] Geotechnical Properties: Alluvial Silts and Clays: Deposits of light brown and grey clayey silt underlie
[Link] Geotechnical Properties: Tertiary Formations: The Tertiary formation consists of alternating beds of many of the villages of the Interior. These soils are closely associated with the cultivated areas and with few
shallow marine limestone, clay and conglomerate. Clay makes up a significant proportion of the succession; exceptions, are not found in the surrounding gravel plains and wadis. The silts contain traces of sand, gravel.
probably about 30% in the eastern Batinah though slightly higher in the interior (Fahud, Adam regions). The Gastropod shells and, at Nizwa, pottery fragments can be seen exposed in the sides of terraces. The deposits
individual clay beds, which may be more than 50 m thick, are easily eroded and not usually exposed, having been can reach thicknesses of 4 to 5 m. Assuming the older villages to be over two millennia old, then the rate of
covered by colluvial or wadi deposits. This alternation of hard and soft beds gives rise to the dendritic drainage accumulation of the silt is approximately 2mm per year. The palm groves have probably acted as sediment traps
pattern characteristic of the Tertiary outcrop. The water table in this formation is usually at some considerable for windblown loess deflated from the surrounding gravel plain and material brought down by the falaj during
depth and the clay above the water table, slightly under-saturated. This clay has proved to be highly expansive wadi floods. These silty clays often extend for a little distance outside the village perimeter suggesting that the
and where close to the ground surface is a serious foundation problem. palm groves were more extensive in the past.

Within and around the Tertiary foothills to the west of Muscat, the alluvial overburden is thin and the clay is The deposits are predominantly composed of kaolinite and calcium and magnesium carbonate. They
commonly found at shallow depths. Wetting up of the clay as a result of garden watering, leaking sewers and characteristically have a low to moderate plasticity and a low dry density. The soil structure is metastable and
septic tanks, and burst water mains, can and has resulted in ground heave with subsequent damage to buildings. exhibits limited collapse on saturation.
Double oedometer tests on typical clay samples predict swelling pressures as high as 400 kN/m2 and that heave
Extensive deposits of silt and silty clay can be found along the Batinah coast from Barka to Sohar extending from the
under an isolated footing sitting on clay could be as much as 200 mm. In practice ground movements of this
littoral zone some 3 to 4 km inland. The silts, which can be up 4m thick, are generally uncertain by coarser grained
magnitude have been observed, but their pattern suggests wetting up has only taken place at shallow depth and
outwash deposits. The material close to the ground surface is dry and porous with a very low dry density. Traces of
that deeper moisture content changes could result in greater total heave.
sand and fine gravels in thin impersistent layers are common, especially near active wadi channels. The soil, though
Detailed mineralogical studies indicated that montmorillonite constitutes the highest percentage of clay minerals. not a true loess, has very similar geotechnical properties. Dry densities as low as 1 gm/cm3 and porosities as high as
Kaolinite, illite swelling chlorite and palygorskite are also present but in lesser quantities. Chemical analyses have 65% have been recorded. The soil structure is metastable and when preloaded can collapse upon wetting.
shown that the Na is the dominant cation. The combined presence of montmorillonite with Na explains the high
+ +
Very little investigation has been done into the geotechnical properties of these soils. Site investigations, including
swelling potential present.
in situ density determinations, double oedometer tests, and saturated plate load tests, are essential for all but
The fabric of the Omani expansive soils generally consists of dense clay matrices. The swell percent and the swell the smallest structures. Low bearing pressures should be adopted and in some cases it may be necessary to pile
pressures for the expansive soils of Oman varied from low to very high. Finally, and due to the fact the swelling through to a denser formation. Measures should be taken to prevent ingress of Water into the ground, and the
materials occur as alternating and impersistent bands, predicting the ground heave is likely to be very difficult. soil density may have to be increased below rafts by compaction. Flooding without preloading is unlikely to work
as the soil, unlike loess, was deposited in water.
The effect of ground heave on the superimposed structure is closely related to overburden thickness. Structures
sitting directly on clay suffer much greater damage as wetting up is more localized. With increasing overburden [Link] Geotechnical Properties: Alluvial Gravels: The predominant component of the alluvial deposits of the
thickness, ground heave is both reduced and more widespread. Limited observations suggest that where the alluvial Piedmont is coarse boulder gravel. Thin impersistent sands and sills are occasionally found in the wider wadis.
cover is greater than 5 to 10 m, differential movement under small structures is tolerable, though total heave may The deposits are characteristically poorly sorted. Early cementation is common. Gravels composed essentially
still be quite large. Excessive infiltration of water into the ground may result in the formation of a perched water of limestone tend to have a higher degree of cementation than their contemporaries in wadis with no limestone
table. Buildings some distance from the point of recharge could then be affected by ground heave. outcrops in their catchments. Examples of selective cementation can be seen at Nizwa where the gravels in the
The clays are characteristically rich in sulphates and, where they outcrop or are covered by thin wadi gravels, Wadi Abayad are cemented while those in the wadis draining the peridotite outcrops are at least superficially
evaporation has resulted in the upward migration of calcium sulphate salts and their precipitation near the surface. uncemented. The thinness of the deposits, which rarely exceed 20 to 30 m, as well as the many wadi terraces,
Gypsum is not usually found in high concentrations where the depth of alluvial gravels exceeds 3 to 4 m. testify to the constant uplift of the land during the Pleistocene. The thickness of the wadi gravels out towards the
desert foreland is unknown. Active deflation probably removes much of the deposited material. Late Tertiary/
Expansive Tertiary clays have also been encountered in the central desert and Dhofar where they have reportedly
Early Quaternary conglomerate found as far south as Ghaba suggest that the wadis at one time penetrated much
caused borehole caving and stuck tools during well drilling.
further into the desert than they do at present.
The Importance of site investigation in areas possibly underlain by expansive clays cannot be over-emphasized.
The alluvial deposits of the coastal plains (Batinah, Quryat) thicken away from the mountain foothills. Over 175 m
Closely spaced boreholes and trial pits, possibly combined with resistivity surveying, are essential. Where the
has been found at Sohar. Drilling in the Sea of Oman has proved up to 4 km of Late Tertiary and Quaternary
clay is at or close to the surface, foundations designed to accommodate heave such as belled piers are likely
conglomerates, sandstones and shales. The alluvium of the Batinah is fairly well sorted and becomes finer
to be expensive. Where the overburden is thicker (greater than 7 to 8 m) differential heave is likely to be small
grained away from the mountains. Sands and silts form a significant proportion of the near surface deposits
and structures could be designed to accommodate any movements. Where possible, construction on these soils
along the coast. The predominant component of the Batinah gravels is Peridotite. Exploratory drilling has shown
should be avoided and alternative sites found.
that this material has partially decayed to the Montmorillonite clay material and Smectite, because of slightly
alkaline groundwater.
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Highway Design and Geotechnical Considerations

The alluvial gravels in general form a sound foundation. Moderately high bearing pressures (150 to 400 kN/m2) 14.1.13 Materials
can usually be adopted. The deposits are generally cemented and/ or slightly clayey a few feet below the surface.
Large deposits of gravels suitable for the production of pavement materials and concrete aggregates can be
The sulphate content is closely related to particle size, frequency of flooding, and overburden thickness. Gravels
found in most wadis. The predominant constituents of the gravels around Muscat are dolomitic limestone and
in active wadi channels tend to have very low total sulphate contents. The gravels of the wadi terraces, though
quartzite. Examination of concrete made from these aggregates in some of the older buildings in Muttrah and
cemented, are normally low in soluble sulphates, but traces of Gypsum can sometimes be found just below the
Ruwi have not shown any of these dolomitic limestones to be alkali reactive. Peridotite is a major constituent of
surface. Where the gravels overlying low permeability bedrock are thin, soluble sulphate concentrations are
the wadi gravels of the Batinah. The peridotite, which would rapidly weather in wetter climates, generally has a
usually high. Gypsum prevails in the surface gravels of the outer bajada and desert foreland.
satisfactory strength, but the use of this aggregate in water retaining structures should be avoided. Attention is
[Link] Geotechnical Properties: Coastal Dunes and Associated Sediments: The most extensive expanse of drawn to the possibility of alkali reaction with Serpentine, a minor constituent in Peridotite wadi gravels.
coastal dunes along the eastern Batinah occurs in the area between Qurum and Azaiba to the west of Muscat.
The dune sand is predominantly uniform fine to medium grained and angular. The prevailing wind direction,
14.2 GUIDELINES FOR GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATION STUDIES
as indicated by the orientation of the small Barchan dunes, is easterly. The thickness of the dunes varies from
a few meters near the coast to over 60 m around Baushar. Between AI Khuwair and Saruq the thin dune sands
14.2.1 General
are underlain by up to 40m of alluvium of which the upper 5 to 10 m is essentially reworked aeolian sand. These
sands are weakly cemented a few feet below the surface, have low relative densities and are characteristically [Link] The purpose of a site investigation is to assist decision making regarding the setting, the design and the
metastable exhibiting limited collapse when saturated under a pre-loaded condition. construction of proposed works.

The effect of the weak binding cement is to increase significantly the observed SPT values. A sharp decrease in [Link] The resulting information will form part of the recommendations for the adoption (or otherwise) of a
the N number is sometimes seen on penetration through the water table. The inconsistency between the relative particular corridor or corridors within which the future highway should be [Link] purpose of the geotechnical
densities and the N value questions the value of carrying out Standard Penetration tests in these soils. It may input to the reconnaissance phase is to provide a summary of the geotechnical factors which could influence the
be possible to determine a correction factor to take into account the effect of cementation, but because of the evaluation for the corridor(s), to define the potential geological hazards, and to provide a basis for future more
variable nature of the soil and degree of cementation, a particular factor determined for one site or layer may not detailed geotechnical investigations.
be applicable to another. [Link] Site investigation is more an art than a science. A safe and realistic approach is to use the Observational
Limited data for two sites at AI Khuwair suggest that a correction factor of 0.5 applied to the recorded N values Method to conduct a site investigation. This method can be described as follows:
would give results more compatible with the observed relative densities. 1. Collect together all the available facts and evidence related to the site and personally visit the site to
make observations (This is the pre subsurface investigation stage).
In the same area minor silts with a variable organic content and a moderately high porosity are locally interbedded
with the alluvial sands. Dry densities of 1.3 to 1.4 gm/cm3 are common. Further east towards Qurum, black organic 2. Organize and plot all the information (geological and other) on a map, and examine their relation.
sediments up to 4 m thick have been encountered in shallow boreholes. These may be swamp deposits similar to 3. As far as this is possible at this stage, formulate a hypothesis to explain the situation.
those forming in the lagoons at the mouth of Wadi Adai. 4. Check this hypothesis against the available evidence. This might be the stage when borings are
located.
14.1.11 Ground Subsidence 5. Test hypothesis by making and checking the predictions, e.g. by verifying the results of the
boreholes.
Abandoned wells and the proliferation of falaj adits upstream of many of the villages are a potential source
of ground subsidence and unless avoided or located and properly backfilled, could cause damage to roads or 6. Draw conclusions as a result of this site investigation.
structures. Poorly backfilled wells may also cause problems. 7. Be prepared to modify the design as construction progresses to suit actual conditions.

14.1.12 Seismicity 14.2.2 Preliminary Surface Exploration

The available earthquake data clearly indicate the presence of a relatively low earthquake hazard in and around [Link] Preliminary surface exploration is an indispensable first step in any site investigation. It has four
the Sultanate. However, the actual level of seismic hazard is not well known at the present time. The widespread components, none of which should be omitted:
neotectonic features, however, are suggestive of presently low levels of tectonic deformation. 1. Study and interpretation of air photographs.
Although Oman is not considered to be seismically active, earthquakes are not unknown. North of the Oman line 2. Collection and study of documentary material.
(Dibba Structure) the Musandam peninsula is estimated to be subsiding at a rate of about 6mm each year. The 3. Field reconnaissance on foot.
many raised wadi and marine terraces in N.E. Oman indicate continual emergence during the Pleistocene. 4. Enquiry into local experience.

There are only two historical references to earthquakes in Northern Oman. A severe earthquake was reported [Link] Air Photographs: Air photographs can be oblique or vertical, and overlapping verticals are usually the
at Sohar in AD 879 and the decline of the city at Qalhat is attributed to seismic activity, More recently, there was best since they permit a stereoscopic examination. It is important to have an appropriate scale and that the
an earth tremor in the 1950’s which was of sufficient intensity at Muscat to knock people off their feet but did not photographs are taken at the best time of the year and with revealing lighting, usually low sun. Black and white
cause any damage to buildings (of Modified Mercalli Intensity 4). photographs are the mostly used, although infra-red and other special types are useful.

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 Sultanate of Oman. Highway Design Standards 2010

[Link] Documentary Materials: The documentary materials can be of several types:

Highway Design and Geotechnical Considerations

[Link] Local Experience: Under local experience the following can be grouped but not limited to:
14
1. Topographical maps: Usual scales are 1 to 5,000; 1 to 2,000 and 1 to 1,000. 1. Data collection that can be obtained via contact with local government engineers, rail and road
2. Geological maps: The national geological maps with usual scales of 1 to 50,000. engineers and engineers of water, electricity, gas and oil companies for data on damage or
3. Geological memoirs and other geological literature. movement.

4. Geotechnical and civil engineering literature. 2. The investigation on available networks in order to find locations of all services in the project area.

5 Well records and water supply memoirs. 3. The interrogation of the local farmers/residents in the project area who are generally good observers

6. Hydrogeological maps. of nature.

7. Hydrological and tidal data.

14.2.3 Geotechnical Input For Preliminary Design Phase
8. Climate data.
9. Mining history, old mine plans, subsidence records. [Link] Objective: Once the corridor for the highway alignment is defined the input for the Preliminary Design
10. Seismic data. Phase includes the examination of various alignments within the adopted corridor and the selection and staking
11. Historical data about landslides, floods, subsidence, etc. of a final route.

