STEEL STRUCTURES

CE-409

Design Philosophies (LRFD & ASD)

Contents
1. Design Philosophies
2. Loads
3. Factors for LRFD & ASD
4. Load Combinations
5. Example
6. Comparison of LRFD with ASD for Tension
member
7. Why Should LRFD be used?
DESIGN
PHILOSOPHIES
Design Philosophies
Allowable Strength Design (ASD) Elastic Design or Working Stress Design
In allowable strength design (ASD), a member is selected that has a • This approach is called allowable stress
cross-sectional properties such as area and moment of inertia that are design.
large enough to prevent the maximum applied axial force, shear or
bending moment from exceeding an allowable , or permissible value. • The allowable stress will be in the
This allowable value is obtained by dividing the nominal, or theoretical, elastic range of the material.
strength by a factor of safety.
Capacity ≥ Demand • This approach to design is also called
required strength ≤ allowable strength (2.1) elastic design or working stress design.
where
allowable strength = nominal strength • Working stresses are those resulting
safety factor from the working load, which are the
Strength can be an axial force strength ( as in tension or compression applied loads.
members), a flexural strength (moment strength), or a shear strength.
If stresses are used instead of forces or moments, the relationship • Working loads are also known as service
of Equation 2.1 becomes loads.
maximum applied stress ≤ allowable stress (2.2)
Plastic Design
• Based on the consideration of failure conditions rather than working load conditions. A member is selected
using the criterion that the structure will fail at a load substantially higher than the working load.
• Failure in this context either means collapse or extremely large deformations.
• The term plastic is used because, at failure, parts of member will be subjected to very large strains (large
enough to put member into plastic range). When the entire cross section becomes plastic at enough
locations, “plastic hinges” will form at those locations, creating a collapse mechanism. As the actual loads
will be less than the failure loads by a factor of safety known as the load factor, members designed this way
are safe, despite being designed based on what happens at failure.

• Multiply the working loads (service loads) by the load factor to obtain the failure loads.
• Determine the cross-sectional properties needed to resist failure under these loads. (A
member with these properties is said to have sufficient strength and would be at the verge of
failure when subjected to the factored loads.)
• Select the lightest cross-sectional shape that has these properties.

• Members designed by the plastic theory would reach the point of failure under factored
loads but are safe under actual working loads.
Load and resistance factor design (LRFD)
LRFD is similar to plastic design in that strength, or the failure condition, is considered. Load factors are applied to
the service loads, and a member is selected that will have enough strength to resist the factored loads. In addition,
the theoretical strength of the member is reduced by the application of resistance factor. The criterion that must
be satisfied in the selection of a member is

Factored Load ≤ Factored strength

In this expression, the factored load is actually the sum of all service loads to be resisted by the member, each
multiplied by its own load factor. For example, dead loads will have load factors that are different from those for live
loads. The factored strength is the theoretical strength multiplied by a resistance. This equation can be therefore be
written as

Ʃ(Load× load factors) ≤ resistance × resistance factor

The factored load is a failure load greater than the total actual service load, so the load factors are usually greater
than unity. However, the factored strength is reduced, usable strength, and the resistance factor is usually less than
the unity. The factored loads are the loads that bring the structure or member to its limit. In terms of safety, this
limit state can be fracture, yielding, or buckling, and the factored resistance is the useful strength of the member,
reduced from the theoretical value by the resistance factor. The limit state can also be one of the serviceability, such
as a maximum acceptable deflection.
Loads
Feeling the Responsibility

7
Types of Loads

Three broad categories:

1. Dead load
2. Live load
3. Environmental load

8
Types of Loads

1. Dead load
Dead Loads consist of the weight of all
materials and fixed equipment incorporated
into the building or other structure. (UBC
Section 1602)
• Weight of structure
• Weight of permanent machinery etc.
• Dead loads can be reasonably estimated if the member
dimensions and material densities are known.

