Chapter 3

Methods
Chapter 3

Parts:
● Method
● Research Design
● Respondents of the Study
● Research Instrument
● Data Gathering Procedures
● Statistical Treatment
3.1 Method

1-2 paragraphs containing a brief discussion

about the content of the chapter.
3.2 Research Design

This describes the research mode (weather it is

a qualitative research or a quantitative research,
or if the researcher will use a specific research
type e.g., descriptive, survey, historical, case or
experimental).
 Quantitative Research Designs

Experimental Designs Non-experimental Designs

True experimental design Action Studies

● Pretest-posttest control design Comparative Studies
● Posttest only control group Correlational Studies
● Solomon four-group Developmental Studies
Quasi-experimental Designs Evaluation Studies
● Non equivalent Meta-analysis Studies
● Time series Methodological Studies
Pre-experimental Designs Needs assessment Studies
● One-shot case study Secondary Analysis Studies
● One group pretest-posttest Survey Studies
 Quantitative Research Designs

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
Experimental Research is concerned primarily with cause and effect
relationships in studies that involve manipulation or control of the
independent variables (causes) and measurement of the dependent
variables (effects). This design utilizes the principle of research known as
the method of difference.
 Quantitative Research Designs

INTERVENING OR EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES - threats to the

validity of internal and external variables.
● Internal Validity - is the degree to which changes in the dependent
variable can be attributed to the independent variable.
● External Validity - degree to which the changes in the dependent variable
can be attributed to the extraneous variables.
Example 1
 Quantitative Research Designs

THREAT TO INTERNAL VALIDITY

1. Selection bias - this results to when subjects or respondents of the study
are not randomly selected.
2. Maturation - this happens when the experiment conducted beyond a
longer period of time during which most of the subjects undergo physical
emotional and/or psychological changes.
3. History - this refers to the threat to external validity which happens during
the conduct of the study when an unusual event affects the result of an
experiment.
 Quantitative Research Designs

4. Instrumentation Change. The instrument used in the gathering of data

must not be changed or replaced during the conduct of the study.
5. Mortality. There is a threat to validity when one or more subjects die,
drop out, or transfered.
6. Testing. The testing threat may occur in a study when a pretest is given
to a subjects who have knowledge of baseline data.
 Quantitative Research Designs

THREATS OF EXTERNAL VALIDITY

1. Experimenter effect. This threat appears when the characteristics of
the researcher affect the behavior of subjects or respondents.
2. Hawthorne effect. This occurs when the respondents or subjects
respond artificially to the treatment because they know they are
being observed as part of a research study.
3. Measurement effect. It is also called the reactive effects of the
pretest.
 Quantitative Research Designs

TYPES OF NON-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

1. Survey Studies. The investigations are conducted through self-report.
Surveys generally ask respondents to report on their attitudes, opinions,
perceptions or behaviors.
Surveys can be categorized according to:
1.1 whom the data is collected from
a. Sample - a representative of the total population.
b. Group - can be a smaller than a mass.
c. Mass - larger than a group
 Quantitative Research Designs

1.2 methods used to collect the data

a. Telephone
b. Text messages
c. Snail email
d. E-mail or other social media modalities like twitter, facebook, etc.
e. Face - to face interaction.
 Quantitative Research Designs

1.3 Time orientation

a. Retrospective. The dependent variable is identified in the present and
an attempt is made to determine the independent variable that
occured in the past.
b. Cross-sectional. The data is collected at a single point in time.
c. Longitudinal. In here, the researcher collects data from the same
people at different times.
3.3 The hypothesis and assumptions of the study

Hypothesis is a tentative prediction about the

relationship two or more variables in a population
under study.
 Forms of Hypothesis

● Simple Hypothesis
● Complex Hypothesis
● Empirical Hypothesis
● Null Hypothesis (Denoted by "HO")
● Alternative Hypothesis (Denoted by "H1")
● Logical Hypothesis
● Statistical Hypothesis
 Simple Hypothesis

A simple hypothesis is a prediction of the relationship between two

variables: the independent variable and the dependent variable.

● Drinking sugary drinks daily leads to obesity.

 Complex Hypothesis

A complex hypothesis examines the relationship between two or more

independent variables and two or more dependent variables.

● Overweight adults who 1) value longevity and 2) seek happiness are

more likely than other adults to 1) lose their excess weight and 2) feel a
more regular sense of joy.
 Null Hypothesis

A null hypothesis (H0) exists when a researcher believes there is no

relationship between the two variables, or there is a lack of information to
state a scientific hypothesis. This is something to attempt to disprove or
discredit.

● There is no significant change in my health during the times when I

drink green tea only or root beer only.
 Alternative Hypothesis

This is where the alternative hypothesis (H1) enters the scene. In an

attempt to disprove a null hypothesis, researchers will seek to discover an
alternative hypothesis.

● My health improves during the times when I drink green tea only, as
opposed to root beer only.
 Logical Hypothesis

A logical hypothesis is a proposed explanation possessing limited evidence.

Generally, you want to turn a logical hypothesis into an empirical hypothesis,
putting your theories or postulations to the test.

● Cacti experience more successful growth rates than tulips on Mars. (Until
we're able to test plant growth in Mars' ground for an extended period of
time, the evidence for this claim will be limited and the hypothesis will only
remain logical.)
 Empirical Hypothesis

An empirical hypothesis, or working hypothesis, comes to life when a theory is

being put to the test, using observation and experiment. It's no longer just an
idea or notion. It's actually going through some trial and error, and perhaps
changing around those independent variables.

● Roses watered with liquid Vitamin B grow faster than roses watered with
liquid Vitamin E. (Here, trial and error is leading to a series of findings.)
 Statistical Hypothesis

A statistical hypothesis is an examination of a portion of a population.