In this phase, the geotechnical engineer expands upon the information and recommendations presented in
[Link] Field Reconnaissance: The first essential document to possess when carrying out a field reconnaissance
the Preliminary Surface Exploration. The scope of the geotechnical work narrows down from the broad general
is a topographical map on which one would record his observations. If a convenient one is not published, it is
approach to more specific topics. The objective is to provide information that can be used confidently by the
recommended to prepare a photogrammetric map made from vertical air photographs.
design team to produce preliminary design and cost estimates.
Convenient instruments to carry while performing the field reconnaissance are a camera, a Brunton compass, an
Abney level, a Dollar clinometers, a trenching tool, a geological hammer, a knife, a hard-backed note book, plastic [Link] Tasks: The amount of geotechnical work required will vary according to the length and geometrical
bags, strings, and labels. standards of the highway, the geology, and the nature of the problems identified in the Reconnaissance Phase.
The lists of tasks which follow are given for general guidance only:
Some of the features to look for are described below:
1. Determine Needs of Designers
1. Geomorphological features:
2. Carry out Ground Investigation
- General: as a guide to geology: scarps, dip slopes, fault lines.
3. Evaluate Data
-M
 ass movement: evidence of fresh or ancient landsliding and solifluction, inclinations of stable and
unstable slopes, cambering, gulls and valley bulging, evidence of subsidence or karstic features. 4. Identify Groundwater Regime

2. Solid and drift geology: 5. Identify Features for Further Study

- One should look for exposures in cliffs, streams, river beds, quarries and pits. 1) Determine Needs of Designers
- One should examine the structure, jointing, faulting, lithology and the effects of weathering. - Horizontal Alignment: The horizontal alignment will evolve from a number of considerations, some of them
- Among other things, examine vegetational contrasts. conflicting. Road geometry, wadi locations, topography, centers of population, geotechnical hazards such as
3. Ground water conditions: Water courses, springs, lakes, ponds, swampy ground, shallow wells. Sabkha and wind-blown sands, are some of the many factors. In assessing a tentative center-line location or
4. Availability of construction materials: locations, a close liaison between the remainder of the design team and the geotechnical engineer will be of
- Sand and gravel: can be found in river terraces, outwash fans and sheets. prime importance.
- Clays can be glacial tills, lake clays, and weathered shales. - Vertical
 Alignment: A tentative vertical alignment will be required at an early stage so that the geotechnical
- Rock. engineer can examine in more detail the areas where deep cuts, tunnels, or high fills are proposed.
- Water supply. - Structures: The location of major structures will require careful planning for optimal choice of foundation
5. Access and trafficability for site investigation and construction equipment. type. In many cases, a simple site inspection may highlight locations where foundation problems can be

6. Damage to existing structures: The examination of damage to existing features can provide evidence of: minimized.

n Landsliding or creep. 2) Carry Out Ground Investigations

n Settlement from consolidation or drying or from loss of ground through solution. Site specific ground investigations may be required during the Preliminary Design Phase in order to prepare
n Seepage erosion. accurate estimates of the proposed or alternative alignments. However, a major program of investigation of the
n Collapse or mining. alignment soils is unlikely to be required at this stage, although some selected sampling may be appropriate.

n Heaving due to swelling clays. Detailed descriptions of the types of investigations which may need to be carried out are and are likely to include,
but not limited to, most of the following:
n Earthquakes.
- Borings: Soil and/or rock borings may be necessary in areas where embankments are to be constructed
n Corrosion.
over suspected soft ground, where deep cuts are proposed, or to examine major bridge foundations.
Standard Penetration Tests, Field Vane Shear Tests, and undisturbed sampling should be carried out, as
appropriate.
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Highway Design and Geotechnical Considerations

- Soundings: A supplement to borings would be to carry out soundings by hand-portable or truck-mounted 5. Logs of all borings, test pits, trenches, shafts and audits.
equipment. This method is not suitable in dense gravels, boulders, or bed-rock. 6. Cross-sections showing subsurface soil, rock, and groundwater profiles, where appropriate.
- Test
 Pits: Excavation of test pits can be carried out by hand or machine. This can be a very cost-effective way 7. Description of the type and extent of geotechnical analyses performed.
to determine the structure of the sub-soil and to retrieve disturbed and undisturbed samples within a few 8.  Description of any specific hazards (see Section 14.6) together with recommendations for measures
meters of the ground surface. In certain types of soils, such as collapsing soils, test pits are an essential aid to minimize their impact.
to identification and sampling of sub soils.
9.  The location, estimated quantity, type, and suitability of locally naturally-occurring construction
- Geophysical Investigations: Two geophysical methods, seismic refraction and resistivity, have proved useful
materials. This should include sand, gravel, and rock, for granular road bases, asphalt mixes and
as rapid means of obtaining sub-surface information and as cost-effective supplements to borings. Such
concrete, and water for earthworks and concrete.
geophysical explorations need to be supervised and interpreted by a specialist in geophysics.
10.  Assessment of excavation problems likely to be caused by the vertical alignment of the highway or
- Geological Mapping: Geological mapping may be required in rocky areas to determine structure; dip and
by foundations of the structures.
strike of the various strata, rippability, and potential cut slope instability.
11. Measures to minimize embankment scour and erosion.
3) Identify Ground Water Regime
12. Tentative design parameters covering:
Some or much of this work may be evaluated directly or indirectly during the course of hydrological studies. - Cut slopes
In the context of geotechnical work, the prime purpose of identifying the groundwater regime is to assess the - Embankment slopes and foundations
availability of groundwater as a construction resource and to assess its effect on the design and construction - Foundation excavations; depth, type, bearing capacity and lateral support
of foundations. In the former case, the absence of easily exploitable groundwater could have considerable - Pavement support
construction cost implications and the necessity for, say, dry compaction of earthworks and a stabilized road
13. Details of planned investigations for the final phase of the study.
base. In the latter case, the difficulty in dewatering excavations for shallow foundations in granular materials
may make an alternative foundation type more desirable. Potential changes in groundwater table should be
14.2.4 Geotechnical Input For Final Design Phase
considered due to its effect on swelling and collapsing soils and soft calcareous rock.

4) Evaluate Data and Prepare Preliminary Designs [Link] Objective: The objective of the geotechnical work carried out during the Final Design Phase is to provide
sufficient information to the design team so that the design can be completed and an accurate cost estimate
- Standard Penetration, vane shear, and static cone sounding tests in soils can be used to estimate bearing
made, and to assess all geotechnical factors which could have an impact on construction and maintenance.
capacity and pile shaft friction, and stability for embankments on, and cuts in, soft ground. Examination
of rock outcrops, rock cores, or rock exposures in the base of pits and shafts, may be sufficient to assess a [Link] Tasks: The geotechnical tasks can be summarized as:
presumptive bearing pressure for structural foundations without the need for further testing at this stage.
1. Determine Needs of Designers
- Laboratory Tests may need to be carried out on selected disturbed and undisturbed samples. Tests on
2. Carry Out/Complete Ground Investigation
disturbed samples are likely to include classification, moisture content, moisture/density relationship
3. Carry Out/Complete Laboratory Testing
and California Bearing Ratio tests. Tests on undisturbed samples may include direct shear, unconfined
4. Identify Groundwater Regime
compression, unconsolidated - undrained or consolidated - undrained triaxial and consolidation tests. All
these tests should aim to provide the geotechnical engineer with sufficient information so that he may 5. Evaluate Data and Prepare Final Designs
estimate the geotechnical properties and parameters for design with confidence. 1) Determine Needs of Designers
5) Identify Features for Further Study - Horizontal and Vertical Alignment
- The
 horizontal and vertical alignment will usually have been fixed during the Preliminary Design Phase
The timing of the design phases, or a choice of proposed alignments, may make it impractical or uneconomical to
although modifications may still be necessary. These modifications could have significant geotechnical
carry out all but a brief investigation of the various geotechnical factors. Features requiring further study should
implications particularly where deep cuts or high fills are proposed.
be identified at this stage, so that once the Preliminary Design Report has been submitted and approved, these
- Structures
further studies can proceed without delay.
The precise geometry of the structures needs to be established at an early stage in this phase so that final borings
[Link] Recommendations: The Preliminary Design Recommendations should include an appendix on the and test pits can be accurately located. The results of the ground investigation may highlight the need for a re-
geotechnical work carried out comprising: appraisal of the geometry.
1.  Description of the topography and regional and structural geology along the proposed alignment(s) 2) Carry Out/Complete Ground Investigation: Ground investigations carried out for the Final Design Phase will
including a geological map. be required in three main areas; investigations along the length of the proposed alignment to determine the
2.  Description of the geotechnical investigations conducted for this phase. A brief summary of the pavement support potential offered by the subgrade soils; investigations to determine the sources and quantity
results of the investigation should be included, as well as any significant findings or conclusions. of naturally occurring construction materials; and investigation to examine specific sites such as deep cuts,
3.  Map showing the predominant soil and rock types along the proposed alignment(s) and the locations retaining walls, bridge foundations, etc. Detailed descriptions of the various types of investigations which may
of potential borrow areas for embankment and subgrade materials. need to be carried out and are likely to include, but not limited to, most of the following:
4.  Photographs of predominant and unusual features to highlight topography, hazards the selection of - Borings: Soil and/or rock borings will be required for all bridge foundations, deep cuts, and suspected
borrow areas, etc. areas of soft ground. Standard Penetration Tests, field vane shear tests, disturbed and undisturbed sampling
14-10 should be carried out as appropriate.
 Sultanate of Oman. Highway Design Standards 2010

- Soundings: A supplement to borings would be to carry out soundings by hand-portable or truck-mounted

Highway Design and Geotechnical Considerations

- Cut Slopes (Soils and rock)

14
equipment. This method is not suitable in dense gravels, boulders, or bed-rock. - Lateral support (including retaining walls, reinforced earth, gabions, etc.)
- Test
 Pits: Excavation of test pits can be carried out by hand or machine. This can be a very cost-effective way to - Soil Modification or Stabilization
determine the structure of the subsoil and to retrieve disturbed and undisturbed samples within a few meters - Pavement support
of the ground surface. Hand-dug test pits are often carried out to enable the sub grade soils to be sampled
[Link] Recommendations: The Final Design Recommendations should include a section or a volume on the
along the alignment, particularly in areas where machine access is difficult. Test pits are of paramount value
geotechnical work carried out, comprising:
where potentially hazardous soils such as collapsing or swelling soils are identified or suspected.
- Geophysical Investigations: Geophysical investigations are more likely to have been carried out during the 1. Introduction giving a brief description of the project and location. An area map and a project map
Preliminary Design Phase than during the Final Design Phase. Such investigations have proved useful as a showing the route, major wadi crossings and intersecting highways should also be included.
rapid means of obtaining sub-surface information and as cost-effective supplements to borings, but need to 2. Background section describing the general geology, topography, hydrology, climate and any
be supervised and interpreted by a specialist in geophysics. other overall factors that could affect the geotechnical aspects of the project. A general geologic/
- Groundwater Monitoring: Groundwater monitoring may be advisable in certain circumstances, particularly topographic map of the project area should be included.
where fluctuations in the groundwater table could affect construction. Measurement is usually carried out 3. Investigation Procedures section describing the scope and type of geotechnical investigation
by means of piezometers installed in borings. performed for the project. This should include the number and type of borings, test pits, geophysical
3) Carry Out/Complete Laboratory Testing: Laboratory tests will be required on selected disturbed and surveys, field tests, etc.; the dates when the fieldwork was performed; details about who performed
undisturbed samples. These will normally comprise: the fieldwork, the equipment used, the field procedures carried out, any unusual field or equipment

- Tests
 for Earthworks conditions which could affect the results, the amount and type of soil and rock laboratory testing,

Earthworks tests include field moisture content, classification and gradation tests on disturbed samples of and the laboratory procedures carried out.

the alignment soils. Selected bulk samples will be required to determine the moisture/density relationship 4. Findings section describing the findings and significant results of the geotechnical investigation. This
and California Bearing Ratio (CBR). Additional earthworks tests will be required on selected borrow areas or should include geological cross sections for specific sites, as appropriate. Descriptions should be
on soil modification if there is insufficient material adjacent to the alignment to satisfy the requirements for given of predominant soil types and depths, rock types and bedding orientation, faults, weathered
embankments or subgrade. zones, groundwater conditions and any other major conditions that could affect the design or

- Tests for Materials Resources construction of the project. Except for those projects that are especially complex or lengthy, the

 Material Resources tests on sands, gravels and rock include gradation, particle shape, Los Angeles abrasion, Findings section may be brief and concise.

sodium sulphate soundness, soluble salt content, index tests, etc. In the event of an insufficiency of materials, 5. Analyses and Recommendations section describing the procedures used by the geotechnical
tests on their suitability for stabilization with lime, cement, or bitumen may be necessary. The quality of engineer to develop the design recommendations based upon the findings and a list of actions,
water for concrete should be checked for total solids and sulphate and chloride ions. procedures, or methods to be used by the highway designer in the preparation of the contract

- Tests for Foundation Design and Slope Stability Analyses documents. Concise recommendations are necessary to ensure that there is no misunderstanding

Laboratory tests associated with foundations and slope stability encompass a wide variety of methods and of the geotechnical engineer’s intent, and to simplify their implementation. Information on each of

procedures. Amongst the most common are unconsolidated-undrained and consolidated-undrained triaxial the following typical items shall be provided, as appropriate:

tests, one dimensional consolidation tests, and direct shear tests. Additional tests may be required on samples Earthworks
of the subsoil and groundwater to check for the presence of deleterious minerals, (see Section 14.8). - Soil Support values for pavement design: Location details of alignment lengths where imported embankment

4) Identify Groundwater Regime and subgrade material will be necessary, areas from where suitable borrow can be obtained, details of soil
modified subgrades, etc., as appropriate.
Much of this work will have been done during the Preliminary Design Phase. The primary requirements are to
- Slope Stability: Cut and fill slope gradients in soil and rock. Proposed support measure for rock cuts.
assess the availability of groundwater as a construction resource, and to assess its effect on the design and
- Drainage: Specific types and locations of any surface/subsurface drainage systems.
construction of foundations.
- Erosion and Scour Potential: Details of measures to mitigate erosion and scour.
5) Evaluate Data and Prepare Final Designs - Hazards: Details of measures to minimize the effects of large scale hazards such as Sabkha, sand dunes, soft
The first task under this sub-heading is to evaluate the data arising from the site inspections, site investigations, or organic soils, etc.
laboratory testing, and any other historical or relevant source. Having carried out this evaluation, cross sections - Coastal protection measures according to Section 13 of these Standards.
should be prepared and the evaluated engineering properties assigned to the various soil and rock types. Analyses
Materials
of the various geotechnical components of the project should then be prepared and these could include:
- Sources : Locations of sand, gravel, rock, and water sources, with quality and estimated quantities.
- Excavations - Stabilized Soil: Details of lime, cement or bitumen, stabilized pavement layers, as appropriate.
- Embankments
Pavement Design
- Drainage (including dewatering)
- Layer Thickness: Pavement cross sections showing required thickness of the various construction layers,
according to Section 10, “Pavement Design” of these Standards.