9
Types of Loads
2. Live load:
Live loads are those loads produced by the use
and occupancy of the building or other structure
and do not include dead load, construction load,
or environmental loads.
• Weight of people, furniture, machinery, goods in
building.
• Weight of traffic on bridge

10
Types of Loads
2. Live load:

• Buildings serve such diverse purposes that it is

extremely difficult to estimate suitable design
loads.
• Different building codes specify live load
requirements.
• Uniform Building Code (UBC)
• Southern Standard Building Code
• BOCA National Building Code

11
 Types of Loads
2. Live load: (UBC Table 16-A)
Live loads for various occupancies
Occupancy Live load,psf
Residential 40
Libraries(reading room) 60
Mercantile 75-125
Heavy manufacturing 125-150
Light storage 120-125
Heavy storage 250 minimum
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CE-409: Lecture 03 Prof. Dr. Akhtar Naeem Khan
Types of Loads
3. Environmental Loads
Environmental loads include wind load, snow
load, rain load, earthquake load, and flood load.

13
Live Load Reduction
• The Uniform building code and BOCA National building
code permit reduction in basic design live load on any
member supporting more than 150ft2

R = r(A-150)
Or R = 23.1(1+D/L)
Where R = reduction, percent
r = rate of reduction = 0.08% for floors
A = area supported by floor or member
D = dead load, psf
L = basic live load,psf

14
Wind Load

• Bernoulli’s equation for stream flow is used to

determine local pressure at stagnation point,
considering air to be non-viscous &
incompressible.
q: pressure
q = (ρv2/2) ρ: mass density of air
v: velocity

• This pressure is called velocity pressure, dynamic pressure,

stagnation pressure.
• This equation is based on steady flow.
• It does not account for dynamic effects of gusts or dynamic
response of body.
15
Wind Load

• Measured wind velocities are averages of fluctuating

velocities encountered during a finite time.
• In US average of velocities recorded during the time it
takes a horizontal column of air 1 mile long to pass a
fixed point.
• Fastest mile is highest velocity in 1 day.
• Annual extreme mile is the largest of the daily
maximums.

16
Wind Load

• Wind pressure to be used in design should be based

on a wind velocity having a specific mean recurrence
interval.
• The flow of air close to ground is slowed by surface
roughness, which depends on density, size and
height of buildings, trees, vegetation etc.
• Velocity at 33ft (UBC: Sec 1616) above ground is
used as the basic values for design purpose.

17
Wind Load

18
Wind Load
• Shape factor varies considerably with proportion of
structure & horizontal angle of incidence of the wind.

• CS for windward face of flat roofed rectangular building is 0.9

• CS for negative pressure on rear face varies from -0.3 to -0.6
• For such building resultant pressure be determined by shape
factor 1.2 to 1.5
• Commonly used is 1.3
• CS for Side walls -0.4 to –0.8
• CS for roof –0.5 to –0.8

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Wind Load

• Pressure acts on the windward face of the building

• Suction acts on the leeward face of the building
• Suction acts on the sides of the building so a person
standing in The window may be thrown outside
• Suction acts on the floor so that GI sheet floors are
blown away During strong wind storms

20
Wind Load

AASHTO specification for Bridge Truss

The pressure face is taken as a solid without openings
and suction on the leeward face is neglected (its still quiet
Conservative)
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 Design Wind Pressure (UBC, 97)

• Design Wind Pressure:

P = CeCqqsIw UBC (20-1)

Ce: combined height, exposure and gust factor (Table 16-G)

Cq (or Cs): Pressure coefficient for the structure or portion of
structure under consideration (Table 16-H)
qs : wind stagnation pressure at the standard height of
33ft (Table 16-F)
Iw: importance factor (Table 16-k)

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CE-409: Lecture 03 Prof. Dr. Akhtar Naeem Khan
Wind Load ( Example)

• Example: Calculate the wind pressure exerted by a wind

blowing at 100mph on the civil engineering department old
building.
Sol: According the formula given above:

P=0.00256CSV2 V: mph

For windward face: Cs = .8 inward (UBC97 Table 16-H)

For Leeward face: Cs = .5 outward (UBC97 Table 16-H)

23
Wind Load ( Example)

P=0.00256CSV2

• Pwindward = 20.48 psf

• Pleeward = 12.80 psf

• Ptotal = 33.28 psf

24
Wind Load ( Example)

• Alternate Method:

P = CeCqqsIw UBC (20-1)

• Ce = 0.76 ( For 30ft height & Exposure B, Table 16-G)

• Cq = 0.8 ( For windward wall, Table 16-H)
= 0.5 ( For leeward wall, Table 16-H)
• qs = 25.6 psf (For 100mph velocity, Table 16-F)
• Iw = 1.0 (According to occupancy category, Table16-K)

25
Wind Load ( Example)

26
Earthquake Load
Earthquake Waves
• Earthquake loads are necessary to consider in
earthquake prone regions.
• Earthquake waves are of two types:
• Body waves
• Surface waves

27
Earthquake Load
Earthquake Waves
• Body waves consists of P-waves & S-waves
•These waves cause the ground beneath the structure to
move back and forth and impart accelerations into the
base of structure.
•Period and intensity of these acceleration pulses
change rapidly & their magnitude vary from small
values to more than that of gravity.

