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CCS

CCS 1501-Engineering Mathematics

UNIT 1
INTRODUCTORY THEORY OF SETS

In this unit, we discuss the introductory theory of sets. We end this unit with a discussion of binary
operations.
Definition (Set): A set is a collection of well-defined objects called elements.
Notations:
▪ We usually use capital letters for names of sets and elements of a set are shown by using
braces { } and listing elements between braces.
For example, 𝐵 = {2, 3, 5, 7}
▪ We can give a set by describing the property or attribute that characterise the elements of
the set.
For example, 𝐴 = {𝑥: 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟}.
▪ If 𝐴 a set and 𝑥 is an element of 𝐴 we shall write "𝑥 ∈ 𝐴" to mean "𝑥 𝑏𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑎 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝐴"
and 𝑥 ∉ 𝐴 to mean "𝑥 𝑑𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑏𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑎 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝐴"
▪ Sometimes we use parentheses ( ) and square brackets [ ] to describe a set. For example,
𝐴 = {𝑥: −2 ≤ 𝑥 < 5, 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟} can also be written as 𝐴 = [−2,5).

Example 1
Let
𝑆 = {1, 2, 3, … , 10}, 𝐵 = {𝑘 ∈ 𝑆: 𝑘 = 3𝑛 + 1, 𝑛 = 0, 1, 2}
and
𝐶 = {𝑚 ∈ 𝑆: 𝑚 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑑𝑑 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟}.
List elements of 𝐵 and 𝐶.
Solution:
𝐵 = {1, 4, 7}

𝐶 = {1, 3, 5, 7,9}

Definition (finite set): A set is said to be finite if its elements can be listed down.

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For instance, 𝑋 = {𝑥: 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑣𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑙} is a finite set.

Definition (Infinite set): A set is said to be infinite if its elements can not be listed down in a finite
time period.
For instance, 𝐶 = {𝑥: 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟}.

Definition (Subset): A set 𝐴 is a subset of a set 𝐵, written 𝐴 ⊂ 𝐵 or 𝐵 ⊃ 𝐴 if whenever 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴

then 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵 That is, every element belonging to 𝐴 also belongs to 𝐵.
For example, using example 1.1.1, notice that 𝐵 ⊂ 𝑆 and 𝐶 ⊂ 𝑆 but 𝐵 ⊄ 𝐶

Definition (equal sets): Two sets 𝐴 and 𝐵 are equal, written 𝐴 = 𝐵, if they contain the same
elements. That is, 𝐴 = 𝐵 if 𝐴 ⊂ 𝐵 and 𝐴 ⊂ 𝐵 hold.
For example, if
𝐴 = {𝑁𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 5}
and
𝐵 = {𝑥: 1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 4, 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟}.
then 𝐴 = 𝐵.

Remark: Let 𝐴 be any set, then 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐴, that is, every set is a subset of itself.

Definition (Empty set): The empty set or null set, denoted by 𝜙 or { } is the set having no elements
in it.

Note: The empty set is a subset of every other set.

Remark:
▪ {𝜙} is not an empty set. It is a set containing one element, 𝜙.
▪ Let 𝐴 be any set, then 𝜙 ⊆ 𝐴, that is, an empty set is a subset of every set.
▪ The number of elements in a set is called the size or cardinality of a set. We write 𝑛(𝐴) =
𝑘, to mean a set 𝐴 contains 𝑘 elements. If 𝑛(𝐴) = 𝑘 then a set a has a total of 2𝑘 subsets.
The set consisting of all the subsets of a set 𝐴, denoted by 𝑃(𝐴), is called the power set of
𝐴.

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Example 2: Consider a set 𝐴 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐}.

(a) Find the total number of subsets for a set 𝐴.
(b) List 𝑃(𝐴).

Solution:
(a) Let 𝑘 = 𝑛(𝐴), then 𝑘 = 3.
So the total number of subsets for a set 𝐴 = 2𝑘 = 23 = 8

(b) 𝑃(𝐴) = {𝜙, 𝐴, {𝑎}, {𝑏}, {𝑐}, {𝑎, 𝑏}, {𝑎, 𝑐}, {𝑏, 𝑐}, {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐}}

Definition (Universal set): The universal set, denoted by 𝑈 or 𝐸 is a set which contains all
elements under discussion.