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Highway Design and Geotechnical Considerations

Structures information for design purposes, but there may be situations when the scope of the investigation will need to
- Foundations: Foundation types, allowable bearing capacities, pile lengths, estimated settlements, and details be increased. For instance, the requirements would need to be stepped up considerably for a high level National
of measures to mitigate aggressive soils and/or groundwater conditions, requirement for pile load testing Route. Roadway pits or borings will be typically located along the center line but may be offset to the point of
during construction. maximum height of fill or depth of cut in sidelong hill locations.
- Earth Pressure: Earth pressure coefficients and/or distribution for abutments and retaining walls. Equivalent
Additional investigations may be necessary for embankment and subgrade soils. In many cases, suitable
fluid pressures may also be given.
borrow will be found immediately adjacent to the alignment, but in some cases, suitable borrow may have to be
- Excavations: Details of any special construction techniques likely to be necessary, including dewatering and
transported from locations further away. Prospecting of borrow areas should be carried out to sufficient area and
lateral support.
depth to confirm the availability of the required amount of suitable material and to delineate the limits.
- Site Specific Hazards: Methods recommended for the mitigation of site specific hazards such as cavities,
collapsing or swelling soils, etc. Tables [Link] provides guidelines for the testing frequency for the alignment soils required for the Final Design
Report, and sufficient sampling shall be carried out to meet the testing requirements. Where material is to be
Construction & Maintenance
used in both the embankment and the subgrade, then only the testing guidelines for subgrade need apply. No
- Foreseeable problems
guidelines are given for the testing frequency for soil modification since this will depend on a variety of factors
- Details of potential problems which could occur during and after construction; recommendations for
including the uniformity of the soil and the results of initial laboratory testing program.
surveillance and mitigation.
Highway Type Height (m) Terrain Type Spacing (m) Depth (m)
6. Set of Appendices containing the following information, (among others) as appropriate:
Uniform 1000
- Alignment soils and materials sources location plans
<2 Rolling 500 1.0
- Boring and test pit logs
Hilly 250
- Geophysical test results
Uniform 800
- Laboratory soil test results 1/3 fill height or
Fill 2-10 Rolling 400
- Pavement design calculations Refusal.
Hilly 200
- Stability analyses, location plans, cross sections, engineering parameters used, and results.
Uniform 600
- Settlement analyses, location plans, cross sections, engineering parameters used, and results. 2/3 fill height or
>10 Rolling 300
- Foundation analyses, location plans, cross sections, engineering parameters used, and results. refusal
Hilly 150
Uniform 1000
14.2.5 Planning a Site Investigation
<2 Rolling 500 1.0 below grade
[Link] Objective: The site investigations, whether carried out during the Preliminary Design Phase or Final Hilly 250
Design Phase, will ultimately be required in three main areas. These are: Uniform 800

1. “Earthworks” investigations along the length of the alignment to determine the soil support offered by the Cut 2-10 Rolling 400 1.0 below grade

subgrade soils. These investigations might also need to examine ways of improving sub grade support by Hilly 200

modification with lime, bitumen, or cement, or by the use of selected borrow [Link] locations of suitable Uniform 600

borrow areas for embankment or subgrade material will also be necessary if there is a predicted shortfall > 10 Rolling 250 1.0 below grade

adjacent to the alignment. Hilly 100

Table [Link] Guidelines for Pit or Boring Requirements – Highway Detailed Design
2. “Materials” investigations in the vicinity of the alignment to determine the quantity and quality of sources of
naturally-occurring materials. These materials may include soils for stabilized sub-bases or bases; sand for
Where materials such as wadi deposits are being assessed, sufficient area and depth should be prospected
asphalt and concrete mixes; aggregate for sub-bases, bases, asphalt and concrete mixes; rock for rip-rap; and
in order to ascertain the availability of the required amount of suitable material and to delineate the limits. In
water for earthworks and concrete. Aggregates may themselves be quarried from rock outcrops, or obtained
the case of potential quarry sites, test borings are likely to be necessary to confirm the quantity and quality of
from wadi deposits or surface boulders.
material available. Bulk samples for quality testing may be obtained from adjoining bedrock outcrops provided
3. “Foundations” investigations including slope stability to examine specific sites such as deep cuts, retaining
that the samples obtained from such sources are truly representative. Test results from any nearby operational
walls, bridge foundations, etc. This type of investigation is more difficult to generalize since each site will
quarries should also be included.
require an independent approach.
Considerable quantities of water are likely to be required for the proper compaction of earthworks, and water
[Link] Earthworks Investigations: General Guidelines for the number of roadway pits or borings and testing points will be necessary at frequent intervals along the alignment. An assessment should be made of the likely
required for the Final Design Report are provided in Tables [Link] and [Link]. It should be noted, however, that sources of water from any existing wells and from the geological formations underlying the route. Samples for
the tables represent the average investigation requirements for normal highway work and that the actual scope tests to assess the suitability of water for concrete will be necessary.
will depend upon the complexity of the problem, currently available information, construction experience, and
other factors. In many cases, an investigation performed in compliance with the guidelines will yield adequate

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 Sultanate of Oman. Highway Design Standards 2010

Highway Design and Geotechnical Considerations

frequency for slope stability investigations or for sampling frequency for bridges and retaining walls, since each
14
Test Requirement Frequency
Test case will need to be judged on its own merits.
Fill/Embankment Subgrade Alignment Borrow Area
Gradation X X 1 per km 1 per boring/ pit Although, generally the boring for structural foundations must explore ground conditions to minimum depths of
Moisture Content X X 1 per km 1 per boring/ pit roughly 1.5 times the width of the loaded area (see Figure [Link]), borings for bridges and retaining walls need
Classification X X 1 per km 1 per boring/ pit to extend below maximum scour level to a depth where the stresses induced by the foundation pressures will
Moisture-Density X X 2 per 5 km 1 per borrow area have negligible effects.
CBR X X 2 per 5 km 1 per borrow area
Also, it should be noted that the exploration should be taken through compressible cohesive soils likely to
Table [Link] Guidelines for Testing Requirements – Highway Detailed Design
contribute significantly to settlement, and if rock is found, a penetration of at least 3m (or more) may be required
[Link] Materials Investigations: Every effort should be made to locate sufficient quantities of naturally occurring to establish whether bedrock or only a boulder has been encountered.
construction materials at regular intervals along the alignment and as close to the alignment as possible.
a. Retaining Walls b. Bridges
No guidelines are given for the boring and sampling frequency for sources of materials. Table [Link], however,
Wall Height Spacing Structure Spacing
provides guidelines for the testing requirements for aggregates and water.
1 per
<3m 100m Single - Span
Apart from samples of crushed aggregate from existing quarries and natural sands and gravels, rock samples abutment

will need to be crushed prior to testing in the laboratory. Crushing may be carried out by hand or by machine, but 10 - 3m 75m 1 per pier and
Multi - Span
the final gradation and particle shape are unlikely to be representative of that produced by a full scale crushing > 10m 50m abutment

plant under working conditions. The test results will therefore only give an indication of the quality of potential Table [Link] G
 uidelines for Boring Requirements - Retaining
aggregate sources, and should be reported as such. Walls and Bridges

Test Requirement
Fine Aggregate Coarse Aggregate
Test Designation B
Asphaltic P.C. Subbase & Asphaltic P.C. Water B
B
Concrete Concrete Base Concrete Concrete

1.5B
1.5B B

1.5B
Gradation X X X X X BOREHOLES BOREHOLES 1.5B
1.5B B
B
BOREHOLES
BOREHOLES BOREHOLES
BOREHOLES
Atterberg Limits X X1 X1 LIGHT STRUCTURE,
STRIP FOOTINGS
Sulphate Soundness X X X X X STRUCTURE ON RAFT LIGHT
LIGHT STRUCTURE,
STRUCTURE,
STRIP
STRIP FOOTINGS
FOOTINGS
STRUCTURE
STRUCTURE ON
ON RAFT
RAFT
Loss by Abrasion X X X
Organic Impurities X B
Sand Equivalent X X1 X1
B
B

2/3D
Soluble Sulphates X X "EQUIVALENT RAFT"

D D
2/3D
Soluble Chlorides X X "EQUIVALENT
"EQUIVALENT RAFT"
RAFT"

Friable Particles X X1 X1 X
Thin & Elongated INDIVIDUAL PRESSURE BULB
X1 X1 X

1.5D1.5D
Particles
INDIVIDUAL
INDIVIDUAL PRESSURE
PRESSURE BULB
BULB
Fineness Modulus X X1 COMBINED PRESSURE BULB

Water Quality X
COMBINED
COMBINED PRESSURE
PRESSURE BULB
BULB
Marshall Test X1 BOREHOLES
HEAVY STRUCTURE ON FRICTION PILES
Stripping Test X BOREHOLES
BOREHOLES
Table [Link] Guidelines for Testing Requirements – Materials Sources Figure [Link] E
 xplanatory Sketches on Minimum Boring
HEAVY
HEAVY STRUCTURE
STRUCTURE ON
ON FRICTION
FRICTION PILES
PILES
Depth According to Type of Foundation
Notes:
X Passing 4.75mm sieve (No.4), including sand sizes. 14.2.6 Field Work
X1 Combined fine and coarse aggregate.
[Link] Field work associated with subsurface investigations can be categorized into the following five areas:

1. Geophysical explorations
[Link] Foundations and Slope Stability Investigations: Table [Link] provides guidelines
2. Borings, test pits, trenches and audits.
for the spacing of borings for retaining walls and bridges required for the Final Design Report. The comments
given in paragraph [Link] regarding the use of Table [Link] also apply to Table [Link]. At least one boring 3. Sampling
per culvert in wadi crossings, especially major structures, is recommended. Borings for minor culverts will not 4. Logging
normally be required unless soft ground conditions are expected. No guidelines are given for boring or sampling 5. Field Testing
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[Link] Geophysical Explorations: Two geophysical methods, seismic and electrical resistivity, have proven n For all sampling and coring operations: the sample and number; the inside diameter, outside diameter,
useful as a rapid means of obtaining subsurface information and as economical supplements to borings in and length of the sample tube; the depth at the start and at the completion of the sampling drive or
exploratory programs. Such geophysical explorations can supply information for bedrock profiling, define push or coring “run”, core recovery; and a complete visual description of each sample or core including
the limits of granular borrow areas and large organic deposits, and yield a general definition of subsurface color, type of material, density or consistency of soil, hardness of rocks, stratification, rock structure,
conditions including the depth to groundwater. However, engineering applications of geophysics have moisture conditions, etc.
sometimes been disappointing and it is important to make sure that the type of information supplied by the
n The depth at which each stratum begins
investigation will suit the purpose for which it was intended. To ensure the optimum use of such exploration
n For drive samples: the weight and height of drop of the hammer, and the number of blows required
techniques, individuals experienced in geophysical theories and applications should be consulted to determine for each 0.15 meters of penetration of the sampler.
the applicability of geophysical procedures to the area under investigation; to plan, design, and supervise the
n For pressed or pushed samplers: the hydraulic pressure required to push the sampler into the ground
geophysical exploration program; and to interpret the data. The geophysical work should be checked by borings and the rate of penetration.
and/or other direct methods of exploration, and should therefore be completed prior to completion of the borings

n For rock coring: the percentage core recovery and Rock Quality Designation (RQD).
program. The geophysical data obtained can then be reviewed to determine the final location, number and depth

n Casing information including the size of the casing; the depth at which casing was added; the length
of borings. After the borings are complete, it may still be desirable to perform additional geophysical work to
of casing added; the final depth of the bottom of the casing.
examine specific areas in more detail.

n Groundwater information including the depth to water in the hole, recorded daily, at the start and close
[Link] Borings, Test Pits, Trenches, and Audits: There are several factors which will determine the selection of of work.
the method of advancing a boring for a particular site. Generally, these factors include site accessibility, availability
n The date and time of all operations and delays
of equipment, soil and groundwater conditions, and the probable occurrence of rock. More specifically, the choice
n Miscellaneous information which may aid in the interpretation of subsurface conditions.
will depend on:
[Link] Field Tests: Field testing can include a wide variety of methods depending on the type of material to
n The efficiency of the advancement procedure in the prospective materials
be tested and the use for which the test results are required. Below is the listing with a brief description. For full
n The ability to determine strata changes and material type
descriptions of the test methods, refer to the relevant standards.
n The effects of disturbance on the materials to be sampled

n Standard Penetration Test: This test is the most widely used of the dynamic field tests.
Test pits, trenches, shafts and audits are frequently used to determine the structure of the subsoil and to retrieve
n Static Cone Penetration Test: The penetrometer is pushed into the soil mechanically or by means of
disturbed and undisturbed samples. Excavation of test pits can be carried out by hand or machine, usually to a a hydraulic feed. Both the cone and sleeve friction resistance can be measured and the results used
maximum depth of about 5 m. Hand dug test pits are often carried out to sample alignment soils, particularly to estimate the types of materials encountered.
where machine access is difficult. Deep shafts and audits are likely to require support and, due to their comparative

n Field Vane Shear Test: This test obtains the in-situ shear strength of weak, fine-grained soils where
high cost, need to be planned with care. They are unlikely to be economical below the water table.
sampling and handling techniques would otherwise cause undue disturbance. The test consists of
[Link] Sampling: Samples are necessary for the identification and classification of soil and rock and for measuring the torque required to fail the cylindrical surface area of soil being sheared by the vanes,
laboratory testing. and converting the data to the shearing resistance of the soil.

n Pressuremeter Test: the pressuremeter consists of two main portions: a probe and a pressure
Disturbed samples are those in which the soil structure has not been maintained. They are used for general
volumeter connected by plastic tubes through which water and gas are applied. Changes in the
observation, inspection, soil classification, and in those laboratory tests in which structure is not important.
applied pressures and volumes are measured, giving a type of field stress-strain test.
Undisturbed samples are required for those tests in which structure is important, such as triaxial shear or

n In situ shear box test: This test is useful when sampling is difficult (e.g. gravel, rockfill, or gouge filled
unconfined compression tests, vane shear and consolidation tests. Sampling of rock gravel and sand for use in
rock joints), and when fissured clays are to be tested and require large samples
highway construction can be considered separately.

n Standpipe/Piezometric Monitoring: When it is known or suspected that significant seasonal
[Link] Logging: Completed test pit, soil boring and rock coring field logs should be presented clearly in fluctuations in the water table could occur.
descriptive and diagrammatic purpose designed proformas.
n Pump Test: This test is used for the evaluation of large scale drawdown or dewatering in materials.
The drilling logs must contain all information necessary to define completely the subsurface profile and
n  Static Load Test: The bearing capacity of soil may be estimated by means of a static load test. The test
groundwater conditions, and should be a complete chronological record of the drilling and sampling operations will provide information on the property of the soil only to a depth equal to about two diameters of
within the test pits and borings including delays. The following information should be recorded, as appropriate: the bearing plate.

n Surface Density Test: This test follows the sand cone density test procedure.
n Reference information comprising the project number, title, and location; the exploration number;
the exploration location by coordinates.
n Nuclear Density Test: This test permits surface or depth measurement of density or moisture by
neutron and gamma ray emission.

n  Personnel information including the names of the drilling contractor, the driller, and the inspecting
engineer or geologist
n Subsurface Density Determinations: Satisfactory density determinations can be determined from
undisturbed samples of fine-grained cohesive soils from test borings.

n Equipment information including the manufacturer’s name and model designation for the drill rig
and type of sampler(s) used
14-14
 Sultanate of Oman. Highway Design Standards 2010

Highway Design and Geotechnical Considerations

14

n Variable Head Permeability Test: This test is used to obtain individual permeability determinations 14.3 SLOPE STABILIZATION DESIGN GUIDELINES
and is usually con-ducted in piezometers.