28
Earthquake Load
Earthquake Waves

29
Earthquake Load
Factors effecting earthquake response of structures
Structure response to an earthquake primarily
depends upon:
• Mass
• stiffness
• natural period of vibration
• damping characteristics of structure
• location from epicenter
• topography & geological formation.
30
Earthquake Load (UBC 97)
Static Lateral force procedure: Limitations
1629.8.3: The static lateral force procedure of
Section1630 may be used for the following structures:

1. All structures, regular or irregular, in Seismic Zone 1 and

in Occupancy Categories 4 and 5 in Seismic Zone 2.
2. Regular structures under 240 feet in height with lateral
force resistance provided by systems listed in Table 16-N,
except where Section 1629.8.4, Item 4, applies.
3. Irregular structures not more than five stories or 65 feet
in height

31
Earthquake Load (UBC, 97)
Static Lateral force procedure: Limitations
1629.8.3: The static lateral force procedure of
Section1630 may be used for the following structures:

4. Structures having a flexible upper portion supported on a

rigid lower portion where both portions of the structure
considered separately can be classified as being regular,
the average story stiffness of the lower portion is at least
10 times the average story stiffness of the upper portion
and the period of the entire structure is not greater than
1.1 times the period of the upper portion considered as a
separate structure fixed at the base.
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Earthquake Load (UBC, 97)

1630.2.1 Design base shear.

The total design base shear in a given direction shall be determined from the following
formula:
V = (Cv I/R T) * W (30-4)
The total design base shear need not exceed the following:
V = (2.5 Ca I/R) * W (30-5)
The total design base shear shall not be less than the following:
V = (0.11 Ca I) W (30-6)
In addition, for Seismic Zone 4, the total base shear shall also
not be less than the following:
V = (0.8 ZNv I/R) * W (30-7)

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Earthquake Load (UBC, 97)

1630.2.1 Design base shear.

For Seismic Zones 1, 2A, 2B, and 3:

V = (0.11 Ca I) W ≤ V = (Cv I/R T) * W ≤ V = (2.5 Ca I/R) * W

For Seismic Zone 4:

V = (0.11 Ca I) W ≤ V = (Cv I/R T) * W ≤ V = (2.5 Ca I/R) * W

V = (0.8 ZNv I/R) * W

34
Earthquake Load (UBC, 97)

1630.2.1 Design base shear.

V = total base shear
*Ca & CV = seismic dynamic response spectrum values.
(table 16-Q & table 16-R)
Z = seismic zone factor. (Table 16.I)
Nv & Na = near source factors that are applicable in only
seismic zone 4. (Table 16-T & Table 16-S)

*Depends on Seismic zone and soil profile

35
Earthquake Load (UBC, 97)

Soil profiles

36
Earthquake Load (UBC, 97)

Seismic Zone BCP 07

37
Earthquake Load (UBC, 97)

1630.2.1 Design base shear.

I = Importance factor (Table 16-K)
W = Total seismic dead load
R = Response factor depends on type of structural
system
(Table 16-N)
T =Elastic fundamental period of vibration.
T = Ct hn¾

Ct = 0.035 for steel moment resisting frame

38
Earthquake Load (UBC, 97)
1630.2.1 Design base shear.

(0.11 Ca I): this coefficient is also independent of

the period of vibration. It is a lower
bound value, keeping V at some
minimum value.

39
Earthquake Load (UBC, 97)
1630.2.1 Design base shear.

(Cv I / R T): acceleration factor (also known as a

seismic base shear coefficient). This coefficient
will govern V for buildings with medium to long
fundamental period of vibrations. The forces in
these buildings are induced by the velocity
component of the bedrock motion. Hence the "v"
subscript.

40
Earthquake Load (UBC, 97)
1630.2.1 Design base shear.

(2.5 Ca I/R): this coefficient is independent of the period

of vibration. It will govern V for buildings with short
fundamental periods of vibrations, like the buildings
being studied in this class. The forces in these stiff
buildings are generated by the acceleration
component of the bedrock motion. Hence the "a”
subscript.