Definition (Set Complement): The complement of a set 𝐴 denoted 𝐴′ or 𝐴𝑐 is a set which contains
all elements in the universal set that are not in 𝐴.
For example, if 𝑈 = {1, 2, … , 10, 11} and 𝐴 = {2, 3, 5, 7, 11} then 𝐴′ = {1, 4, 6, 8, 9, 10}

Definition (Venn Diagram): A Venn diagram is a pictorial representation of a set. If, for example,
𝑈 is the universal set containing the set 𝐴 as a subset, then this relation can be represented in a
Venn diagram as follows:

𝑈
𝐴

Set Operations
Definition (Intersection of sets): The intersection of two sets 𝐴 and 𝐵, denoted by 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵, is the
set which contains elements which are common to both set 𝐴 and 𝐵.
That is, 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵} .

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𝐴∩𝐵
Definition (Disjoint sets): Two sets 𝐴 and 𝐵 are disjoint if 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = 𝜙.

Definition (Set difference): The difference of two sets𝐴 and 𝐵 denoted by 𝐴 − 𝐵 is the set of
elements which belong to 𝐴 and which do not belong to 𝐵. i.e.

𝐴 − 𝐵 = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵 ′ }

𝐴 − 𝐵 = 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵′

Definition (Union of sets): The union of two sets 𝐴 and 𝐵, denoted by 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵, is the set of all the
elements which either belong to the set 𝐴 or belong to the set 𝐵 or belong to both sets 𝐴 and 𝐵.
That is 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = 𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵}

𝐴∪𝐵
Example 3
Let 𝐴 = {1, 2, … , 7, 8}, 𝐵 = {3, 6, 9, 12} and 𝐶 = {2, 5, 7}. Find
(a) 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵
(b) 𝐵 ∪ 𝐶
(c) 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶

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Solution:
(a) 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = {3, 6}
(b) 𝐵 ∪ 𝐶 = {2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 9, 12, 15}. Note that it is unnecessary to repeat elements in a set.
(c) 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶 = 𝜙

Some properties of intersection and union.

(i) Commutativity
For any sets 𝐴 and 𝐵 we have;
▪ 𝐴∩𝐵 =𝐵∩𝐴
▪ 𝐴∪𝐵 =𝐵∪𝐴

(ii) Associativity
For any sets 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶 we have;
▪ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) ∩ 𝐶 = 𝐴 ∩ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶)
▪ (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ∪ 𝐶 = 𝐴 ∪ (𝐵 ∪ 𝐶)

(iii) Distributive law

For any sets 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶 we have;
▪ 𝐴 ∩ (𝐵 ∪ 𝐶) = (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) ∪ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐶)
▪ 𝐴 ∪ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶) = (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ∩ (𝐴 ∪ 𝐶)

(iv) De Morgan’s laws

For any sets 𝐴 and 𝐵 we have;
▪ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)𝑐 = 𝐴𝑐 ∪ 𝐵 𝑐
▪ (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)𝑐 = 𝐴𝑐 ∩ 𝐵 𝑐

Other laws of algebra of sets are:

(v) The idempotent laws:
▪ 𝐴∪𝐴 =𝐴
▪ 𝐴∩𝐴 =𝐴

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(vi) The Identity laws:

▪ 𝐴∪𝜙 =𝐴
▪ 𝐴∩𝜙 =𝜙
▪ 𝐴∪𝐸 =𝐸
▪ 𝐴∩𝐸 =𝐴

(vii) The Complement laws:

▪ 𝐴 ∪ 𝐴𝑐 = 𝐸
▪ 𝐴 ∩ 𝐴𝑐 = 𝜙
▪ (𝐴𝑐 )𝑐 = 𝐴
▪ 𝐸𝑐 = 𝜙
▪ 𝜙𝑐 = 𝐸

Example 4:
Let 𝑈 = {𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 10}, 𝐴 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, 𝐵 = {2, 3, 5, 7} and
𝐶 = {3, 4, 5, 6, 7,8}. Verify the following:
(a) 𝐴 ∪ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶) = (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ∩ (𝐴 ∪ 𝐶)
(b) (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)𝑐 = 𝐴𝑐 ∪ 𝐵 𝑐
(c) (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)𝑐 = 𝐴𝑐 ∩ 𝐵 𝑐

Solution:
(a) 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶 = {3, 5, 7} so that 𝐴 ∪ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶) = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7}
Now, 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7} and 𝐴 ∪ 𝐶 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}
Thus, (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ∩ (𝐴 ∪ 𝐶) = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7}
∴ 𝐴 ∪ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶) = (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ∩ (𝐴 ∪ 𝐶)

(b) 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = {2, 3, 5} so that (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)𝑐 = {1, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}

Now, 𝐴𝑐 = {6, 7, 8, 9, 10} & 𝐵 𝑐 = {1, 4, 6, 8, 9, 10} ⟹ 𝐴𝑐 ∪ 𝐵 𝑐 = {1, 4,6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
∴ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)𝑐 = 𝐴𝑐 ∪ 𝐵 𝑐