● If you wanted to conduct a study on the life expectancy of Savannians,

you would want to examine every single resident of Savannah. This is
not practical. Therefore, you would conduct your research using a
statistical hypothesis, or a sample of the Savannian population.
3.3 Respondents of the study

This describes the target population and the sample frame.

Two types of Population:

1. Target Population. Consists of the entire group of people or

objects to which the findings of the study generally apply.
2. Accessible Population. This refers to the specific study
population.
 SAMPLE SIZE POPULATION

It is the subset of the entire population or a group of

individuals that represents the population and serves as
the respondents of the study.
FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN DETERMINING SAMPLE SIZE

1. Homogeneity of the population. The higher the degree of

variation within the population, the smaller the sample size.
2. Degree of precision desired by the researcher. A larger
sample size will result in greater precision or accuracy of
results.
3. Types of sampling procedure. Probability sampling utilizes
smaller sample sizes than non-probability sampling.
Kinds of sampling

1. Probability sampling (scientific sampling). This is a type of

sampling in which all members of the population are given a chance
to be selected as respondents.
a. Simple random sampling. These includes the roulette wheel,
fishbowl technique, and the use of table of random numbers.
b. Stratified random sampling. The population is first divided into
strata then the sampling follows. Age, gender, and educational
qualifications.
Kinds of sampling

C. Cluster sampling. This is used in a large-scale studies in which the

population is geographically spread out.

D. Systematic sampling. Method of selecting every nth element of the

population. (2.g., every fifth, eight, ninth or eleventh element).
3.4 Research Instruments

It describes the specific type of research

instrument that will be used such as
questionnaire, checklist, questionnaire-checklist,
interview schedule, teacher-made tests, and the
like.
Research Instruments

1. Documentary Analysis. This technique is used to analyze primary and secondary sources
that are available mostly in churches, schools, public or private offices, hospitals, or in
community, municipal, and city halls. At times, data are not available or are difficult to locate in
these places and the information gathered tend to be incomplete or not dennite and conclusive.

2. Interview. The instrument used in this method is the interview schedule. The skill interviewer
determines if the interviewee is able to express his/her thoughts clearly.
 Research Instruments

Three Types of Interview

A. Unstructured. This interview can be in the form of normal conversations or a free-wheeling

exchange of ideas. The researcher must be skilled in conducting the interview so that he/she
can steer the course of conversation. The interviewer must be knowledgeable on the subject or
topic of concern.
B. Structured. The conduct of questioning follows a particular sequence and has a well-
defined content. The interviewer does not ask questions that are not part of the questionnaire
but he/she can ask the interviewee to clarify his/her answers.
C. Semi-structured. There is a specific set of questions, but there are also additional probes
that may be done in an open-ended or close-ended manner. The researcher can gather
additional data from a respondent to add depth and significance to the findings.
Research Instruments

3. Observation. This process or technique enables the

researcher to participate actively in the conduct of the
research. The instrument used in an observation is called
the observation guide or observation checklist.
 Research Instruments

Two Types of Observation

a. Structured. The researcher uses a checklist as a data collection tool. This checklist specifies
expected behaviors of interest and the researcher records the frequency of the occurrences
of these behaviors.

b. Unstructured. The researcher observes things as they happen. The researcher conducts the
observation without any preconceived ideas about what will be observed.
 Scales most commonly used in an instrument

1. Likert scale. It is a common scaling technique which consists of several declarative statements that express a viewpoint
on a topic. The respondents are asked to indicate how much they agree and disagree with the statements.

Example: Likert scale to measure attitudes towards Mathematics.

ITEMS
1. I am interested in solving numbers and equations SA A D SD
2. I enjoy using calculators SA A D SD
3. I am so engrossed in reading too many instructions SA A D SD
4. Symbols and numbers are visibly catchy SA A D SD
5. I find it easy to memorize formulas SA A D SD

Legend: SA - Strongly Agree A- Agree D- Disagree SD - Strongly Agree

 Scales most commonly used in an instrument

2. Semantic differential scale. The respondents are asked to rate concepts in a series of bipolar
adjectives. It has an advantage of being flexible and easy to construct.

Example: Description of the class president

Competent 5 4 3 2 1 Incompetent
Punctual 5 4 3 2 1 Not Punctual
Pleasant 5 4 3 2 1 Unpleasant
3.5 Data Gathering Procedure
3.6 Statistical Treatment

Statistical treatment is the culmination of the long process of formulating a

hypothesis, constructing the instrument, and collecting data. It is used to
properly test the hypothesis, answer the research questions, and present the
results of the study in a clear and understandable manner.
3.6 Statistical Treatment

TWO BRANCHES OF STATISTICS

1. Descriptive statistics. It involves tabulating, depicting, and describing the collected

data. The data are summarized to reveal overall data patterns and make them
manageable.

2. Inferential statistics. It involves making generalizations about the population through a

sample drawn from it. It also includes hypothesis testing and sampling.
3.6 Statistical Treatment

LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT OF VARIABLES

1. Nominal data. These are attributes that only name variables. These data are
considered at the simplest level.
Examples: Numbers on the uniform of basketball teams; naming the data for
statistical purposes like "Male - 1" and "Female -2"; and the students' favorite colors
3.6 Statistical Treatment

LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT OF VARIABLES

2. Ordinal data. These are attributes of variables that can be placed as one is higher than two. They can
be used for ranking purposes. They are mostly used in Likert scaling.
Examples:
1- Very Good 4- Very Satisfied
2 - Good 3 - Satisfied
3 - Fair 2 - Unsatisfied
2 - Poor 1 - Very Unsatisfied
A Picture Is Worth a
Thousand Words