41
Earthquake Load (UBC, 97)
1630.2.1 Design base shear.

(0.82 N v I / R): this lower bound coefficient is only

applicable to structures located in seismic zone 4 and
within 9.3 miles (15 km) of a known seismic fault.

42
Earthquake Load (UBC, 97)
Typical Base shear coefficient for Masonry
Typical base shear coefficient values for a regular, single-
story masonry building not located near a fault. In addition,
we conservatively assumed that a geotechnical site
investigation was not completed. Because this type of
building is so stiff, the (2.5 Ca I / R) coefficient governs V.
Zone Coefficient
1 V = .067W
2a V = .122W
2b V = .156W
3 V = .200W
4 V = .244W
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Earthquake Load (UBC, 97)
• Vertical distribution: Total force shall be distributed over
height in the following manner:

V=Ft +  Fx
• Concentrated force Ft at top shall determined by:
.07TV ≤ .25sec
Ft =
0 if T ≤ .7 sec.

• Force Fx at each level including level n:

44
Earthquake Load (UBC, 97)
Vertical distribution:

• The single story building is a special case. In most cases, T ≤ .7 and Ft

then is taken as zero.
• From equation 30-15:

45
Base Shear Calculation
(Example)
Calculate and distribute the base shear for a five story
residential steel building 50 ft high, located at Peshawar.
Assuming SD soil profile.

V = (0.11 Ca I) W ≤ V = (Cv I/R T) * W ≤ V = (2.5 Ca I/R) * W

46
Base Shear Calculation
(Example)
Z = 0.2 Table 16.I
Ca = 0.28 Table 16-Q
CV = 0.40 Table 16-R
I =1 Table 16-K
R = 4.5 Table 16-N
T = Ct hn¾ = (.035)(50)¾ = 0.66 sec

47
Base Shear Calculation
(Example)
V = (0.11 Ca I) W ≤ V = (Cv I/R T) * W ≤ V = (2.5 Ca I/R) * W

(0.11 Ca I) = 0.0308
(Cv I/R T) = 0.1347
(2.5 Ca I/R) = 0.1556

Therefore base shear is equal to:

V = 0.1347W

48
Base Shear Calculation
(Example)
• Total force shall be distributed over height in the following
manner:

W5

W4

W3

W2

W1

49
Base Shear Calculation
(Example)

As T < 0.7 therefore Ft = 0

W2 = W3 = W5 = 14 kips
W1 = W4 = 20 kips
W = 14 x 3 + 20 x 2 = 82 kips
V = 0.1347 x 82 = 11.04 kips

50
Base Shear Calculation
(Example)
i. Story level 1: F1
W h = 20 x 10 = 200 k-ft
x x
∑ W h = 20 x 10 + 14 x 20 + 14 x 30 + 20 x 40 + 14 x 50 = 2400 k-ft
i i
F1 = 0.92 kips

51
Base Shear Calculation
(Example)
i. Story level 2: F2
W h = 14 x 20 = 280 k-ft
x x
∑ W h = 20 x 10 + 14 x 20 + 14 x 30 + 20 x 40 + 14 x 50 = 2400 k-ft
i i
F2 = 1.29 kips

52
Base Shear Calculation
(Example)
i. Story level 3: F3
W h = 14 x 30 = 420 k-ft
x x
∑ W h = 20 x 10 + 14 x 20 + 14 x 30 + 20 x 40 + 14 x 50 = 2400 k-ft
i i
F3 = 1.93 kips

53
Base Shear Calculation
(Example)
i. Story level 4: F4
W h = 20 x 40 = 800 k-ft
x x
∑ W h = 20 x 10 + 14 x 20 + 14 x 30 + 20 x 40 + 14 x 50 = 2400 k-ft
i i
F4 = 3.68 kips

54
Base Shear Calculation
(Example)
i. Story level 5: F5
W h = 14 x 50 = 700 k-ft
x x
∑ W h = 20 x 10 + 14 x 20 + 14 x 30 + 20 x 40 + 14 x 50 = 2400 k-ft
i i
F5 = 3.22 kips

55
Mean Return Period
The average Time Period (in years) based on geological and
historical records in which there is a good statistical
probability that an earthquake of a certain magnitude or a
hurricane will recur is called Mean Return Period or
Recurrence Interval R.