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(c) Exercise
Example 5:
Simplify each of the following:

(a) [𝐴𝑐 ∪ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 𝑐 )]𝑐

(b) (A ∩ 𝐵) ∪ (𝐴 − 𝐵)
(c) 𝐵 𝑐 ∩ (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)
(d) 𝐴 ∩ (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)

Solution:

(a)
[𝐴𝑐 ∪ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 𝑐 )]𝑐 = (𝐴𝑐 )𝑐 ∩ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 𝑐 )𝑐 , by De Morgan’s laws

= 𝐴 ∩ (𝐴𝑐 ∪ (𝐵 𝑐 )𝑐 ) , 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑙𝑎𝑤𝑠

= 𝐴 ∩ (𝐴𝑐 ∪ 𝐵), by De Morgan’s laws

= (𝐴 ∩ 𝐴𝑐 ) ∪ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) , by distributive laws

= 𝜙 ∪ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)

= 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵, , by identity laws.

(b)
(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) ∪ (𝐴 − 𝐵) = (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) ∪ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 𝑐 )
= 𝐴 ∩ (𝐵 ∪ 𝐵 𝑐 ), 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑤𝑠
=𝐴∩𝐸
=𝐴

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Sets of Numbers
Definition (Natural numbers): Natural numbers are a set of numbers that starts with 1 and
continues infinitely in the positive direction.
In other words, natural numbers are the numbers we use for counting and are denoted by the
symbol "ℕ". So, the set of natural numbers can be represented as
ℕ = {1, 2, 3, . . . }.

Definition (Whole numbers): Whole numbers are the set of natural numbers including 0.
So, the set of whole numbers can be represented as
𝕎 = {0, 1, 2, . . . }.

Definition (Integers): Integers is a set of whole numbers including the negatives of natural
numbers.
So, the set of integers can be represented as
ℤ = {… , −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, , . . . }.
Note that ℕ ⊂ 𝕎 ⊂ ℤ.

Definition (Rational numbers): A rational number is a number that can be expressed as the
quotient or fraction of two integers, with the denominator not equal to zero.
𝑝
In other words, a rational number is a number that can be written in the form 𝑞, where 𝑝 and 𝑞 are

integers and 𝑞 ≠ 0.
1 3 5
For example, 2, 4, − 7, and 0 are all rational numbers. So, the set of rational numbers can be

represented as
𝑝
ℚ = { : 𝑝 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞 ≠ 0}
𝑞

Rational numbers can be written as;

3
▪ Terminating decimals e.g. 4 = 0.75

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478
▪ Repeating (Non-terminating) decimals e.g. = 4.8282828282 … . = 4. ̅̅
82̅̅ where the bar
99

indicates the block of repeating digits.

Note that ℕ ⊂ 𝕎 ⊂ ℤ ⊂ ℚ.

Example 6:
Show that each of the following numbers are rational.
̅̅̅̅
(a) 4. 82
̅̅̅̅
(b) 0.213
(c) 4.83̅

𝑝
Solution: We show that each of the numbers can be written in the form 𝑞, where 𝑝, 𝑞 ∈ ℤ, 𝑞 ≠ 0.

̅̅̅̅
(a) Let 𝑥 = 4. 82
𝑥 = 4. ̅82
̅̅̅ … (𝑖)

Multiplying both sides by 100 yields

100𝑥 = 482. ̅82

̅̅̅ … (𝑖𝑖)

(𝑖𝑖) − (𝑖) we obtain

100𝑥 − 𝑥 = 482. ̅̅
82̅̅ − 4. ̅82
̅̅̅

⟹ 99𝑥 = 478

478
⟹𝑥=
99

478
̅̅̅̅ =
∴ 4. 82
99

̅̅̅̅
(b) Let 𝑥 = 0.213

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̅̅̅̅ … (𝑖)
𝑥 = 0.213

Multiplying both sides by 10 yields

̅̅̅̅ … (𝑖𝑖)
10𝑥 = 2. 13

Again, multiplying both sides by 100 yields

̅̅̅̅ … (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
1000𝑥 = 213. 13

(𝑖𝑖𝑖) − (𝑖𝑖) we obtain

̅̅̅̅ − 2. 13
1000𝑥 − 10𝑥 = 213. 13 ̅̅̅̅

⟹ 990𝑥 = 211

211
⟹𝑥=
990

211
̅̅̅̅ =
∴ 0.213
990
(c) Exercise

Definition (Irrational numbers): Irrational numbers are numbers that cannot be expressed as a
𝑝
ratio of two integers (i.e., they cannot be written as a fraction in the form 𝑞, where 𝑝 and 𝑞 are

integers).
They are non-repeating, non-terminating decimals that cannot be expressed as a fraction.