n Packer Test: This test is used to determine permeability of individual strata penetrated by borings, 14.3.1 General
and may be performed in a cased, open-end borehole with a single packer or an uncased section of
The field of slope stability encompasses the analysis of static and dynamic stability of slopes of earth, slopes of
borehole with double packers.
embankments, excavated slopes, and natural slopes in soil and soft rock.
[Link] Laboratory Work: Some of the more common laboratory tests are mentioned briefly below. Full Instability in rock media happens most of the time suddenly, while landslides tend to evolve slowly. The volume
descriptions of the test methods should be taken from relevant standards. of landslides is very variable and may be of the order of a few cubic meters to several millions of cubic meters
n Gradation, and Atterberg Limits: In addition to the need to classify the alignment soils, ground (such as for an entire hill slope).
investigations for structural foundations should also contain information on the size, shape and
gradation of particles encountered in the borings. 14.3.2 Practical Importance of Slope Movement
n Classification: The tests noted above are used to describe and classify soils for highway
Slope movements have played an important role in the evolution of reliefs, to the same extent as erosion. On the
construction.
other hand, these phenomena present a tremendous practical experience:
n Optimum Moisture Content: This test determines the variation of density with soil moisture it is
important for proper soil compaction. By the risks they entail to dwellings or to construction works, and the extent of these risks;
n

n California Bearing Ratio: This test procedure evaluates the relative quality of subgrade soils under By the technical difficulties of the remedies;
n

varying conditions of compaction at optimum moisture content. By the ever important costs of the remedial works
n

n Los Angeles Abrasion: This test evaluates the relative resistance to abrasion of coarse aggregate. Slope movements can affect:
n Soundness of Aggregate: The potential for aggregates to break down due to weathering action is The natural slopes of valleys, of seashores, of mountain sites;
n
assessed in this test.
The slopes of cuts executed in the course of earthworks;
n
n Specific Gravity and Absorption: The bulk and apparent specific gravities of coarse and fine
The slopes of backfills and of earth embankments;
n
aggregates and absorption are determined in these tests.
The back of quay walls, of retaining walls, of diaphragm walls and of sheet pile walls, which can
n
n Sulfate Content: Test method determines the amount of water-soluble sulfates in coarse and fine
fail by deep ground failure: this type of accident may, for example, occur on the occasion of the
aggregates.
dredging of a canal, of an open channel, of a harbor basin.
n Chloride Content: This test determines the amount of water-soluble calcium, magnesium and sodium
chlorides in coarse and fine aggregates. 14.3.3 Slope Stability Problems and their Solutions
n Gypsum Content: Gypsum and other deleterious salts are commonly present in Natural Sabkha
The problems arising from landslides are among the most difficult to solve. Their study encompasses
deposits.
simultaneously geology, subterranean hydrology, soil mechanics, and civil engineering.
n Triaxial Shear: The triaxial test is the most versatile of all the common shearing tests since the pore
water pressure within the soil sample can be controlled and measured. The test determines the Generally speaking, instability of slopes sets down to the engineer in two distinct perspectives, depending if the
shear strength parameters c (cohesion) and Ø (Phi angle of internal friction) from which the shear concern is to prevent the manifestation of slides on a hill slope reputed stable; or else to stabilize a slope in which
strength of the soil can be computed. sliding appeared.
n Direct Shear: This test is sometimes performed instead of other shear tests, particularly for In the case of earth fills, the concern is to prevent the manifestation of failure by choosing the constituting
recompacted, non-cohesive soils. material, the drainage of the support and the slope of an embankment, in a way that the stability of the works be
n Unconfined Compression: The unconfined-compression test of a soil is a uniaxial compression assured.
test in which the test specimen is provided with no lateral support while undergoing vertical
In the case of cuts, the only variable intervening on stability is the slope of banking adopted during earthworks,
compression.
since the soils broken through are imposed by the geographical location of the works. It is however possible, in
n Consolidation: This test is used to determine the rate and amount of consolidation of a material over
this case, to reckon on stabilizing works (drainage of site, retaining structures).
which a foundation or embankment is to be placed. The consolidation parameters are in turn used
to compute predicted settlements. Results of consolidation tests are significant only for fine-grained In the case of natural slopes, all the factors governing stability are givens of the site and are to be defined.
soils (silts and clays). Slope movement can be divided into six basic categories, as follows:
n Permeability: Laboratory determination of the permeability of granular soils can be measured
by means of the constant head test, whilst the permeability of fine grained cohesive soils can be [Link] Rockfalls or Topples: This is usually an extremely rapid movement that includes the free fall of rocks,
determined from a falling head permeability test, or from the results of the consolidation test. movements of rocks by leaps and bounds down the slope face, and/or the rolling of rocks or fragments of rocks
down the slope face. A rock topple is similar to a rockfall, except that there is a turning moment about the center
of gravity of the rock, which results in an initial rotational type of movement and detachment from the rock face.

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 Ministry of Transport & Communications . DGRLT

Highway Design and Geotechnical Considerations

The free fall nature of the rocks and the lack of movement along a well-defined slip surface differentiate a rockfall Face the slope with gunite: The gunite facing will not allow rainwater to infiltrate the slope, which
n

from a rock slide. would prevent surficial instability from developing.

The rocks tend to detach themselves from preexisting discontinuities in a slope or tunnel walls. The basis factors Mitigate infinite slope conditions: The condition of a tall slope with seepage parallel to the slope
n

governing the potential for a rockfall include: face can be mitigated by adding a ditch or a berm at the top of the slope face to prevent water from
flowing over the top of the slope as well as gunite terrace ditches that will make a series of slopes of
The geometry of the slope;
n
smaller height. The terrace ditches will also intercept water flowing on the slope face.
The system of joints or other discontinuities and the relation of these systems to possible failure
n

surfaces; [Link] Gross Slope Failures: As contrasted with a shallow (surficial) stability analysis, gross slope stability
The shear strength of the joints and discontinuities;
n
involves an analysis of the entire slope. In this kind of stability analysis, planar or circular slip surfaces are often

Destabilizing forces such as water pressure in the joints, freezing water or vibrations.
n
assumed. The shear displacement can also occur on a slip surface that is irregular.

For slopes, the main measures to prevent damage due to a rockfall are the following: Gross slope stability analyses are often divided into two general categories, as follows:

Alter the slope configuration: altering the slope can include such measures as removing the unstable
n
1. Translational slope stability: A translational slope failure can develop on a steeply inclined weak layer. A

or potentially unstable rocks, flattening the slope, or incorporating benches into the slope. wedge analyses is then used to determine the factor of safety for translational failures. The diagram used for
such an analysis is presented in Figure [Link] below, where there is a planar slip surface inclined at an angle
Retain the rocks on the slope face: The measures include the use of anchoring systems (bolts, rods,
n
to the horizontal. The wedge method is a two-dimensional analysis based on a unit length of slope. The factor
or dowels), shotcrete applied to the rock slope face, or retaining walls.
of safety (F) of the slope can be derived by summing up forces parallel to the slip surface.
Intercept the falling rocks before they reach a structure: This can be done by using toe-of-slope
n

ditches, wire mesh catch walls, and catch walls.
Direct the falling rocks around the structure: this can be done by constructing walls, fences, or ditches
n
WEIGHT (W)
around the structure.
SLIP SURFACE

[Link] Surficial Failure of Slopes: They are often referred to as shallow slides or shallow surface slips. The UNSTABLE
surficial failure by definition is shallow with the failure surface parallel to the slope face, and usually at a depth WEDGE NORMAL FORCE (N)

of 1.2 m or less.

The surficial stability equation, assuming that there is an infinite slope with steady-state seepage of groundwater
parallel to the slope face and that this seepage extends from the slope face to a depth d is the following:
Figure [Link] Example of Translational Slope Movement (Wedge Method)
      
      For total stress analysis:
  
 
Where  = buoyant unit weight of the soil (kN/m3 )
3
Where = buoyant unit weight of the soil (kN/m )
Where         
 = total unit weight of the soil for a saturated state (kN/m3)   
 = total unit weight of the soil for a saturated state (kN/m3)       
 = slope inclination (degrees) For effective stress analysis:
 = slope inclination (degrees)
d = vertical zone of steady seepage (m)
d = vertical zone of steady seepage (m)
                
C’ and ’ = Shear strength parameters based on effective stress.
  
C’ and ’ = Shear strength parameters based on effective stress.       
Where:
Where:
If the factor of safety for surficial stability is calculated and found to be less than 1.5 the following methods can F = factor of safety for gross slope stability (dimensionless)
be used to increase this factor of safety: c,  = shear strength parameters based on total stress
Flatten the slope: The surficial stability can be increased by building a flatter slope (i.e. decrease a the
n c’,  = shear strength parameters based on effective stress
slope inclination). L = length of the slip surface (m)
Use soil having a higher shear strength: The surficial stability can also be increased by facing the
n
N = normal force, i. e. the force acting perpendicular to the slip surface (kN per unit length of slope)
slope with a soil that has a higher shear strength (i.e. increase c’ and/or Ø’). This process can be N’ = effective normal force, i. e. the effective force acting perpendicular to the slip surface (kN per unit length
of slope)
performed during the grading of the site and is similar to the installation of a stabilization fill.
W = total weight of the failure wedge (i.e., W =  A, where  = total unit weight of the soil and A = area of
Increase the shear strength of the soil: By for example adding lime or cement to the soil in order
n
the wedge). Units are kN for a unit length of the slope.
to increase c’ and Ø’. Another method would be to construct the slope face with layers of geogrid,
U = average pore water pressure along the slip surface (kPa)
which will provide tensile reinforcement and increase the soil resistance to slope movement.  = slip surface inclination (degrees)
Reduce infiltration of water: Maintaining adequate vegetation and sprinkling the slope during the
n

dry season will promote root reinforcement and reduce desiccation cracks. Surface vegetation and For a constant slope inclination with the slope material consisting of a uniform non-plastic cohesionless soil
the absence of desiccation cracks will tend to inhibit the infiltration of water into the slope face. (i.e., c’ = 0), the equation reduces to:
      
 
14-16     
 c’,  = shear strength parameters based on effective stress
L = length of the slip surface (m)
N = normal force, i. e. the force acting perpendicular to the slip surface (kN per unit length of slope)
N’ = effective normal force, i. e. the effective force acting perpendicular to the slip surface (kN per unit length
Sultanate of Oman. Highway Design Standards 2010
of slope)

14
W = total weight of the failure wedge (i.e., W =  A, where  = total unit weight of the soil and A = area of
the wedge). Units are kN for a unit length of the slope. Highway Design and Geotechnical Considerations
U = average pore water pressure along the slip surface (kPa)
 = slip surface inclination (degrees)

For a constant
For a slope inclination
constant with thewith
slope inclination slope
thematerial consisting
slope material of a uniform
consisting non-plastic
of a uniform cohesionless
non-plastic soilsoil
cohesionless (i.e., Type of Method Assumption Concerning Interslice Forces Author
c’ = 0), the(i.e.,
equation
c’ = 0),reduces to: reduces to:
the equation Ordinary Method Resultant of the interslice forces is parallel to the average inclination of the
       Fellenius (1936)
of Slices slice
 
     Bishop Simplified
Resultant of the interslice forces is horizontal (no interslice shear forces Bishop (1955)
Method
Based on the above equation, if the slope inclination is slowly increased until the slope just begins to fail, this
Janbu Simplified
maximum slope inclination will equal the friction angle of the cohesionless soil. This maximum slope inclination Resultant of the interslice forces is horizontal (a correction is applied) Janbu (1968)
Method
at which the soil is barely stable is called the angle of repose. Janbu Generalized Location of the interslice normal force is defined by an assumed line of
Janbu (1957)
2. Rotational slope stability: If the soil is relatively homogeneous, then a rotational slope failure could occur (See Method thrust

Figure [Link]). In a rotational slope failure, the slide mass moves downward and outward. The method of Resultant of the interslice forces is of constant slope throughout the sliding
Spencer Method Spencer (1967,1968)
mass
slices is often used to determine the factor of safety for rotational slope failures.
Morgenstern-Price Direction of the resultant of interslice forces is determined by using a Morgenstern & Price
Method selected function (1965)
Table [Link] Assumptions Concerning Interslice Forces for Different Methods of Slices

Figure [Link] Example of Rotational Slide Movement

The most commonly used method of gross slope stability analysis is the method of slices, where the failure mass
is divided into vertical slices and the factor of safety is calculated from force equilibrium equations. A circular arc
slip and rotational type of failure mode is often used for the method of slices.

The failure mass is divided into vertical [Link] calculations

are similar to the wedge type analysis, except that the resisting
and the driving forces are calculated for each slice (See Figure
[Link]) and then summed up in order to obtain the factor of
safety of the slope.

There are several methods of calculation, and they differ on Figure [Link] Slope Stability Analysis using a Computer Program

the assumption which is made about the interslice forces.

[Link] Landslides: Landslides are a mass movement of soil or rock that involves shear displacement along
These methods are summarized in Table [Link].
one or several rupture surface. It is the shear displacement along a distinct rupture surface that distinguishes
Because of the tedious nature of the calculations, computer landslides from other types of soil or rock movement such as falls, topples, or flows.
programs are currently used to perform the analysis. The
Similar to gross slope failures, landslides are generally classified as either rotational or translational. Rotational
general output of such computer software indicates the safety
landslides are due to forces that cause a turning moment about a point above the center of gravity of the failure
factor of defined or auto selected sliding surface as shown in
mass that results in a curved or circular surface of rupture. Translational landslides occur on a more or less planar
Figure [Link] as a result of calculation that takes into account
or gently undulating surface of rupture. Translational landslides are frequently controlled by weak layers, such
the geometry, the soil properties, water table, existence of loads
as faults, joints or bedding planes.
and the slope inclination. The computer software that will be
used is an internationally accepted program that is based on Active landslides are those that are both currently moving or that are only temporarily suspended, and in the
one of the recognized methods mentioned above. The factor of latter case, this means that they are not moving at present but have moved within the last cycle of seasons. Active
safety against rotational slope failure is to be 1.5. Figure [Link] Forces Acting on a Vertical Slice landslides have fresh features, such as main scarp, transverse ridges and cracks, and a distinct main body of
movement. Generally, active landslides are not significantly modified by the processes of weathering or erosion.

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 Ministry of Transport & Communications . DGRLT

Highway Design and Geotechnical Considerations

Landslides that have long since stopped moving, are modified by erosion and weathering; and may be covered [Link] Debris Flow: A debris flow is commonly defined as soil with entrained water and air that moves readily as
with vegetation so that the evidence of movement is obscured. The main scarp and transverse cracks will have a fluid on low slopes. In many cases there is an initial surficial slope failure that transforms itself as a debris flow.
been eroded or filled in with debris.
Debris flows can include a wide variety of soil particle sizes (including boulders), together with branches, tires
Many different conditions can trigger a landslide. Landslides can be triggered by an increase in shear stress or a and vehicles. Other terms such as mudflow, debris slide, mudslide and earth flow are used to identify similar
reduction in shear strength. processes.