Probability of Exceedence of the event in any one year

is the inverse of the Mean Return Period = 1/R

Probability that an event will be exceeded at least once in

the n years is
Pn= 1-( 1-1/R)n

56
Mean Return Period
Example:- A structure expected to have a life of 50 years built
in locality where mean recurrence interval of an windstorm of
150mph is 95 yrs. The probability that structure will
encounter an windstorm exceeding 150mph during its life is?

P50=1-( 1-1/95)50
=1- 0.589
= 0.41 or 41%

There is 41 percent chances that the structure will be

exposed to a windstorm exceeding 150mph.
57
Mean Return Period
Example:- A structure expected to have a life of 50 years built
in locality where mean recurrence interval of an earthquake
of 0.4g is 95 yrs. The probability that structure will encounter
an earthquake exceeding 0.4g during its life is?

P50=1-( 1-1/95)50
=1- 0.589
= 0.41 or 41%

There is 41 percent chances that the structure will be exposed

to an earthquake exceeding 0.4g
58
Mean Return Period
Uniform Building Code specifies that the earthquake for
which a building has to be designed should correspond to an
earthquake with a return period of 475 years.
Assuming that a building has service life of 50 years. The
probability that it will experience and earthquake of mean
return period 475 in its design life would be:

P50=1 - ( 1 - 1/475)50
=1- 0.90
= 0.01 or 10%

59
Impact Load
• Spring Example
• It is customary to express Impact load as percentage of
static force.
• Effect of impact load is taken into account in
calculation of loads.
• If impact is 25 %, Live load is multiplied by 1.25
• According to AISC live load on hangers supporting
floor and balcony construction should be increased by
one-third for impact.

60
FACTORS FOR LRFD & ASD
&
LOAD COMBINATIONS
LOAD FACTORS, RESISTANCE FACTORS
𝛴𝛾𝑖 𝑄𝑖 ≤ 𝜙𝑅𝑛 (2.5)
Where,
𝑄𝑖 = a load effect (a force or a moment)
𝛾𝑖 = 𝑎 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝑅𝑛 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 , 𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ, 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝜙 = 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟

The factored resistance ∅𝑅𝑛 is called the design strength. The summation on the left side of equation 2.5 is over
the total number of load effects (including, but not limited to, dead load and live load), where each load effect
have a different load factor but also the value of the load factor for a particular load effect will depend on the
combination of the loads under the consideration. Equation 2.5 can also be written in the form
𝑅𝑢 ≤ 𝜙𝑅𝑛 (2.6)
Where
𝑅𝑢 = required strength = sum of factored load effects (forces or moments)
LOAD COMBINATIONS FOR LRFD
• Section B2 of the AISC Specification
requires that the load factors and 1. 1.4 (D + F)
load combinations given in ASCE 7 2. 1.2 (D+ F + T) + 1.6 (L + H) + 0.5 (Lᵣ or S or R)
(ASCE 2002) 3. 1.2D + 1.6 (Lᵣ or S or R) + (0.5L or 0.8W)
• These load factors and load 4. 1.2 D + 1.6W + 0.5L + 0.5 (Lᵣ or S or R)
combinations are based on 5. 1.2D + 1.0E + 0.5L + 0.2S
extensive statistical studies. 6. 0.9D + 1.6W + 1.6H
• The seven combinations are as 7. 0.9D + 1.0E + 1.6H
follows :

Where
D = Dead load
E = Earthquake load
F = load due to fluids with well defined pressures and maximum heights
H = load due to lateral earth pressure, groundwater pressure, or pressure of bulk materials
L = live load
Lᵣ = roof live load
R = rain load
S = snow load
T = self straining load
W = wind load
Normally, the fluid pressure F, earth pressure H, and self straining force T are not applicable to the design of
structural steel members, we will omit them from this point forward. In addition, combinations 6 and 7 can be
combined.
With these and one other slight modification, the list of required load combination becomes

1.4D (1)
1.2D + 1.6L + 0.5 (Lᵣ or S or R) (2)
1.2D + 1.6 (Lᵣ or S or R) + (0.5L or 0.8W) (3)
1.2D + 1.6W + 0.5L + 0.5 (Lᵣ or S or R)† (4)
1.2D ± 1.0E + 0.5L + 0.2S † (5)
0.9D ± (1.6W or 1.0E) (6)
Counter effect of lateral load and gravity loads