Some examples of irrational numbers include: √2, 𝜋, 𝑒 (Euler's number, a mathematical constant
approximately equal to 2.718), √3, 𝜙(the golden ratio, approximately equal to 1.618). So, the set
of irrational numbers is denoted by 𝕀𝑟𝑟.

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Example 7:
Show that each of the following is irrational
(a) √2
(b) 2 + √3

Solution
(a) We shall prove this by contradiction.
Assume that √2 is a rational number. Then there is integers 𝑚 and 𝑛 with no common
𝑚
factors and 𝑚 > 0, 𝑛 > 0 such that √2 = 𝑛 .

Now squaring both sides yields

𝑚2
=2
𝑛2

⟹ 𝑚2 = 2𝑛2

Since 𝑚2 has a factor 2, it is even and divisible by 2. ⟹ 𝑚 must itself be divisible by 2.

Thus we can write 𝑚 in the form 𝑚 = 2𝑘 for some 𝑘 ∈ ℤ. This then gives 2𝑛2 = 𝑚2 =
4𝑘 2 so that 𝑛2 = 2𝑘 2 . This shows that 𝑛 is also divisible by 2. But then this means both 𝑚
and 𝑛 are divisible 2 contradicting our assumption that 𝑚 and 𝑛 have no common factor.
𝑝
This contradiction proves that √2 cannot be expressed in the form 𝑞 . Hence √2 is not a

rational number.

(b) Suppose 2 + √3 is rational, then there exists integers 𝑝 and 𝑞 with 𝑞 ≠ 0 such that 2 +
𝑝 𝑝 𝑝−2𝑞
√3 = 𝑞 . Then √3 = 𝑞 − 2 = 𝑞
. But 𝑝 − 2𝑞 is an integer so that the right hand side is

rational while the left side is irrational. This contradiction proves that 2 + √3 is not a
rational number.

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Definition (Real numbers): Real numbers are all the numbers on the number line. In other words,
real numbers are all the numbers that can be expressed as a decimal, whether the decimal is finite
(such as 0.25, 1.5, or −7) or infinite (such as 1.33333. . . 𝑜𝑟 √2). So, the set of real numbers is
denoted by ℝ.

Note that
▪ ℝ = ℚ ∪ 𝕀𝑟𝑟
▪ ℕ ⊂𝕎 ⊂ℤ ⊂ℚ⊂ℝ

Interval notation
The union of the set of rational numbers with the set of irrational numbers is the set of real numbers
ℝ. Real numbers form a continuous line and so they cannot be listed using braces. We shall now
deal with special subsets of ℝ called intervals. These intervals can be represented using a number
line
<------|-------------|------>
3 7
This number line represents the interval [3,7), which includes all real numbers greater than or equal
to 3 and less than 4. The left endpoint at 3 is included in the interval, while the right endpoint at 4
is not included.
We can also use set notation to write the set of real numbers. The set above can for example be
given as { 𝑥 ∈ ℝ: 3 ≤ 𝑥 < 7}.

Here are some set intervals for any real numbers 𝑎 and 𝑏, where 𝑎 < 𝑏.

Set Name Note

(𝑎, 𝑏) = { 𝑥 ∈ ℝ: 𝑎 < 𝑥 < 𝑏} Open interval Includes all real numbers
between 𝑎 and 𝑏.
[𝑎, 𝑏) = { 𝑥 ∈ ℝ: 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 < 𝑏} Half-open interval All real numbers between 𝑎 and
𝑏 including the left endpoint 𝑎
but not the right endpoint 𝑏.

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(𝑎, 𝑏] = { 𝑥 ∈ ℝ: 𝑎 < 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏} Half-open interval All real numbers between 𝑎 and

𝑏 including the right endpoint 𝑏𝑏
but not the left endpoint 𝑎.
[𝑎, 𝑏] = { 𝑥 ∈ ℝ: 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏} Closed interval Interval includes all real numbers
between 𝑎 and 𝑏, including both
endpoints 𝑎 and 𝑏.
(−∞, 𝑏] = { 𝑥 ∈ ℝ: 𝑥 < 𝑏} Half-open interval Interval includes the right
endpoint 𝑏 and all real numbers
less than 𝑏.
(−∞, 𝑏) = { 𝑥 ∈ ℝ: 𝑥 < 𝑏} Open interval Interval includes all real numbers
less than 𝑏
[𝑎, ∞) = { 𝑥 ∈ ℝ: 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥} Half-open interval Interval includes the left endpoint
a and all real numbers greater
than or equal to a
(𝑎, ∞) = { 𝑥 ∈ ℝ: 𝑎 < 𝑥} Open interval Interval includes all real numbers
greater than 𝑎
(−∞, ∞) = ℝ Unbounded interval All real numbers