The following factors contribute to an increase in shear stress: There are generally three segments in a debris flow: the source area, main track and depositional area. The source
Removing lateral support, such as erosion of the toe of the landslide by streams or rivers;
n
area is the region where a soil mass becomes detached and transforms itself into a debris flow. The main track is
the path over which the debris flow descends the slope and increases in velocity depending on the slope steepness,
Applying a surcharge at the head of the landslide, such as the construction of fill for a road;
n
obstructions, channel configuration, and the viscosity of the sliding mass. When the debris flow encounters a
Raising of the ground water table;
n
marked decrease in slope gradient and when deposition begins; this is called the depositional area.
Applying vibration forces, such as an earthquake or construction activities.
n

Several parameters appear to be of prime importance in triggering a debris flow. Two such parameters are rainfall
Factors that result in a reduction in shear strength include:
amount and rainfall intensity. Other important factors include the type and thickness of soil in the source area, the
Natural weathering of soil or rock;
n steepness and length of slope in the source area, the destruction of vegetation due to logging or fire, and other
Development of discontinuities, such as faults or bedding planes;
n factors such as opening of roads.
Increase in moisture content or pore water pressure of the slip surface material.
n
Measures can be taken to reduce the impact of debris flow such as the construction of retention basins or channels
If an ancient landslide was discovered during the design stage of a new project, extensive subsurface exploration to control or direct the debris flow away from structures or roads.
would be required in order to allow the engineering geologist to develop cross sections of the ancient landslide
[Link] Slope Softening and Creep: Both of these processes cause lateral movement of a slope. Slope softening
based on subsurface exploration. The drained residual friction angle could be obtained from laboratory shear
and creep need only be considered for plastic (cohesive) soils. Slopes composed of cohesionless soils (sands and
strength tests. The unit weight of the landslide could be estimated from laboratory testing of undisturbed
gravels) do not undergo softening and creep.
specimens of the landslide materials.
Fill in sloping areas is generally placed and compacted near optimum moisture content, which is often well
The approximate location of the future (long term) groundwater table could be based on the local topography
below saturation. After construction of the slope, additional moisture is introduced in the fill by irrigation, rainfall,
and on the presence of drainage facilities to be installed during development of the site. Once the cross-section
groundwater sources, and leaking water pipes. At optimum moisture content, a compacted clay fill can have high
of the landslide, location of the slip surface, estimated location of the long term ground water table, residual
shear strength due to negative pore water pressures. As water infiltrates the clay, the slope softens as the pore
shear strength parameters, and unit weight are determined, the factor of safety of the ancient landslide mass can
spaces fill with water and the pore water pressures tend toward zero. If a groundwater table develops, then the
be calculated by an approved slope stability program. The standard requirement is that a landslide must have a
pore water pressures will become positive. This results in a decrease of the effective stress and deformation of
factor of safety of at least 1.5.
the slope in order to mobilize the needed shear stress to maintain stability.
If the analysis demonstrates that the landslide has a lower factor of safety, there are three basic approaches that
This process of moisture infiltration into a compacted clay slope that results in slope deformation has been
can be used to increase the factor of safety of the slope or the landslide: (1) increase the resisting forces, (2)
termed slope softening. In addition to the slope movement caused by the slope softening process, there can be
decrease the driving forces, or (3) rebuild the slope.
additional movements due to creep.
1. Increase the resisting forces: Methods to increase the resisting forces include the construction of a buttress
Creep is generally defined as an imperceptibly slow and more or less continuous downward and outward
at the toe of the slope or the installation of piles or reinforced concrete pier walls which provide added
movement of slope-forming soil or rock. Creep can affect both the near-surface soil and deep-seated materials.
resistance to the slope. Another technique is soil nailing which is a practical and proven system used to
The process of creep is frequently described as viscous shear that produces permanent deformations, but not
stabilize slopes.
failure as in landslide movement. The amount of movement is governed by shear strength of the clay, slope
2. Decrease the driving forces: The methods include the lowering of the ground water table by improving surface
angle, slope height, elapsed time, moisture conditions, and thickness of the active creep zone.
drainage facilities, installing underground drains, or pumping groundwater from wells. Other methods to
decrease the driving forces consist of removing soil from the head of the landslide or regrading the slope in The process of creep is often divided into three different stages: primary or transient, steady state or secondary,
order to decrease its height or slope inclination. and tertiary. Because of its relatively short duration, the primary creep is often ignored in slope deformation
3. Rebuild the slope: The slope could be also rebuilt and strengthened by using geogrids or other soil analysis. The secondary phase of creep often produces a relatively constant rate of strain, and depending on the
reinforcement techniques. Another technique would be the construction of a shear key, which is defined as slope conditions, the movement could continue for a considerable number of years. If the tertiary phase of creep
a deep and wide trench cut through the landslide mass and into intact material below the slide. The shear is reached, the rate of strain accelerates, and the slope could ultimately be subjected to a shear failure.
key is excavated from ground surface to below the basal rupture surface, and then backfilled with a soil that
provides a higher shear strength than the original rupture surface. By interrupting the original weak rupture 14.3.4 Typical Slopes in Cut and Fill for Various Soil/Rock Materials
surface with a higher strength soil, the factor of safety of the landslide is increased. Table [Link] below provides guidance on the safe slopes for the various rock and soil material types and
conditions in both the cut and fill sections with the maximum height at which berms should be constructed.

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These values should however be checked / verified with the relevant slope stability calculations using the actual
Highway Design and Geotechnical Considerations

Crib Walls
n
14
rock / soil parameters obtained from the geotechnical investigations. Crib walls are built up of individual prefabricated units assembled to form a series of crib-like
Slope Ratio Maximum Height structures containing suitable free-draining granular infill. The crib units together with the infill are
Slope Type Soil/Rock Condition
(Horizontal:Vertical) of Berm, m designed to act together as a gravity retaining wall.
Good to Excellent RocK Gabion Walls:
n
1H:10V to 1H:5V 10
Conditions, RQD > 75
Gabion walls are made up of row upon row of orthogonal cages or baskets (gabions) which are
Poor to Fair Rock
1H:4V to 1H:2V 8 filled with rock fragments and tied together. Their permeability and flexibility make them particularly
Conditions, 25 < RQD < 75
Very Poor Rock suitable for use at sites which are liable to become saturated and where the foundation is composed
Cut 1H:2V to 2H:1V 6
Conditions, RQD < 25 of relatively compressible materials. Hence, gabion walls are widely used in river works. They are also
Gravelly Materials 1.5H:1V to 2H:1V 6 used as retaining walls on dry land, especially in rugged terrain. Gabion walls are relatively simple
Sandy Soils 1.5H:1V to 2.5H:1V 6 to construct. Where suitable rock is readily available, the use of gabion walls is particularly attractive
Clayey Soils 2H:1V to 6H:1V 6 for reasons of economy and speed of construction. A variety of cage sizes can be produced using
Selected Hard Rock Fill 1.4H:1V 8 suitable materials to suit the terrain. Gabions are normally formed in modules of 2 m x 1 m x 1 m.
Fill Selected Gravel Material 1.5H:1V to 2H:1V 6 Reinforced Earth Walls:
n

Selected Sandy Material 1.5H:1V to 2.5H:V 6 Reinforced Earth is a composite material formed by combination of fill material and of reinforced
Table [Link] Typical Slopes in Cut and Fill for Various Soil/Rock Materials flexible metal or geomembrane layer. (This type of walls is detailed in sub- section 14.5)
Typical cross sections for cut and fill slopes in soil and rock formations are shown in Figures [Link] and [Link]
in Section 3 of these Design Standards. Where rock slopes require protection from occasional rock falls, slope [Link] Type (b): Reinforced Concrete Retaining Walls: A reinforced concrete retaining wall resists bending due
protection treatment measures such a nailing, bolting, wire netting, shotcreting, checkfences and other concrete to earth pressures from the backfill, which provides part of the stabilizing weight by resting on the base slab and

protection measures can be implemented as deemed necessary and as shown in Figures [Link] and [Link]. thereby acts together with the wall as a semi-gravity structure. The following are the main types of walls:
L or inverted T-shaped cantilever retaining walls, which have a vertical or inclined slab monolithic with a
n

base slab,
14.4 RETAINING WALLS DESIGN GUIDELINES
Counterfort retaining walls, which have a vertical or inclined slab supported by counterforts
n

monolithic with the back of the wall slab and base slab,
14.4.1 General
Buttressed retaining walls, which have a vertical or inclined slab supported by buttresses monolithic
n

The cost of constructing a retaining wall is usually high compared with the cost of forming a new slope. Therefore, with the front of the wall slab and base slab.
the need for a retaining wall should be assessed carefully during design and an effort should be made to keep the
retaining wall use as limited as possible and the retained height as low as possible. [Link] Type (c): Cantilevered
Retaining Walls: The main types
The purpose of a retaining wall is to withstand the forces exerted by the retained ground, and to transmit these
of cantilevered retaining walls are
forces safely to the foundation. Excessive deformation or movement of the retaining wall and of the adjoining
sheet pile walls, soldier pile walls,
ground is also to be avoided.
grouted pile walls, diaphragm walls
Special considerations are often necessary for retaining walls to be constructed close to land boundaries, and bored pile walls. Apart from
particularly in urban areas. Land-take requirements often place limitations on the use of certain forms of earth bored pile (or caisson) walls, the
retention. The permission of the adjacent land owner will need to be sought for excavation limits or for structural other wall types are usually used
elements to be extended into adjacent land. to provide temporary support to
excavations. Diaphragm walls and
14.4.2 Types of Retaining Walls walls formed by closely-spaced
reinforced concrete piles are often
Many types of retaining walls are in use (see Figure [Link]). Those covered by these Design Standards:
incorporated into the permanent
[Link] Type (a): Gravity Retaining Walls, which include the following: works subsequently.

Mass Concrete Retaining Walls:

n

  Mass concrete retaining walls are among the simplest forms of retaining walls and are particularly
suitable for retained heights of less than 3 m. While they can be designed for greater heights, other
types of retaining wall are usually more economical as the height increases. The cross-sectional
shape of a mass concrete wall can be affected by factors other than stability, such as construction
methods, considerations of appearance and the use of space in front of the wall. Figure [Link] Types of Retaining Walls

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Highway Design and Geotechnical Considerations

DETAIL "A"

ROCK CUT SLOPE STABILIZATION BY WIREMESH AND SHOTCRETE

DETAIL "B"
ROCK BOLT DETAIL

DETAIL "D"
GENERAL LAYOUT OF FIXING BOLTS
DETAIL "C"
FIXING PIN DETAIL

Figure [Link] Stabilization of Rock Cuts Using Shotcrete

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Highway Design and Geotechnical Considerations

14

STABILIZATION BY WIRENET ONLY

ROCKFALL MODES AND PROTECTION SYSTEM

(As suggested by Ritchie)

DETAIL FOR CHECKFENCE DETAIL "A"

FIXING TO GROUND

Figure [Link] Stabilization of Rock Cuts Using Netting and Rockfall Buffer Areas
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Highway Design and Geotechnical Considerations

14.4.3 Selection of Type of Retaining Wall Type of Retaining Wall Advantage / Applications Disadvantages / Restrictions

The following factors should be considered in selecting a suitable type of retaining wall: a) Provides stability by virtue of the weight of the wall a) Takes up a relatively large amount of space.
a. Gravity Retaining
Wall Support may need to be provided to any
Location of the proposed retaining wall, its position relative to other structures and the amount of space b) Suitable for retention of fill, embankments. etc. b)
n excavation required for construction purpose.
available, including the necessity or otherwise to confine the support system within the site boundaries, a) Relatively simple to construct and maintain. a) Reasonably good foundation is required.
n Height of the proposed retaining wall and the topography of the ground to be formed, Large quantities of concrete are used, and
Mass Concrete Can cope with curves and can be built to different
1.      b) b) curing time is required before becoming
n Ground and groundwater conditions, Retaining Wall shapes for architectural purposes.
effective.
n Extent of ground movement acceptable during construction and in service, and the effect of c) Features can be incorporated into the finished face. c) Generally uneconomic for heights above 3 m.
movement of the retaining wall on nearby structures and services, a) Relatively simple to construct and maintain. a) Self-draining filling material is required.
n Availability of materials, Maximum use of soil as structural component,
n Time available for construction, b) and hence minimizes the need for manufactured b) Cost may be high for small quantities.
2.      Crib Wall
materials.
n Appearance,
Uses prefabricated elements, enabling better
Design life and maintenance. c) c) Generally unsuitable for heights above 7 m.
n quality control of components.
a) As (a) and b) for crib wall. a) Self-draining filling material is required.
For the retaining wall types presented in Figure [Link], their relative advantages and disadvantages are given in
b) Permits construction on weaker foundations.
Table [Link]. Where several alternatives are suitable, an economic comparison should be made based on their
3.      Gabion Wall Flexible structure, hence can tolerate higher b) Cost may be high for small quantities.
initial construction and subsequent maintenance costs.
c) differential settlements the mass concrete and R.C.
retaining walls.
14.4.4 Retaining Wall Design Criteria d) Relatively easy to demolish in part or in full.
Land-take requirement may exceed that for
[Link] Design against Ultimate Limit States: A list of limit states to be considered in design should be compiled a) As (a), (b) and (c) for crib wall. a)
other gravity type retaining walls.
in accordance with the relevant section of the specification. As a minimum, the following ultimate limit states of Reinforced Fill Can cope with tighter curves than conventional
4.      b) b) Reinforced zone requires protection.
external instability should be considered (Figure [Link]): Structure R.C. retaining wall
Stringent requirements on selected fill to he
n Loss of overall stability, c) As (b), (c) and (d) for gabion wall. c)
used with steel reinforcing elements.
n Sliding failure, Provides stability by virtue of the strength and Construction of the spread footing and key if
b. Reinforced a) stiffness of the reinforced concrete and the weight a) used, sometimes requires large excavation
n Overturning failure, and
Concrete of the retained fill. with structural support.
n Bearing capacity failure. Retaining Wall
b) Suitable for retention of fill, embankments. Etc. b) Reasonably good foundation is required.
[Link] Where appropriate, the possibility of hydraulic failure should be checked. Also, serviceability limit states, R.C. Cantilever Only conventional construction methods are
a)
which include excessive settlement, translation and rotation of the retaining wall, should be guarded against in the 1.      Retaining Wall (L- involved. a) Generally uneconomic for heights above 8 m
design (see sub-section 14.4.5). or T-Shaped) b) Features can be incorporated into the finished face

R.C. Counterfort Can be constructed to greater heights than R.C.

a)
2.      or Buttressed cantilever retaining wall. a) Formwork may be costly.
Retaining Wall b) As (a) and (b) above.
May require substantial penetration into the
Provides stability by virtue of the bending strength
a) a) ground for stability if rock or strong bearing
and stiffness of the cantilever.
layer is not found at shallow depth
Used mainly for retention of excavated ground
Cost and ground movement are generally
where space is restricted or where, owing to the
b) b) much higher than gravity or R.C. retaining
c. Cantilevered nature of the subsoil, the bearing pressure on the
walls.
Retaining Wall foundation must be kept low.
Particularly suitable when it can derive support
Design is very sensitive to changes in ground
c) from, and finally be incorporated into an adjacent c)
level.
structure.
Impermeable wall may cause a rise in the
d)
local groundwater level.
Extra care to ensure safety during caisson
a) No temporary cutting is required. a)
construction is necessary.
No heavy plant is required for caisson construction Excavation of caissons may require
Bored Pile (or
1.      b) and hence it can be constructed in areas where b) dewatering, which will cause ground
Caisson) Wall
access is difficult. settlement.
Several caissons may be dug simultaneously to
c) c) Construction cost is high.
reduce construction time.
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Figure [Link] Ultimate Limit States of External Instability for Gravity Retaining Walls Table [Link] Advantages and Disadvantages of Different Types of Retaining Walls
 Sultanate of Oman. Highway Design Standards 2010