1.2D ± 1.0E 0.5L + 0.2S† (5)

0.9D ± (1.6W or 1.0E) (6)

Combinations 5 and 6 account for the possibility of the

dead load and wind or earthquake load counteracting each other; for
example, in combination 6, the net load effect could be the
difference between 0.9D and 1.6D or between 0.9D and 1.0E.
(Wind or earthquake load may tend to overturn a structure , but the
dead load will have a stabilizing effect.)
Dominance of the load (Life-time maximum vs arbitrary point
in time

1.4D (1)
1.2D + 1.6L + 0.5 (Lᵣ or S or R) (2)
1.2D + 1.6 (Lᵣ or S or R) + (0.5L or 0.8W) (3)
1.2D + 1.6W + 0.5L + 0.5 (Lᵣ or S or R)† (4)
1.2D ± 1.0E + 0.5L + 0.2S † (5)
0.9D ± (1.6W or 1.0E) (6)

As previously mentioned, the load factor for a particular load effect is not the same in all load conditions. For
example, in combination 2 the load factor for the live load L is 1.6, whereas in combination 3, it is 0.5. the
reason is that the live load is being taken as the dominant effect in combination 2, and one of the three effects,
Lᵣ , S, or R, will be dominant in combination 3. In each combination, one of the effects is considered to be at its
“lifetime maximum” value and others at their “arbitrary point in time”
Resistance factors

Yielding or compression
buckling limit stress Resistance factor = 0.9

Rupture (fracture) limit Resistance factor = 0.75

states

The resistance factor Ø for each type of resistance is given by AISC in the Specification chapter dealing
with that resistance, but in most cases, one of the two values will be used: 0.90 for limit sates involving
yielding or compression buckling and 0.75 for limit sates involving rupture (fracture)
SAFETY FACTORS FOR ASD
For allowable strength design, the relationship between loads and strength (Equation 2.1)

𝑅𝑛
𝑅𝑎 ≤ Required strength ≤ allowable strength (2.1)
𝛺

Where
𝑅𝑎 = required strength
𝑅𝑛 = nominal strength
𝛺 = safety factor
𝑅𝑛 Τ𝛺 = allowable strength
The required strength 𝑅𝑎 is the sum of the service loads or load effects. As with LRFD, specific combinations of
loads must be considered. Load combinations for ASD are also given in ASCE 7. As with the LRFD combinations,
we will omit fluid pressure F, earth pressure H, and self straining force T. With these omissions, the
combinations are
LOAD COMBINATIONS FOR ASD
D (1)
D+L (2)

D + (Lᵣ or S or R) (3)
D + 0.75L + 0.75(Lᵣ or S or R) (4)
D ± (W + 0.7E) (5)

D + 0.75( W or 0.7E) + 0.75L + 0.75( Lᵣ or S or R) (6)

0.6 ± (W or 0.7E) (7)
The factors shown in these conditions are not load factors. The 0.75 factor in some of the combinations
accounts for the unlikelihood that all the loads in the combination will be at their lifetime maximum values
simultaneously. The 0.7 factor applied to the seismic load effect E is used because ASCE 7 uses a strength
approach (i.e LRFD) for computing seismic loads, and the factor is an attempt to equalize the effect for ASD
Safety Factors

Yielding or compression
Safety factor (Ω) = 1.67
buckling limit states

Rupture (Fracture) limit states Safety factor (Ω) = 2.0

EXAMPLE
Example 2.1 A column (compression member) in the upper story of a building is subject to
the following loads :
Dead load : 109 kips compression
Floor live load : 46 kips compression
Roof live load : 19 kips compression
Snow : 20 kips compression

a. Determine the controlling load combination for LRFD and the corresponding
factored load.
b. If the resistance factor Ø is 0.90, what is the required nominal strength?
c. Determine the controlling load combination for ASD and the corresponding
required service load strength.
d. If the safety factor Ω is 1.67, what is the required nominal strength based on
the required service load strength?
Solution Even though a load may not be acting directly on a
member, it can still cause a load effect in the member.
This is true of both snow and roof live load in this
example. Although this building is subjected to wind, the
resulting forces on the structure are resisted by members
others than this particular column.
a. The controlling load combination is the one that
produces the largest factored load. We evaluate each
expression that involves dead load, D, live load resulting
from equipment and occupancy, L, roof live load, Lᵣ, and
snow, S
 Combination 1 : 1.4D = 1.4(109) = 152.6 kips