Example 7
Let ℝ be the unıversal set, 𝐴 = { 𝑥 ∈ ℝ: −5 ≤ 𝑥 < 4} and 𝐵 = { 𝑥 ∈ ℝ: −1 ≤ 𝑥}. Find
(a) 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵
(b) 𝐴𝑐

Solution:

▪ 𝐴 = {𝑥 ∈ ℝ: −5 ≤ 𝑥 < 4} is the set of all real numbers 𝑥 that are greater than or equal to
−5 and less than 4. So, 𝐴 can also be expressed using interval notation as 𝐴 = [−5, 4).
▪ 𝐵 = {𝑥 ∈ 𝑅: −1 ≤ 𝑥} is the set of all real numbers 𝑥 that are greater than or equal to −1.
So, 𝐵 can also be expressed using interval notation as 𝐵 = [−1, ∞).

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(a) 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = [−1,4), that is 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 consists of the half-closed interval from −1 to 4, including

−1 but not 4.

(b) To find the complement 𝐴𝑐 , we need to consider all real numbers that are not in 𝐴, which
includes all numbers less than −5 and greater than or equal to 4. Therefore, the
complement 𝐴𝑐 consists of the union of two intervals:

𝐴𝑐 = (−∞, −5) ∪ [4, ∞)

Example 8:
Let 𝑈 = (−7,10] be the unıversal set, 𝐴 = [−3,7], B = (−2,5) and 𝐶 = (−6,10] Find the
following sets:
(a) 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 (b) 𝑈 − 𝐶 (c) 𝐵 𝑐 ∪ 𝐴 (d) (𝐴 ∪ 𝐶)𝑐

(a) 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 is the set of all elements that are in both 𝐴 = [−3,7] and 𝐵 = (−2,5). In other
words, we need to find the overlap between the intervals [−3,7] and (−2,5). This gives:

𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = (−2,5) = 𝐵

(b) 𝑈 − 𝐶 is the set of all elements in the universal set 𝑈 = (−7,10] that are not in 𝐶 =
(−6,10]. In other words, we need to remove all elements in 𝐶 from 𝑈. This gives:

𝑈 − 𝐶 = (−7, −6]

(c) 𝐵 𝑐 ∪ 𝐴 is the set of all elements that are either not in 𝐵, or in 𝐴. In other words, we need
to find the complement of 𝐵, and then take the union of that with 𝐴. This gives:

𝐵 𝑐 = (−7, −2] ∪ [5, 10) 𝑠𝑜 𝐵 𝑐 ∪ 𝐴 = (−7, 10] = 𝑈

(d) (𝐴 ∪ 𝐶)𝑐 is the complement of the union of 𝐴 = [−3,7] and 𝐶 = (−6,10]. In other
words, we need to find all elements that are not in either A or C. This gives:

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𝐴 ∪ 𝐶 = (−6,10] = 𝐶

(𝐴 ∪ 𝐶)𝑐 = 𝐶 𝑐 = (−7, −6]

Properties of Real Numbers

These properties are grouped into algebraic and order properties.

(a) Algebraic properties of real numbers

Let 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ ℝ, then

(i) 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 𝑏 + 𝑎, Commutative law of addition

(ii) 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑏𝑎, Commutative law of multiplication
(iii) (𝑎 + 𝑏) + 𝑐 = 𝑎 + (𝑏 + 𝑐), Associative law of addition
(iv) (𝑎𝑏)𝑐 = 𝑎(𝑏𝑐), Associative law of multiplication
(v) 𝑎 + 0 = 0 + 𝑎 = 𝑎, 0 (zero) is called the additive identity
(vi) 𝑎 × 1 = 1 × 𝑎 = 𝑎, 1 (one) is called the multiplicative identity
(vii) 𝑎 + (−𝑎) = (−𝑎) + 𝑎 = 0, −𝑎 is called the additive inverse of 𝑎.
1
(viii) 𝑎 × 𝑎−1 = 𝑎−1 × 𝑎 = 1, 𝑎−1 = 𝑎 is called the multiplicative inverse of 𝑎, 𝑎 ≠ 0.