[Link] The following remarks need to be considered as appropriate:

Highway Design and Geotechnical Considerations
14
soil. In view of constructional difficulties and the likely large deformations, deep keys (i.e. keys with a depth
greater than half the wall’s base width) should not be used. In all cases, however, the shear key should be
1.  Loss of Overall Stability: The construction of a new retaining wall will bring about stress changes in the
taken to a depth below the zone of disturbed soil in the foundation. Where a shear key is provided, a minimum
ground mass containing the wall, which could result in ‘overall’ instability. Loss of overall stability is likely
depth of 0.5 m is recommended.
to occur in an area which in itself is of marginal stability (e.g. a steeply sloping site or a slope with a high
groundwater level) or where weak subsoil (e.g. a very soft clay layer) is present underneath the wall.
2.  Limit equilibrium: methods such as those developed by Janbu (1973) and Morgenstern & Price (1965) may 14.4.5 Design Against Serviceability States
be used to check overall stability. The stability of slopes above and below the retaining wall should also be
[Link] The bulk of the movements of gravity retaining walls usually take place during construction. Such
considered. The latter is particularly important where the loss of slope stability can lead to instability of the
movements are dependent on the method and sequence of construction. Any additional movements subsequent
retaining wall.
to the completion of backfilling are usually due to changes in groundwater conditions, additional surcharge
3.  Limitations of limit equilibrium analyses using the method of slices: This should be recognized. Experience loadings or temperature effects.
has shown that for effective stress analyses of problems involving abrupt changes in the ground profile, as
well as problems involving passive resistance, the results of analyses can be very sensitive to assumptions [Link] For a gravity retaining wall founded on soil and in order to limit tilting, the wall should be proportioned
with regard to the line of action of the interslice forces, and their inclinations to the horizontal. In such cases, in such a way as to ensure the resultant force acts within the middle third of the wall base under the worst

numerous runs need to be carried out to obtain reasonably accurate results. It is recommended that the loading combination. As an alternative to the middle-third rule, appropriate deformation calculations should

interslice force inclinations in the passive zone of the trial failure surfaces should be chosen conservatively. be carried out to demonstrate that movements in service will be within the serviceability limits specified for the
design. In the latter case, it is good practice to limit the resultant force within the middle half of the wall base,
4. Sliding, Overturning and Bearing Capacity Failure: Sliding failure involves outward translation of the
even for relatively incompressible foundations. Where the middle-third or the middle-half rule is complied with,
retaining wall due to shearing failure along its base or along a soil surface below the base. Overturning
overturning failure does not need to be considered further.
failure involves rotation of the wall about its toe. Bearing capacity failure occurs when the ground bearing
pressure (i.e. the intensity of loading imposed on the ground by the wall) exceeds the load-carrying capacity [Link] For free-standing gravity retaining walls, active earth pressures may be assumed in applying the middle-
of the foundation. Where discontinuities exist within the body of the wall (e.g. presence of a planar horizontal third or middle-half rule. It is not necessary to consider compaction induced lateral pressures.
construction joint in a mass concrete wall), the possibility of sliding and overturning should be checked at
[Link] Deformation calculations are rarely necessary for gravity retaining walls. Nevertheless, serviceability
the locations of such discontinuities.
limit states should be specifically considered and appropriate checks (e.g. on tilting and settlement of the wall)
5.  Free-standing gravity retaining walls with compacted backfill: active earth pressures can be used in ultimate should be carried out where the consequence of a serviceability limit state being reached is severe, or where
limit state calculations. It is not necessary to allow for compaction induced lateral pressures in the calculations movements could lead to distress in the wall. For example, walls which are designed to support sensitive services
as movements which may occur close to ultimate limit states will reduce the earth pressures to those of the and walls which are subject to heavy surcharge deserve special consideration. The effects of consolidation
active condition. settlement due to a compressible layer in the foundation also warrant attention.
6.  Retaining walls with a stepped cross-section: active earth pressures should be calculated and stability
[Link] If deformation calculations are required, at-rest earth pressure and compaction-induced lateral pressures
checks should be carried out at each change in section. In the calculations, the lateral earth pressure and
should be considered unless movement of the wall is sufficient to mobilize active earth pressure.
water pressure which act on the wall should be calculated to the bottom of the wall or of the blinding layer
(if any), or in the case of a wall designed with a shear key, to a point below the bottom of the key where the [Link] The possibility of differential settlement along the length of a retaining wall should be considered where
assumed failure mechanism extends to that point. Before taking the passive resistance of the soil in front of the foundation material is likely to be variable (e.g. filled ground) or where compressible spots exist.
a wall into account in the calculations, consideration should be given as to whether the soil in the passive
zone is likely to be eroded or removed by human activities in the future, e.g. excavation to lay services.
14.5 REINFORCED EARTH WALLS
7.  Mass concrete retaining walls:These are usually designed with a level base for ease of construction. However,
crib walls and gabion walls sometimes have a tilted base to improve stability. For such cases, the alternative
14.5.1 General
sliding failure mechanisms should be considered in design. The sensitivity of the design to variations in the
base tilt angle should be evaluated, taking into account the tolerances likely to be achieved in construction. A Reinforced Earth is a composite material formed by cohesionless soil and flexible metal reinforcing strips. The
small amount of back batter, e.g. 1 in 6, at the back face of the retaining wall can significantly reduce the earth earth and the reinforcement are combined through friction. The result is a monolithic mass that acts cohesively,
pressure acting on the wall and even out ground bearing pressures. However, care must be taken to ensure supporting its own weight and applied loads.
that the wall itself will not be unstable before backfilling. Also, the back batter provided should not cause any The visible part of the structure is structurally the least significant. The facing skin can be in precast concrete (with
hindrance to the compaction of backfill. For this reason, the batter is very rarely greater than 1 in 4. anyone of a number of architectural finishes), semi-elliptical steel sections, treated timber or even wire mesh.
8. Gravity retaining walls: These are sometimes designed with a shear key to improve sliding resistance, thus
Construction of a Reinforced Earth wall is straightforward and simple. Merely place a layer of facing panels, bolt
reducing the required base width of the wall. For such walls, the alternative sliding failure mechanisms
on the reinforcing strips then backfill and compact. Repeat this cycle until the appropriate wall height has been
should be considered in design. In selecting the location of the shear key, the object of maximizing the sliding
reached. Properly compacted to a uniformly high density, the earth combines with the reinforcement to produce
resistance should be weighed against the risk of undermining the stability of the temporary excavation, which
a strong, durable structure with predictable performance characteristics.
may occur if the key is positioned too close to the heel of the retaining wall. The forces acting on a wall with
a shear key are dependent on the stiffness of the wall and its key, as well as the stiffness of the foundation
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Highway Design and Geotechnical Considerations

14.5.2 Types of Reinforced Earth Walls [Link] Full Height System: The use of full height facings can be economical in low to medium height structures
including bridge abutments. With this form of facing, differential settlement within the fill can be accommodated
[Link] A wide range of reinforced fill systems has been developed. They can be classified as either wholly
by permitting the reinforcing members to slide relative to the facing. Slideable attachments can be provided by the
generic or proprietary systems, or generic systems which contain proprietary elements. Five commonally used
use of grooves, slots, vertical poles, dowels, lugs or bolts. However, slideable attachments may not be necessary
systems are discussed in the following paragraphs.
for reinforcement (e.g. geogrids) which is sufficiently flexible to accommodate the differential settlement within
The use of fill, deposited in layers to form a reinforced fill feature, results in settlements within the fill mass the reinforced fill mass. Where a full-height rigid facing is used, it is normally erected and propped before filling
caused by compaction forces. These settlements result in the reinforcing elements positioned on discrete planes starts (Figure [Link](a)). The construction procedure is often referred to as “tilt up”.
moving together as the layers of fill separating the planes of reinforcement are compressed. Reinforced fill
systems have to be able to accommodate this internal deformation within the fill. Failure to accommodate the [Link] Wrap-around System: The wrap-around system of reinforced fill construction is illustrated in Figure
differential movement may result in loss of serviceability or instability. [Link](b, c) Differential settlement within the reinforced mass is accommodated by the face of the structure
closing up similar to a concertina. Some of the largest modern reinforced fill structures have been built using
[Link] Elemental System: Reinforced fill structures, constructed using facings formed from discrete concrete this approach. Using geosynthetic reinforcing materials, this form of construction is frequently adopted to form
panels, are used widely (Figure [Link] (a) and (b)). Settlement within the fill mass is accommodated by the steep reinforced fill slopes. It is important to control face distortion to produce an acceptable appearance with
facing panels closing up an amount equivalent to the internal settlement. This is made possible by the use of a the wrap-around system. In the original concept of the system, Vidal (1966) used an elliptical metal facing of
compressible joint to produce a horizontal gap between each facing element, Figure [Link] (c). sufficient stiffness to limit face distortion. However, polymeric reinforcement (e.g. geogrids) is commonly used

The shape and form of the facing panel must be compatible with the construction procedure adopted, and for the construction of wrap-around facing and face distortion is controlled by the provision of soil-filled bags or

reinforced concrete panels 1 to 4 m2 in area and 140 to 250 mm thick are typical. Suitable sealing measures are steel meshes as shown in Figure [Link](b, c).

required along both vertical and horizontal joints between the individual facing panels to prevent the loss of fines
through the joint gaps (Figure [Link] (c) and (d)).

Horizontal movements of the facing depend upon compaction of the fill and are made up of two components,
horizontal strain of the fill and tilt of the facing units. Tilt of the facing panels may have a marked effect upon the
final appearance of the structure. In the case of the incremental form of construction, each facing panel tilts and
the pivot points are dependent upon the geometry of the facing panel. To correct the effects of tilt caused during
compaction, the individual facing panels may be inclined backwards at a gradient between 1 in 20 and 1 in 40.

(a) Schematic view of elemental facing with (b) Schematic view of elemental
strip reinforcement facing with grid reinforcement
Figure [Link] Full Height System and Wrap-around System
Precast
concrete panel
Geotextille fabric [Link] Segmental Block System: The segmental block system is a hybrid system which combines conventional
Horizontal gap Bearing pad block walling with reinforced fill (Figure [Link](a)). Both steel and polymeric reinforcement can be used with this
Reinforcement form of construction. Unlike the elemental system, the block units of a segmental block system are not separated
connection Reinforcement Precast
connection concrete panel
by compressible horizontal joints. As this form of facing is relatively rigid, differential settlement between the
Geotextille fabric facing blocks and the fill mass must be strictly controlled by the use of good backfill and good compaction.
Flexible reinforcement could be used to accommodate the differential settlement between the facing blocks and
(c) Typical horizontal joint between facing (d) Typical vertical joint between
panel (side elevation) facing panel (plan) the reinforced fill mass.

Figure [Link] Elemental System

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 Sultanate of Oman. Highway Design Standards 2010

Highway Design and Geotechnical Considerations

14
hazard. The geotechnical engineer must always be cautious of other potential hazards since those listed here may
not be exhaustive.

14.6.2 Sabkha
[Link] Salt encrusted flat surfaces, known as “Sabkha”, are common in the coastal and some inland areas of
the Sultanate of Oman. Sabkhas are generally evaporating formations, either from sea invasion or from seepage
of moisture from low-lying inland areas. In both cases, varying quantities of calcium and magnesium carbonate,
calcium sulphate, and calcium, magnesium and sodium chlorides are found. The deposits generally comprise
cemented and uncemented layers of sand, silt and clay of varying thickness and properties. The groundwater
table is normally quite shallow, at most one or two meters below ground level. In order to avoid capillary rise of
the groundwater table into the subgrade, road pavements are usually constructed on embankment. The use of a
granular subbase or a granular capillary-break layer may also be advisable.

[Link] Locally, where the coastal hinterlands were very flat, lagoon and marshy environments developed.
The coastal sabkhas were connected to varying degrees to the sea along the east coast in the Haushi-Huqf area
around Barr al Hikman and Duqm, along the Batinah coastal plain around Suwayh, near to Sur at Khawr Ghamah
and along the Batinah Coast of Khawr Suwadi, Seeb and Shinas.

[Link] Precipitation of halite and gypsum was common after flooding by the sea at high tides. In the Al Hikman
area, two horizons of Pleistocene-Holocene fossil Sabkha are present forming terrace benches at 1 and 2 m above
Figure [Link] Segmental Block System and Anchored Earth System sea level. These bear witness to the gentle sub-recent uplift of the present-day eastern coast of Oman.

[Link] Anchored Earth System: Anchored earth systems have developed from a combination of the techniques [Link] In addition, along the coast of the Sea of Oman, large coastal khabras stretch out behind the coastal
used in reinforced fill and soil anchoring. The system is identified by the use of reinforcement in the form of dune cordon. These features are widespread along the whole extent of the Batinah Coast. Small sabkhas and
anchors, which can be used with elemental, full height or segmental block systems. Anchors can be more efficient khabras are also present behind the dune line of the Dhofar coastal plains of Salalah and Sharbithat.
than some conventional reinforcement used in reinforced fill construction. Figure [Link](b to d) shows anchored [Link] Road construction problems most commonly associated with Sabkha are the stability and settlement
earth methods originating from Austrian, United Kingdom and Japanese practitioners. The Austrian application of embankments and the presence of a chemical regime aggressive to buried concrete (see sub-section 14.6.9
involves polymeric strips connecting segmental blocks and semi-circular anchors. The United Kingdom anchor “Deleterious Minerals”).
uses a reinforcing bar bent to produce a triangular anchor; pullout resistance is mobilized by friction along the
[Link] Stability and settlement will be a function of the strength and thickness of the underlying Sabkha and
straight portion of the steel element and by passive pressure mobilized at the triangular anchor.
can be particularly problematic if the soil is a soft fine-grained material of appreciable thickness. The ground
investigation should be designed to ensure that the variation in thickness is properly established and that field
14.5.3 Selection of Reinforced Earth Systems
and laboratory procedures enable accurate strength and consolidation parameters to be evaluated.
The selection of an appropriate reinforced fill system needs to consider the nature, size and intended use of the
[Link] Methods of overcoming potential embankment instability might include flattening the side slopes,
proposed structure or slope. For example, some materials such as geogrids or geotextiles may be used as both
inclusion of berms, and staged construction; whilst methods of overcoming potential long-term embankment
facing and reinforcement, although the appearance of the resulting structure may not be acceptable other than for
settlement might include removal or partial removal of the soft material, installation of vertical drains and/or
temporary, industrial or military applications. Similarly, the influence of fill properties on the durability of reinforcing
preloading.
materials may not be important with temporary constructions but are critical with permanent structures.