Combination 2 : 1.2D + 1.6L + 0.5(Lᵣ or S or R). Because S is larger then Lᵣ and R=0,
we need to evaluate this combination only once, using S.
1.2D + 1.6L + 0.5S = 1.2(109) + 1.6(46) + 0.5(20) = 214.4 kips

Combination 3 : 1.2D + 1.6L(Lᵣ or S or R) + (0.5L or 0.8W). In this combination, we use S instead of Lᵣ, and
Dead load:
109 kips compression both R and W are zero.
1.2D + 1.6S + 0.5L = 1.2(109) + 1.6(20) + 0.5(46) = 185.8 kips
Floor live load :
46 kips compression Combination 4 : 1.2D + 1.6W + 0.5L + 0.5(Lᵣ or S or R). This expression reduces to 1.2D + 0.5L + 0.5S, and
by inspection, we can see that it produces a smaller result than combination 3.
Roof live load:
19 kips compression Combination 5 : 1.2 ± 1.0E + 0.5L + 0.2S. As E=0, this expression reduces to 1.2D + 0.5L + 0.2S, which
produces a smaller result than combination 4.
Snow:
20 kips compression
Combination 6 : 0.9D ± (1.6W or 1.0E). This expression reduces to 0.9D, which is smaller than any of the
other combinations.

Answer : Combination 2 controls, and the factored load is 214.4 kips

 b. if the factored load obtained in part (a) is substituted
into fundamental LRFD relationship, Equation 2.6, we obtain
𝑅𝑢 ≤ 𝜙𝑅𝑛
214.4 ≤ 0.90 𝑅𝑛

R n ≥ 238 kips

Answer : The required nominal strength is 238 kips

 C. As with combinations for LRFD, we will evaluate the expressions involving D, L, Lᵣ, and S for ASD.

Combination 1 : D = 1.09 kips. ( obviously this case will never control when live load is present.)

Combination 2 : D + L =109 + 46 = 155 kips

Dead load: Combination 3 : D + L(Lᵣ or S or R).Since S is larger than Lᵣ, and R = 0, this combination reduces to
109 kips compression
D + S = 109 + 20 = 129 kips

Floor live load :

46 kips compression Combination 4 : D + 0.75L + 0.75(Lᵣ or S or R). This expression reduces to
D + 0.75L + 0.75 S = 109 + 0.75 (46) + 0.75 (20) = 158.5 kips
Roof live load:
19 kips compression Combination 5 : D ± (W or 0.7E). Because W and E are zero, this expression reduces to combination 1.

Snow:
20 kips compression Combination 6 : D ± 0.75(W or 0.7E) + 0.75L + 0.75(Lᵣ or S or R). Because W and E are zero, this expression
reduces to combination 4.

Combination 7 : 069D ± (6W or 0.7E). Because W and E are zero, this expression reduces to 0.6D, which is smaller than
combination 1.

Answer - Combination 4 controls, and required service load strength is 158.5

kips
d. From the ASD relationship, Equation 2.7,
𝑅𝑛
𝑅𝑎 ≤
𝛺
𝑅𝑛
158.5 ≤
1.67
𝑅𝑛 ≥ 265 kips
Answer The required nominal strength is 265 kips.
Example 2.1 illustrates that the controlling load combination
for LRFD may not control for ASD
COMPARISON OF LRFD
WITH ASD FOR TENSION
MEMBER
Relationship between resistance factor & safety factor

Relationship between resistance factors and safety factors is given by

1.5
Ω= Ø (2.8)
For reasons that will be discussed later, this relationship will produce similar designs for LRFD and ASD,
under certain loading conditions.

𝑅𝑢
= 𝑅𝑎 Ω
When LRFD was introduced into the AISC Specifications in 1986, Ø
the load factors determined in such way as to give the same results 1.2𝐷+1.6𝐿
= (D + L) Ω
for LRFD and ASD when the loads consisted of dead and a live load Ø
equal to three times the dead load. The resulting relationship OR
between the resistance factor Ø and safety factor Ω, as expressed 1.2𝐷+1.6(3𝐷)
=
in equation 2.8, can be derived as follows. Let 𝑅𝑛 from equation 2.6 Ø
and 2.7 be the same when L = 3D. That is, (D + 3D)Ω
1.5
Ω=
Ø
Comparison of LRFD with ASD for Tension member