(ix) 𝑎(𝑏 + 𝑐) = 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑎𝑐, Distributive law

(b) Order relations

Let 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ, then we say that
(i) 𝑥 > 𝑦 if 𝑥 − 𝑦 > 0. That is, 𝑥 is greater than 𝑥 if 𝑥 − 𝑦 is positive.
(ii) 𝑥 < 𝑦 if 𝑥 − 𝑦 < 0.
(iii) 𝑥 = 𝑦 if 𝑥 − 𝑦 = 0
The law of trichotomy holds for ℝ . That is if 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ then either 𝑥 > 𝑦 or 𝑥 = 𝑦 or 𝑥 < 𝑦.
For all 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ ℝ, 𝑥 > 𝑦 ⟹ 𝑥 + 𝑧 > 𝑦 + 𝑧. If 𝑧 > 0 𝑥𝑧 > 𝑦𝑧.

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Complex Numbers
Define 𝑖 = √−1 so that 𝑖 2 = −1.
▪ Recall that for any 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ, √𝑥𝑦 = √𝑥√𝑦
▪ It then follows that:
√−25 = √(25)(−1) = √25√−1 = ±5𝑖
▪ 𝑖 7 = 𝑖. 𝑖 6 = 𝑖(𝑖 2 )3 = 𝑖(−1)3 = −𝑖
▪ 𝑖 8 = (𝑖 2 )4 = (−1)4 = 1

Definition (Complex number): A complex number is a number of the form 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏 where 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈

ℝ.
If z = 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏 then 𝑎 is called the real part, denoted by 𝑅𝑒(𝑧) and 𝑏 is called the imaginary part,
denoted by 𝐼𝑚(𝑧). That is, 𝑅𝑒(𝑧) = 𝑎 and 𝐼𝑚(𝑧) = 𝑏
So, the set of all complex numbers, denoted by ℂ, is ℂ = {𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏, 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ}

Argand Diagram
A complex number can be represented geometrically on the 𝑥𝑦 −plane by taking the 𝑥 −axis as
the real axis and the 𝑦 −axis as the imaginary axis.

The diagram such as this one which represents a complex number is called the Argand diagram.

Definition (Conjugate): The conjugate of a complex number 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦, 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ denoted by 𝑧̅

is given by 𝑧̅ = 𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦
For example, the conjugate of 2 + 3𝑖 is 2 − 3𝑖 and the conjugate of −8 − 𝑖 and −8 + 𝑖

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We can perform usual operations on ℂ as follows:

Let 𝑧1 = 𝑥1 + 𝑖𝑦1 and z2 = 𝑥2 + 𝑖𝑦2 . Then,
(a) 𝑧1 = 𝑧2 iff 𝑥1 = 𝑥2 and 𝑦1 = 𝑦2

(b) 𝑧1 ± 𝑧2 = 𝑥1 ± 𝑥2 + 𝑖(𝑦1 ± 𝑦2 )

(c) 𝑧1 𝑧2 = (𝑥1 + 𝑖𝑦1 )( 𝑥2 + 𝑖𝑦2 ) = (𝑥1 𝑥2 − 𝑦1 𝑦2 ) + 𝑖(𝑥1 𝑦2 + 𝑥2 𝑦2 ), since 𝑖 2 = −1

𝑧1 𝑧 ̅̅̅
𝑧 (𝑥1 𝑥2 −𝑦1 𝑦2 )+𝑖(𝑥2 𝑦1 −𝑥1 𝑦2 )
(d) = 𝑧1̅̅̅
2
=
𝑧2 𝑧
2 2 𝑥22 +𝑦22

(𝑥1 𝑥2 − 𝑦1 𝑦2 ) (𝑥2 𝑦1 − 𝑥1 𝑦2 )
= 2 2 +𝑖
𝑥2 + 𝑦2 𝑥22 + 𝑦22

Note that if 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 then

z𝑧̅ = (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)(𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦) = 𝑥 2 − 𝑖𝑥𝑦 + 𝑖𝑥𝑦 − 𝑖 2 𝑦 2 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 is a real number since it has

no imaginary part.

Example 9
Given that 𝑧 = 2 − 𝑖 and 𝑤 = 3 + 4𝑖. Express each of the following in the form 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏 where 𝑎
and 𝑏 are real numbers:
(a) 𝑧 − 𝑤
(b) 𝑧𝑤
𝑤
(c) 𝑧

(d) 𝑧 2

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Solution
We have:

(a)
𝑧 − 𝑤 = (2 − 𝑖) − (3 + 4𝑖) = −1 − 5𝑖

∴ 𝑧– 𝑤 = −1 − 5𝑖.