Speed of construction is usually required to achieve economy. This may be achieved by the simplicity of the 14.6.3 Cavities
construction technique and the use of readily available materials, particularly the use of indigenous fill. The
[Link] Cavities can be a common feature in limestone formations. During the Quaternary period, the sea level
properties of the available fill can be an important factor to be considered when the reinforced fill system is
in the Arabian Gulf fell in a series of steps to about 120 m below present-day level, and in the late Pleistocene,
selected, in particular the selection of the type of reinforcement materials.
these low sea levels were accompanied by high rainfall. Apart from the limestone itself, the limestone formations
can include gypsum and anhydrite interlayer’s which are also soluble in water, causing slumping of the limestone
14.6 GEOTECHNICAL HAZARDS structure and resulting in collapse breccia, fractures, and solution cavities. These cavities may be hollow or filled
with materials, the latter generally in a loose state.
14.6.1 General
[Link] The size of the cavities can range from a few centimeters to many meters and can obviously pose serious
This section gives general details of some of the common geotechnical hazards that may be faced by highway foundation problems, particularly for structures. The cavities themselves may initiate sinkhole development in
designers in Oman. More detailed information should be obtained according to each situation and the encountered the overlying rock and soil layers.

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Highway Design and Geotechnical Considerations

[Link] Identification and location of cavities is often a matter of chance, the most common field observation curves from both tests to indicate the effect of saturation, by assuming that no volume change may occur due to
being a sudden loss in drilling water during the course of boring, or a sudden advancement of the drill string. Rock changes in moisture content under equilibrium conditions with the overburden pressure in the field.
excavations in nearby geologically similar formations should be examined during the course of site inspections [Link] A field plate loading test, during which saturation is allowed to occur, may also give useful data.
to check for the presence of cavities and voids. If cavities are suspected, then it may be prudent to extend the
[Link] Foundations located in areas of collapsing soils may need to be taken below the potential zone of
exploratory boreholes several meters below the intended foundation level, or to specify rock drill probing at the
collapse either in deep excavation or on piles. Alternative corrective measures include dynamic compaction,
base of the footings during the course of construction.
compaction by rollers, and flooding.
[Link] Stabilization by grouting may be necessary to avoid possible collapse caused by the increase in stress
due to imposed foundation loads. Alternatively, it may be possible to lower the founding level below the cavitied 14.6.5 Expansive Soils
zone or to span the voids with a continuous or raft foundation. Where grouting is specified, detailed records of
[Link] Most clay soils have a potential for swelling (and shrinking) upon a change in moisture content. Factors
the drilling of the grout holes and of the grout take must be maintained in order to assess the effectiveness of the
affecting the potential for swell include mineral composition, gradation, field moisture content, density, and state
grouting operation.
of stress and availability of water. The potential volume change is much more pronounced in an arid environment.
Typical expansive soils are stiff to hard fine-grained deposits with high liquid limits and high plasticity indices.
14.6.4 Collapsing Soils
[Link] There are a number of classification systems commonly used to predict the swelling potential of clay
[Link] Soils which are susceptible to a large decrease in void ratio at constant pressure upon wetting are
soils, one of which is presented in Figure [Link]. These charts require knowledge of the Atterberg limits and
termed collapsing soils. Collapsing soils may be found in many parts of the world where there is a long dry
the percentage clay fraction. Simple laboratory tests to determine these properties, should be conducted where
season and where the water table is at great depth. The most common collapsing soil is loess, a windblown
the occurrence of expansive soils is suspected. For a more detailed study, the mineral composition can be
deposit composed primarily of silt-sized material.
ascertained by means of Differential Thermal Analysis or X-ray Diffraction techniques. Swelling pressures and
[Link] The collapse phenomenon requires an open partially saturated fabric, a high external stress and a deformations can be predicted from the results of special consolidation tests. However, an increase in moisture
strong clay binder or cementing agent to stabilize the soil structure. When the soil is soaked, collapse occurs as content sufficient to induce swelling may arise from either natural or artificial causes; or considerable engineering
a result of the removal of soil suction, the weakening of clay bridges between grains, or the removal of a soluble judgment and field experience is often necessary to judge whether or not swelling is likely to occur.
cementing agent.

[Link] Whilst there are no standard procedures to identify collapsing soils, typical features likely to be recorded
during the course of a ground investigation are sandy or clayey silts with a high voids ratio (usually greater
than 1.0), a low dry density (less than about 80 - 85% of the maximum Proctor dry density) and a high Standard
Penetration Test blow count in the range of 20 to 60 blows/30cm. Where collapsing soils are suspected, laboratory
procedures should include a special consolidation test in which water is only added at a predetermined stress
level in the loading cycle.

[Link] The degree of collapse may be “very qualitatively” assessed according to the collapse potential (CP)
given in Table [Link], where CP is defined as the volume change at 200 kPa upon soaking.

Collapse Potential (CP) % Severity of Problem

0–1 No problem
1–5 Moderate trouble
5 – 10 Trouble
10 – 20 Severe trouble
20 + Very severe trouble
Table [Link] Qualitative Assessment of Collapse Potential

[Link] A laboratory assessment technique, utilizing the oedometer test has also been advocated to evaluate
the effect of both wetting and loading at various stress levels. This is currently called the “double consolidometer”
technique. This technique consists of running concurrently two consolidometer tests on samples of the same soil.
The first is conducted at natural moisture content with a rubber cover over the consolidometer and with special
nonabsorbent porous discs. The second test is conducted as a conventional consolidation test with water in the
Figure [Link] Classification Chart for Swelling Potential
confining dam around the sample. A graphical approach is used to superimpose the consolidation (e- log p)

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Highway Design and Geotechnical Considerations

14
[Link] Foundation problems, associated with swelling soils, may be overcome by strengthening the supporting 14.6.8 Wind Blown Sands: Refer to sub-sections 14.7 and 14.8
structure to accommodate movement, or by taking the foundation down below the zone of potential swell either
in deep excavation or on piles. However, considerable uplift forces are induced in such piles because of the 14.6.9 Deleterious Minerals
action of the swelling, and, in addition, special measures may be necessary to prevent direct contact between the
[Link] Deleterious minerals may be present in ground-water, soils and rock. The most common of these are
substructure and the expansive soils.
sulphates and chlorides. Sulphate and chloride attack on concrete can arise externally from groundwater, or
[Link] Roads on expansive soils may need to be constructed on non-expansive embankment material to internally from the concrete constituents. In addition, some rocks may be alkali reactive, producing an expansive
ensure that the variation in moisture content of the original near-subsurface soils is minimized, or, alternatively, reaction with alkalis in cement and cause cracking.
the use of membranes and lime treatment may need to be considered.
[Link] Ordinary Portland Cement consists principally of four components - tricalcium silicate, dicalcium silicate,
tricalcium aluminate, and tetra-calcium aluminoferrite. Calcium sulphate reacts with the tricalcium aluminate
14.6.6 Groundwater
to give an expansive compound which leads to disruption of the cement. The action is slow because of the
[Link] Groundwater problems will arise from two distinct causes, man-made and natural. High groundwater low solubility of calcium sulphate and the fact that only one component is attacked. Sulphate resistant cement
tables affecting the construction of highway projects will normally be located in wadi or Sabkha deposits. In such overcomes the problem of attack by calcium sulphate since it has low tricalcium aluminate content.
cases, agricultural ground investigation might include measurement of the field permeability in order to evaluate
[Link] Sodium and potassium sulphates are readily soluble and will form calcium sulphate by reaction
different dewatering techniques.
with calcium hydroxide formed from the hydrated cement. The calcium sulphate will react with the cement as
[Link] Alternatively, a construction sequence, whereby deep excavations are carried out in the summer described earlier and more calcium sulphate will come into solution until the reaction is completed. Although
months, may mitigate any special precautions being necessary. In urban areas, however, perched (near-surface) their chemical action is effectively the same as that of calcium sulphate, the presence of sodium and potassium
groundwater tables are not uncommon. These are usually caused by irrigation and leakage of water networks and sulphate, is more likely to give rise to sulphate attack because of their greater solubilities.
sewerage systems.
[Link] Magnesium sulphate is especially harmful because it is readily soluble in water and is able to react with
[Link] Annual groundwater level fluctuations may be quite large, particularly in wadi deposits, and in these cases, all cement components.
it may be advisable to install piezometers in the borings in order to monitor the fluctuations. Where groundwater
[Link] Calcium chloride is often used as an additive to accelerate the cement setting time. The mechanism by
levels are likely to affect foundation excavations, the benefits of raising the founding level, changing the foundation
which acceleration is effected is attributed mainly to the increased rate of hydration of the calcium silicate. At high
type (such as piles), or dewatering in open excavation or within a coffer dam, should be assessed.
concentrations, the expanded compounds formed by chloride reactions with the cement can result in cracked
and weakened concrete.
14.6.7 Seismicity
[Link] Calcium and sodium chlorides can also give rise to reinforcement corrosion with the expanded
[Link] The Arabian Peninsula is located on a single tectonic plate, the Arabian Plate. This plate is moving in
compounds causing concrete spalling. In addition, the migration of chloride to the surface of the concrete may
a north to north-easterly direction, resulting in movement away from the African Plate where basalt is intruded
spoil the finished appearance (efflorescence).
forming new crystal material along the axis of the Red Sea, and a movement towards the Eurasian and Iranian
Plates resulting in the formation of the Tauros and Zagros chain of mountains. [Link] Concrete attack due to the presence of sulphates and chlorides in the groundwater will depend to a
large extent on continued movement of contaminated groundwater at the concrete surface. Although a structure
[Link] The greatest number of seismic events has been recorded along the west coast of Saudi Arabia, and the
situated permanently above the water table will not normally be in danger, capillary forces can be responsible
proximity of the plate margin and intraplate events in this region contributed to the seismic predominance of this
for the migration of sulphates and chlorides to a band of soil a few meters above the water table, particularly in
area. By contrast, the central and eastern regions of the Arabian Plate do not display recent intra-plate activity.
arid environments, and as a consequence protection may still be necessary.
[Link] A seismic map shown previously in Figure [Link] indicates predicted peak horizontal ground acceleration
[Link] Alkali reactive aggregates can be divided into two main categories, those which are silica reactive (e.g.
contours. However, since recent studies suggest the possibility of active faulting within the plate margin, and
some cherts, siliceous limestone) and those which are carbonate reactive (e.g. some argillaceous dolomites). In
since the presence of such faults could result in substantial localized modifications to the contours, the map is
both cases, the aggregates produce an expansive reaction with the cement resulting in the gradual development
given for general guidance only.
of cracks. Deleterious minerals in water and soil may also cause loss of strength to soils stabilized with cement.
[Link] Details of seismic design considerations to be taken into account in the design of bridges are given in
[Link] The effects of deleterious minerals may be determined from standard laboratory tests. However,
the AASHTO Guide Specifications for Seismic Design of Highway Bridges, 1983. In areas where the predicted
mineral identification can only be done by special tests such as X-ray Diffraction, Differential Thermal Analysis,
peak acceleration coefficient exceeds 0.09g, the liquefaction potential of saturated cohesionless foundation soils
and Electron Microscopy. Methods of overcoming the problem of chemical attack on concrete include careful
must be assessed. This assessment is normally based on empirical methods using Relative Density or Standard
pre-selection of the concrete constituents so that chemical contamination is kept below specified limits, the use
Penetration Test blow counts or on analytical methods based on a laboratory determination of the liquefaction
of sulphate resisting cement, water-proofing, and cathodic protection.
strength characteristics of undisturbed samples.

[Link] Where foundation soils are susceptible to liquefaction then measures such as densification by deep
compaction or the use of long ductile vertical steel piles should be considered.

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14.7 Highways IN DUNE AREAS

14.7.1 Introduction

[Link] The Sultanate of Oman is located mostly south of the Tropic of Cancer resulting in hot dry weather
for interior areas and hot humid conditions along the coast with low rain fall. The terrain is characterized by a
central desert plain and rugged mountains in the north and south. A “dune” is a hill of sand built by Aeolian
processes, i.e. wind ability to shape the surface of the Earth. Dunes exist in different forms and sizes based on
their interaction with the wind. Most dune shapes are longer on the windward side where the sand is pushed up
the dune, and shorter on the “slip face” in the lee of the wind. The “valley” or trough between dunes is called a
“slack”. Figure [Link] presents the general shape of a sand dune.

Figure [Link] Sand Dune General Shape

[Link] A “dune field” is an area covered by extensive sand dunes. Although the most widely distributed dunes
are those associated with coastal regions, the largest complexes of dunes are found inland in dry regions. Main
sand dune areas of Wihibah, al Sharqiyah and Al Rub al Khali, are located as shown in Figure [Link]. It should
be noted however that less well defined areas are scattered throughout the Sultanate and the designer should,
during site reconnaissance, ensure and assess if the area is located within a mobile dune area and the degree of
hazard that the proposed facilities will be subjected to as a result of wind-blown sand.

[Link] Sand dune areas present exceptional challenges to the designers of roads and associated facilities.
During sand storms blowing and shifting sand flows like fluid, filling every gap and tracing each contour until
International boundaries are indicative only and do not imply territorial jurisdiction.
a drop of momentum is encountered resulting in sand deposition. Sand flow and deposition affect not only
Figure [Link] Sand Dune Location within the Sultanate
maintenance costs of a facility but also have an impact on user safety. It should be understood, however, that it is
virtually impossible to eliminate all problems and hazards associated with blowing sand given variations in site
and sand conditions, the ever changing in wind direction and natural topography.

[Link] The following sub-sections present best known practice to reduce sand accumulation and can assist
the designer to minimize problems associated with wind blown sand by understanding how sands moves and
applying techniques that could reduce the problem of sand deposition. To gain insight of the amount of sand that
could accumulate on a roadway or within a facility, Figure [Link] presents a plot of wind speed verses rate of
sand erosion per square meter as determined from wind tunnel tests.