The comparison of safety obtained for tension members designed by the two AISC methods is
indicative of the general result expected. Direct comparisons are more difficult in design of other
types of members because the nominal strengths 𝑅𝑛 are not necessarily the same in the two
methods.
For the tension members acted upon by gravity dead and live loads, the resistance factor Ø =
0.90, and using Equation 1.8.3 gives for LRFD
1.2D + 1.6L = 0.90 𝑅𝑛 (1.8.3)
1.33D + 1.78L = 𝑅𝑛 LRFD
In ASD the factor of safety FS = 1.67 for axial tension, which gives from Equation 1.8.8 where (𝛾/ Ø is
the factor of safety)
𝑅𝑛 / 1.67 = Ʃ 𝑄 = D + L (1.8.8)
OR
1.67D + 1.67L = 𝑅𝑛 ASD
Next dividing EQ 1.8.3 by EQ 1.8.8 gives

LRFD = 1.33D + 1.78L = 0.8 + 1.07 (L/D) (1.9.6)

ASD 1.67D + 1.67L 1 + (L/D)

Since this a gravity load comparison. LRFD formula (A4-1) [Eq 1.8.2] must also be used as
L/D approaches zero. Thus Eq 1.8.2 gives
1.4D = 0.90 𝑅𝑛 [1.8.2]
1.56D = 𝑅𝑛 LRFD
Dividing LRFD by ASD gives
LRFD = 1.56D = 0.93 (1.9.7)
ASD 1.67D + 1.67L 1 + (L / D)

Equations 1.9.6 and 1.9.7 are shown plotted in fig 1.9.1. the design of tension members
will be about the same in both LRFD and ASD when live load to dead load ratio (L/D) is
about 3. As the L/D ratio becomes lower (that is, dead load becomes more predominant)
there will be economy in using LRFD. With L/D ratio larger than 3, ASD will be slightly more
economical, but rarely by more than about 3%
WHY SHOULD LRFD BE USED ?
WHY SHOULD LRFD BE USED?
1. LRFD is another “tool” for structural engineers to use in steel design. Why not
have the same tools ( variable overload factors and resistance factors) available
for steel design as are available for concrete design.
2. Adoption of LRFD is not mandatory but provides a flexibility of options to
designer. The marketplace will dictate whether or nor LRFD will become the
sole method.
3. ASD is an approximate way to account for what LRFD does in a more rational
way. The use of plastic design concepts in ASD has made ASD such that it no
longer may be called an “ elastic design” method.
4. The rationality of LRFD has always been attractive, and becomes an incentive
permitting the better and more economical use of material for some load
combinations and structural configurations. It will also likely lead to having
safer structures in view of the arbitrary practice under ASD of combining dead
and live loads and treating them the same.
WHY SHOULD LRFD BE USED? Cont..
5. Using multiple load factor combinations should lead to economy.
6. LRFD will facilitate the input of new information on loads and load variations as such
information becomes available. Considerable knowledge of the resistance of steel
structures is available. On the other hand, our knowledge of loads and their variations
is much less. Separating the loading from resistance allows one to be changed without
the other if that should be desired.
7. Changes in overload factors and resistance factors are much easier to make than to
change the allowable stress in ASD.
8. LRFD makes design in all material more compatible. The variability of loads is actually
unrelated to the material used in the design. Future specifications not in the limit
states format for any material will put that material at a disadvantage in design.
9. LRFD provides the framework to handle unusual loads that may not be covered by the
Specifications. The design may have uncertainty relating to the resistance of the
structure, in which case the resistance factors may be modified. On the other hand,
the uncertainty may related to the loads and different overload factors may be used.
WHY SHOULD LRFD BE USED? Cont..
10. Future adjustments in the calibrations of the method can be made without
much complication.
Calibration for LRFD was done for an average situation but might be
adjusted in future.
11. Economy is likely to result for low live load to dead load ratios. For high live
load to dead load ratios there will be slightly greater costs.
12. Safer structures may result under LRFD because the method lead to a better
awareness of structural behavior.
13. Design practice is still at the beginning with regard to serviceability limit states;
however, at least LRFD provides the approach.
Thanks
Wind Load

The revolving restaurant supported by a concrete column will

Experience suction which will cause tension in the column and as
Concrete is weak in tension so it may crack. As a result the lateral
Wind load may collapse the restaurant.

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