(b)

(2 − 𝑖)(3 + 4𝑖) = 6 + 8𝑖 − 3𝑖 − 4𝑖 2

∴ 𝑧𝑤 = 10 + 5𝑖

(c)
𝑤 3 + 4𝑖 (3 + 4𝑖)(2 + 𝑖)
= =
𝑧 2−𝑖 (2 − 𝑖)(2 + 𝑖)

6 + 11𝑖
=
5

𝑤 6 11
∴ = + 𝑖
𝑧 5 5

(d)
𝑧 2 = (2 − 𝑖)2 = 22 − 2𝑖 + 𝑖 2

∴ 𝑧 2 = 5 − 4𝑖

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Example 10
Find 𝑥 and 𝑦 such that
(a) 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 = 3 − 2𝑖
(b) (3𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦) + (2 + 13𝑖) = 7 + 3𝑖

Solutions:
(a) Equating the real parts and imaginary parts we have 𝑥 = 7 and 𝑦 = −2

(b) First we add the real parts and imaginary parts on the left to get:

3𝑥 + 2 + (13 − 𝑦)𝑖 = 7 + 3𝑖

Now equating the real and imaginary parts we have:

5
3𝑥 + 2 = 7 ⟹ 𝑥 =
3
13 − 𝑦 = 3 ⟹ 𝑦 = 10

Definition (Modulus of a Complex number): If z = 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏 then the modulus of 𝑧 denoted by |𝑧|

is given by 𝑧 = √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 .

Example 11
Find the modulus of each of the following complex numbers:
(i) z = 5 − 12𝑖
(ii) 𝑧 = 3𝑖
1−𝑖
(iii) 𝑧 = 2−5𝑖

Solutions:
(i) |𝑧| = √52 + (−12)2 = √169 = 13

(ii) |𝑧| = √02 + 32 = √9 = 3

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(iii)
1−𝑖
|𝑧| = | |
2 − 5𝑖

(1 − 𝑖)(2 + 5𝑖)
=| |
(2 − 5𝑖)(2 + 5𝑖)

7 + 3𝑖
=| |
29

7 3
= | + 𝑖|
29 29

7 2 3 2
= √( ) +( )
29 29

1
∴ |𝑧| = √58
29
Example 12:
Solve each of the following equations:
𝑥+𝑖𝑦
(a) = 3 − 5𝑖
2+𝑖
1 3−2𝑖
(b) =
𝑥+𝑖𝑦 1+𝑖

Solution:
(a)
𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦
= 3 − 5𝑖
2+𝑖

⟹ 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 = (3 − 5𝑖)(2 + 𝑖)

⟹ 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 = 5 − 7𝑖

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⟹ 𝑥 = 5, 𝑦 = −7
(b)
1 3 − 2𝑖
=
𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 1+𝑖

1+𝑖
⟹ 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 =
3 − 2𝑖

(1 + 𝑖)(3 + 2𝑖)
⟹ 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 =
(3 − 2𝑖)(3 + 2𝑖)

(1 + 𝑖)(3 + 2𝑖) 1 5
⟹ 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 = = + 𝑖
(3 − 2𝑖)(3 + 2𝑖) 13 13

1 5
𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 = + 𝑖
13 13

1 5
∴𝑥= , 𝑦=
13 13

Surds
In mathematics, surds are irrational numbers that are usually expressed using a radical symbol
(√ ). A surd cannot be expressed as a finite or repeating decimal, and it cannot be written as a

ratio of two integers. Examples of surds include √2, √3, √5, √10 etc

It is important to note that not all irrational numbers are surds. For example, the number π is
irrational but not a surd because it cannot be expressed as a finite radical.
If 𝑎 and 𝑏 are real numbers, then

(a) √𝑎𝑏 = √𝑎√𝑏

𝑎 √𝑎
(b) √𝑏 =
√𝑏

2
(c) (√𝑎) = √𝑎 × √𝑎 = 𝑎

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(d) Note that √(𝑎 + 𝑏) ≠ √𝑎 + √𝑏

Example 13:
Express each of the following as the simplest possible surd:
(i) √48
(ii) √132
(iii)√88

Solutions:
(i) √48 = √16(3) = 4√3

(ii) √132 = √4(33) = 2√33

(iii) √125 = √25(5) = 5√5

Example 14:
Expand and simplify each of the following expressions:
(i) (2 + √3)(1 − √3)

(ii) (2 − 2√2)(3 + √2)

Solutions:
(i)
(2 + √3)(1 − √3) = 2(1 − √3) + √3(1 − √3)