Figure [Link] Wind Speed vs. Quantity of Sand Movement per Meter Square

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14
14.7.2 Sand Movements and Deposition 14.8 ELEMENTS AFFECTING HIGHWAY DESIGN IN DUNE AREAS
[Link] In the absence of moist or cohesive binders, typical of most sand dune areas in the Sultanate of Oman,
14.8.1 Highway Location
the movement, the movement of sand particles is largely a function of wind velocity and particles size. Classical
research by Ralph A. Bagnold published in 1941 and based on wind tunnel experiments and field observations in [Link] It is always preferable that highways and associated facilities avoid passing through sand dune areas.
the Libyan Dessert, provides a basic foundation for theories and equation of sand movements. Obviously such a statement cannot always be respected due to numerous practical factors, however if such
an option exists, it should be investigated seriously and included, where appropriate, in a value engineering
[Link] Sand movement in dune areas can be described in four modes as follow:
exercise and comparison of alternatives.
1. Suspension; the movement of sand particles in suspension occurs when the upward wind velocity component
exceeds the downward gravitational forces of the sand grain size, in such a case the sand particles inherits the [Link] Where it is necessary to locate highways within sand dune areas, the following principles should be
wind speed and becomes suspended. This mode of movement dominates during high speed wind associated recognized:
with sand storms or dust storms. Depending on wind velocity, this mode of transport is limited to particles of n Locate alignment to the windward side of large dunes or isolated dune fields.
a size smaller than 0.08mm. n Alignments running parallel to the prevailing wind direction present less potential for sand accumulation
2. Saltation; is a specific type of particle n Grade lines should be kept above the elevation of upwind topography as much as possible.
transport by carriers such as wind, or n Through cuts and cuts to the upwind dune slopes should be avoided as much as possible
the more dense fluid, water. It occurs
n Horizontal curvature shall be such that the required super elevation does not exceed 4 percent
when loose material is removed
n Locate alignments to minimize the need for drainage provision, particularly box culverts.
from a bed and carried by the fluid,
before being transported back to the Figure [Link] Path of a Single Particle in Saltation [Link] Locating interchanges or intersections within sand dune areas is not recommended, however, when
bed surface. saltation occurs during necessary, the general principles and guidelines for route location are applicable, in addition to site-specific
moderate wind velocities, at what is assessment of conditions for the application of special treatment or protection. Grade separation between roads
known as the “fluid threshold” wind usually requires a bridge and embankment. The design and alignment of the bridge should be such that the
velocity, being capable of lifting a sand prevailing wind can easily pass through without turbulence which would help to reduce sand deposition within
grain and carrying it forward in the the interchange area. Where this is not feasible, a long term solution would be the installation of a series of
wind direction. As the grain falls back to wind breakers located such that they unload wind-borne sand before entering an interchange area. Such wind
the bed surface due to gravity, the sand breakers could consist of rows of Tamerisk trees or sand fences.
grain either bounces up again or hits
and ejects other grains which in turn 14.8.2 Design Elements
move forward bounding and ejecting Figure [Link] Sand Particles in Saltation
other sand grains. Once such a process is initiated by blowing wind, it propagates downwind and intensifies [Link] As discussed in the previous sub-section, sand will be deposited whenever the sand carrying velocity
or fades depending on wind speed increase or decrease. Figure [Link] presents the path of a single sand of the wind falls below the critical velocity enabling it to carry sand particles. Any disruption to wind laminar

grain in saltation while Figure [Link] shows a population of sand grains in saltation. flow would likely cause a drop of wind speed and result in sand deposition. For this reason, all design elements,
and roadside features and furniture within the road RoW should have the most aerodynamic profile possible,
3. Creep; is the movement of sand particles too large to be lifted in suspension or rebounded by saltation, it is
facing the prevailing wind direction to maintain wind speed and consequently minimize sand deposition. Design
the slow transportation of sand particles by wind or by impacting particles.
elements related to aerodynamic profile include side slopes, super-elevation, longitudinal profile slopes and
4. Gravitational Sliding; is a form of creep characterized by gradual slippage of the face of the dune when the
degree of curvature on roads.
accumulation at the crest of the dune exceeds the angle of repose of the sand. A forward and downward
movement of the dune face is caused by gravitational forces. [Link] Highway pavements are usually smoother than natural soil and consequently provide less friction for
wind, thus increasing wind speed and preventing accumulation of sand particles on the road surface. Elevating the
[Link] It is worth noting that in a naturally graded dune, less than 5% of sand movement takes place via
road platform above the desert floor together with the increase of wind velocity, can actually assist in keeping the
suspension, 75% to 80 % by
roadway surface clear of sand. In order not to create turbulence, it is necessary to maintain fairly flat earthwork side
saltation while 20% to 25%
slopes. For that matter, even excessive super elevation has been found to cause sand deposition on the road even
move by creep. Figure [Link]
at a small scale. General Drawing GD14-10 presents typical road cut and fill slopes with grading of surrounding
presents the theoretical
area. In summary, a 10H:1V slope should be used for cutting in dune areas while a slope of 6H:1V or flatter should
relationship between grain
be used for fill in dune areas with wide toe-ditches of minimum 3.0m width to accumulate possible deposition.
size, mode of transport and
percentages of each mode for [Link] At selected locations and only for very special conditions, it may be that cut slopes of 6H:1V and fill
a naturally graded sand dune. Figure [Link] G
 rain Size Related to Movement Mode with Percentages for each Mode slopes of 4H:1V could be adopted depending on the type of sand and frequency of sand storms in the project

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area. However, such a reduction shall be subject to the Design Variations Procedure and not commenced until a dune areas, the natural sands are predominantly classified as A-3, as per AASHTO designation M145. As such,
“Variation Acceptance Notice” by the Overseeing Authority is given. In support of such a variation request, where the natural sands are essentially single size cohesionless sands, and while it can be used for embankment
appropriate, a small scale physical test could be conducted at critical locations on the project site. construction both in and outside dune areas, some precautions are necessary. Unless quiet flat or properly
confined, these sands are readily susceptible to sloughing due to vibration and erosion by both wind and water.
[Link] Cross-sectional elements of the roads that need special consideration can be summarized as follows:
In order to utilize dune material in embankment, it is necessary to confine the sand core with an outer shell of
n Cut slopes shall be 10H:1V or flatter, regardless of material excavated. less erosive soils such as A-2-4, A-1-b or A-1-a, as per AASHTO designation M145. Figure [Link] presents basic
n Fill slopes shall be 6H:1V or flatter when the maximum height of fill does not exceed 4m. dimensions for plating sand dune embankments.
n A maximum of 4 % super-elevation should not be exceeded.
n On National and Arterial Routes, wide shallow medians shall be used to remove any need for median
safety barriers
n Median drop inlets, if used, shall be designed with flat grates
n To ensure that medians are kept clear of sand accumulation, paving the median could be considered
in order to provide consistent friction along the entire surface of the road as differential friction
could create turbulence or reduce wind velocity resulting in sand accumulation.
n The general aerodynamic features of the natural topography shall be maintained to prevent or
reduce sand accumulation or/and erosion that might affect the integrity of the roadway. Curbs Figure [Link] Typical Schematic Embankment using Sand Fill with Plating
should not be used; guardrail should be avoided, and if needed, the open cable type should be used. [Link] Highway construction in sandy and sand dune areas presents unique challenges for contractors
Steel beam guardrail or concrete barriers should not be used and any structure or roadside item unfamiliar with practices and methods in such areas. The most common approach for road construction is to
that might cause an obstruction to the natural flow of the wind, or cause turbulence should also not establish a working platform at the base of the embankment, otherwise, sand can cause substantial rolling
be used resistance for construction equipment and vehicles.
n If an upwind dune crest is above the roadway elevation, whether the roadway is in cut or in fill, it
[Link] Figure [Link] presents a detailed section showing the typical construction layers for an embankment
is necessary to determine whether the distance to the crest from edge of roadway is less the 20
which uses sand fill, highlighting the disposition of the capping material on the sides and the series of working
times the elevation difference to determine the method of stabilization if needed. (Refer to General
platforms constructed in the core of the fill.
Drawing GD 14-10 at the end of this sub-section).
n Bridge openings at grade separations must be as large and clear as possible. Elimination of piers by
increasing bridge spans is desirable. Bridge railing should be the “open tubular” type while bridge
deck sections should be designed as aerodynamically as is possible.

[Link] As noted previously, wind turbulence occurs whenever an obstruction exists to the normal laminar
wind flow. The turbulence thus created results in some areas of low velocity that produces sand deposition, as
well as other areas of high velocity, which may cause erosion/abrasion. In principle, therefore, design should
attempt to minimize the installation of roadside appurtenances.

[Link] Where feasible, signs should be mounted on grade separation bridges rather than creating additional
supporting structures at ground level. In the case of small supports and fence posts, the top of concrete foundations
when used, should be not less than 10 cm below the sand surface. The use of raised pavement markers should be
avoided where possible as their protrusion could produce a break in wind speed and result in sand deposition.

[Link] With respect to fencing, consideration should be given to use of wire fencing which has been developed
for specific use as a right-of-way fence in sand dune areas. This sort of fence has been designed to be more open Figure [Link] Sand Dune Fill – Embankment Plating
than chain link and other types of fence that have a tendency to trap paper and debris, which can cause sand [Link] To start the construction process, the area of sand fill is rolled with steel rollers after which a 5 cm layer
deposition. See General Drawing GD 14-15 for details. In areas of active dune movement, fence lines should be of A-1-a, A-1-b or A-2-4 material is spread and compacted. Spreading of this layer is usually done by end dumping
stabilized by a strip at least 1.0m in width. by truck and spreading forward onto the sand material by dozers. In this way, the contractors hauling equipment
is not subject to the high rolling resistance of the dry sand and the sand is intermixed with the working platform
14.8.3 Design and Construction Considerations material.

[Link] While design for control of drifting sands is one of the primary purposes of this sub-section of these [Link] The establishment of this initial working platform is necessary in order to provide a firm foundation
Standards, it is appropriate to include other considerations that need to be addressed by designers. In sand upon which embankment can be constructed of uniform layers. It is generally impractical to require a high

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degree of density in this working platform since the support from the underlying dry sand can be quite variable.
Highway Design and Geotechnical Considerations
14
A minimum of 90 percent dry density would be acceptable.

[Link] On top of the working platform, uniform layers of sand, not exceeding 20 cm compacted thickness,
can be placed by forward spreading and compacted by steel wheeled rollers to 95 percent dry density. Trucks
with high tire contact pressure are not permitted on the dry sand embankment areas until after the subsequent
intermediate capping layers have been placed and compacted.

14.8.4 Dune Stabilization

[Link] Stabilizing dunes and other loose sand areas involves the process of immobilizing the sand. In the case
of a small to medium sized Barchans dune, stabilizing the crest and wings of the dune actually causes the trough
of the dune to trap sand. Sand will accumulate in this area until an aerodynamic profile is established, and once
established, that profile will remain essentially stable since the stabilized crest cannot move forward by saltation
or creep. The wind will in fact maintain the uniform profile even without the subsequent stabilization of the
trapped sand. Figure [Link] and General Drawing GD 14-20 shows how an oil-stabilized crescent shaped dune
acts as a sand trap.

[Link] Dune stabilization may be performed in a variety other ways. These methods include the application of
gravel blankets that provide a protective layer not as susceptible to erosion or saltation. The cohesion of the dune
sands can be increased by the application of crude oil, crude oil blends, and emulsified asphalts. Certain chemical
stabilizers can also be used to increase cohesion; however, their effect is usually only temporary. Vegetation can
also be used to stabilize dune areas; however, the arid environment of the Sultanate makes use of this method
extremely limited. Sand fencing is also effective but requires continual maintenance.

[Link] General Drawings GD 14-20 and GD 14-21 depict basic methods of stabilization. Stabilizing large dunes
with complete coverage can be quite expensive. Where large dunes are involved, strip stabilization (General
Drawing GD 14-20) has been found successful in reducing costs while maintaining the stability of the dune
feature. When using strip stabilization to immobilize dune features, the strips should be created perpendicular to
the direction of the prevailing winds.

[Link] The width of untreated area between the stabilized strips should not exceed 4 m in order to maintain the
areas effectiveness. Wider untreated areas will encourage sand movement and erosion of the treated strips. Strip
stabilization may be performed by spray application or by injection methods. Since injection methods provide
greater control with respect to the applied width and depth of penetration, the patterns (SD14.20) give favor to
this method by requiring that less stabilizing materials is used. Obviously, this saving in stabilizing materials is
offset somewhat by additional equipment costs. When spray stabilization is required, designers should specify
the rate of application of the material to be used.

[Link] The depth of penetration of sprayed materials varies with the type of material being sprayed, the type
and natural density of the dune sand and to a lesser extent on the rate of application. Density tests taken on
Barchan dunes have ranged from 105 percent at the crests to 85 percent in the advancing horns. Regardless of the
Figure [Link] Dune acting as Sand Trap following Stabilization
method of surface stabilization used, it is advisable to conduct tests in areas where the contractor can demonstrate
his equipment and methods in order for the Site Engineer to ensure that specifications are being met. This raising in height can effectively result in the trapping of many thousands of cubic meters of sand, if properly
maintained. An area where sand fences should be considered would be on the upwind side of an interchange
[Link] Combining strip stabilisation with tree/vegetable planting can be an effective method of stabilizing
in a dune area. For such installations, two or more parallel rows located perpendicular to the prevailing wind
large areas (See General Drawing GD 14-20).
could be used. The upwind fence will fill in very fast and will need to be raised first. The second and third fence
[Link] The use of sand fencing is effective in immobilizing dunes but ultimately requires frequent maintenance. downwind can be used to measure (gauge) the rate of accumulation in order to plan future fence installations
(See General Drawings GD 14-20 and GD 14-22). As each fence installation is buried it must be extended in height. and maintenance.

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14.8.5 Dune Destruction

[Link] In certain instances, commonly where dunes have migrated to a location close to a road, it may be
desirable to destroy them (See General Drawing GD 14-20). The forces of the wind can be used to erode and lower
a dune formation by orienting strip stabilization in a direction parallel to the prevailing wind. As an example,
an application where dune destruction might be beneficial is where an overhead power line lies between the
highway and an approaching dune. Destruction or lowering of this dune would preserve the vertical clearance
to the power line. For smaller dune features, differential oiling of either the wings or the center section of the
crescent shaped dunes can also be effective.

[Link] It should be noted that extreme caution must be exercised when dune destruction is used because
the eroding sand must pass across the downwind road section. Aerodynamic slopes combined with minimal
obstructions will be necessary so that the moving sand is facilitated across the highway and not encouraged to
be deposited on the road surface. The downwind side of the roadway should be evaluated so that the increased
sand accumulation coming to this area does not cause new problems.

14.8.6 General Drawings

[Link] The following set of general drawings has been prepared in order to provide consistency of design in
relation to best practice for road design in dune areas. The designer should take into consideration the guidelines
set out in sub-sections 14.7 and 14.8 combined with these general drawings.
1. General Drawing No GD 14-10 presents typical dune treatment in cut and fill sections in addition to
side treatment of dune areas within the immediate vicinity of the highway.
2. General Drawing No GD 14-15 shows typical details of RoW fencing in sand dune areas.
3. General Drawing No GD 14-20 presents guidelines for fence layout location with reference to facilities
to be protected. This drawing also shows dune destruction and stabilization methods.
4. General Drawing No GD 14-21 presents guidelines for the location and planting methods of Tamerisk
tree to protect facilities downwind.
5. General Drawing No GD 14-22 presents typical sand fence details.

14.9 REFERENCES
1. Highway Design Manual, (HDM) Ministry of Transport, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
2. Bagnold, R.A. 1941. The physics of blown sand and desert dunes. London: Methuen,

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GD 14-10 Dune Treatment in Cut and Fill Sections

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GD 14-15 Typical Details - Row and Median Fence in Dune Sand Areas

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GD 14-20 Dune Immobilization Methods (1 of 2)

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GD 14-21 Dune Immobilisation Methods (2 of 2)

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GD 14-22 Sand Fence Details

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