= 2 − 2√3 + √3 − 3

= −1 − √3

(ii)
(2 − 2√2)(3 + √2) = 6 + 2√2 − 6√2 − 2(√2√2)

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= 6 − 4√2 − 2(2)

= 2 − 4√2

To simplify a fraction with a surd (square root) in the denominator, you need to rationalize the
denominator, which means getting rid of the square root in the denominator by multiplying both
the numerator and denominator by an appropriate expression that eliminates the surd. Here are the
steps to follow:
Step 1: Identify the surd in the denominator.
Step 2: Multiply both the numerator and denominator by the conjugate of the surd. The conjugate
of a surd is formed by changing the sign between the terms in the surd. For example, the conjugate
of √3 + 2 is √3 − 2.
Step 3: Simplify the numerator using the distributive property and simplify the denominator using
the difference of squares formula.
Step 4: Check if the fraction can be simplified further. If so, repeat the process.

Example
Rationalise the denominator:
2
(i)
√3
2
(ii) 2−3√2

1−5√3
(iii) 2−√3
2
(iv) (2−2√3)(5−√2)

Solution:
(i)
2 2(−√3)
=
√3 √3(−√3)

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−2√3
=
−3

2√3
=
3

(ii)
2 2(2 + 3√2)
=
2 − 3√2 (2 − 3√2)(2 + 3√2)

2(2 + 3√2)
=
4 − 18

2(2 + 3√2)
=
−14
−(2 + 3√2)
=
7

(iii)
1 − 5√3 (1 − 5√3)(2 + √3)
=
2 − √3 (2 − √3)(2 + √3)

(−13 − 4√3)
=
1

= −13 − 4√3

(iv)
2 2(2 + 2√3)(5 + √2)
=
(2 − 2√3)(5 − √2) (2 − 2√3)(2 + 2√3)(5 − √2)(5 + √2)

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2(10 + 2√2 + 10√3 + 2√6)

=
(4 − 12)(25 − 2)

4(5 + 2√2 + 5√2 + √6)

=
(−8)(23)

(5 + 2√2 + 5√2 + √6)

=−
46

Binary Operations
Definition (Binary operation): A binary operation, denoted by ∗ 𝑜𝑟 ⨁ on a non-empty set 𝐺 is a
rule which associates to each pair of elements 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺 a unique element 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺.

Example 15
1. Addition ‘+’ is a binary operation on a set of natural numbers ℕ since for any 𝑚, 𝑛 ∈ ℕ,
𝑚 + 𝑛 ∈ ℕ.
However, subraction ‘-’ is not a binary operation on a set of natural numbers ℕ since for
1,6 ∈ ℕ, 1 − 6 = −5 ∉ ℕ.

2. Both addition and subtraction are binary operations on the set ℤ.

Whenever ∗ is a binary on a set 𝐺 we say that 𝐺 is closed, that is, the closure property is satisfied
in 𝐺 with respect to the operation ∗.
The operation ∗ on a set 𝐺 is said to be:
(a) Commutative if for every pair of elements 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺 we have 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑏 ∗ 𝑎.
(b) Associative if for 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝐺 we have 𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝑐) = (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∗ 𝑐
(c) Distributive if for 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝐺 we have 𝑎 ∗ (𝑏ࣷ𝑐) = (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏)ࣷ(𝑎 ∗ 𝑐), where ࣷ is also a
binary operation on 𝐺.

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Example 16:
Let ℝ be a set of real numbers. Define an operation ∗ on ℝ by 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑎 − 2𝑏. Determine whether
or not * is a assocative on ℝ.

Solution:
(𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∗ 𝑐 = (𝑎 − 2𝑏) ∗ 𝑐 = 𝑎 − 2𝑏 − 2𝑐

while

𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝑐) = 𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 − 2𝑐) = 𝑎 − 2(𝑏 − 2𝑐) = 𝑎 − 2𝑏 − 4𝑐.

Since (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∗ 𝑐 ≠ 𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝑐) then ∗ is not is a assocative on ℝ.

Example 17:
2 +𝑏
Let ∗ be an operation defined by 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 2𝑎 , where 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ.
(a) Is the binary ∗ a binary operation on a set of real numbers ℝ?
(b) Evaluate 3 ∗ 2.

Solutions:
2 +𝑏
(a) The operation is a binary operation since if 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ, then 𝑎2 + 𝑏 ∈ ℝ and 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 2𝑎 ∈
ℝ.

2 +2
(b) 3 ∗ 2 = 23 = 211
2 +3
But 2 ∗ 3 = 22 = 27
2 +𝑏
So generally, 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 2𝑎 is generally not commutative on ℝ.

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