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Powered by AIKohlrausch's law of independent migration of ions states that the limiting molar conductivity of an electrolyte at infinite dilution is the sum of the individual ionic conductivities. This principle allows for the determination of an electrolyte’s total conductivity by independent contribution from its constituent ions. For instance, in NaCl, Λ∞ = λ∞(Na+) + λ∞(Cl-). This law is critical for determining ion concentration effect on conductivity and understanding conductive properties of different ionic solutions .
In band theory, conductors have partially filled conduction bands or have bands that overlap with valence bands, allowing electrons to flow easily under an electric field, resulting in high conductivity. In contrast, insulators possess a large band gap between the valence and conduction bands; electrons cannot easily jump to the conduction band due to insufficient thermal or electrical energy, leading to poor electrical conductivity. Band theory comprehensively explains the electronic properties of materials based on their energy band structures .
Faraday's First Law of Electrolysis states that the mass of an element deposited or liberated at an electrode during electrolysis is directly proportional to the total electric charge passed through the electrode. For copper deposition from copper sulfate solution, the amount deposited is calculated using Q = It, where I is the current and t is time. Given 1.5 amperes for 10 minutes, Q = 1.5 × 600 = 900 coulombs. Using copper's equivalent weight (31.75 g per 96500 C), the mass of copper deposited is (900/96500) × 31.75 g ≈ 0.295 g of copper .
Schottky defect in solids occurs when equal numbers of cations and anions are missing from their lattice sites, maintaining electrical neutrality and resulting in a reduced density of the material. It predominantly occurs in ionic compounds with high coordination numbers and similar ion sizes. On the other hand, Frenkel defect involves a cation leaving its normal position and migrating to an interstitial site, creating vacancies without affecting the system's overall density. It is observed in ionic compounds like AgCl where there is a considerable size difference between ions .
The collision theory of reaction rates postulates that for a reaction to occur, reactant molecules must collide with sufficient energy and correct orientation. Specifically, in bimolecular reactions, two molecules must collide. The kinetic energy of the molecules turns into potential energy in the transition state, potentially overcoming the activation energy barrier. 'Molecularity' refers to the number of molecules involved in an elementary step; it is always an integer. In contrast, 'order' refers to the sum of powers of concentration terms in the rate equation; it can be a fraction and determined experimentally. An example of a bimolecular gaseous reaction is the reaction between NO and O2 to form NO2. An example of a trimolecular reaction is the mechanism involving two NO molecules and one O2 molecule forming two N2O2 .
Ozone (O3) is prepared from oxygen (O2) by passing a silent electric discharge through dry oxygen, generating ozone by slowly converting a small percent of oxygen into ozone: 3O2 → 2O3. Ozone reacts with lead sulfide (PbS), oxidizing it to lead sulfate (PbSO4) and liberating free sulfur: 2PbS + 4O3 → 2PbSO4 + 4O2 .
The Haber process synthesizes ammonia by reacting nitrogen (N2) and hydrogen (H2) gases at high temperature and pressure with an iron catalyst: N2 + 3H2 ⇌ 2NH3. Ammonia reacts with copper sulfate (CuSO4) forming a deep blue complex ion [Cu(NH3)4]SO4, as copper exchanges with ammonia to form tetraamminecopper(II) ions: CuSO4 + 4NH3 → [Cu(NH3)4]SO4 .
Williamson ether synthesis involves the reaction of an alkoxide ion with a primary alkyl halide to form an ether, typically R-ONa + R'X → R-O-R' + NaX. Phenols exhibit higher acidity compared to alcohols due to resonance stabilization of the phenoxide ion formed upon loss of H+. In phenols, the negative charge on the oxygen is delocalized within the aromatic ring, stabilizing the ion, while in alcohols, the negative charge remains localized on the oxygen atom, offering no such stabilization .
Temperature influences the rate of chemical reactions by increasing the kinetic energy of the molecules, causing more frequent and energetic collisions, hence increasing the reaction rate. Typically, a 10°C rise in temperature can double the reaction rate. Catalysts affect reaction rates by providing an alternative pathway with a lower activation energy, thus increasing the number of successful collisions. Catalysts do not get consumed in the reaction and can be reused .
Chlorine is prepared in the laboratory by reactions such as heating manganese dioxide with hydrochloric acid: MnO2 + 4HCl → Cl2 + MnCl2 + 2H2O. When chlorine is passed into a solution of sodium iodide (NaI), iodine is liberated and sodium chloride is formed: Cl2 + 2NaI → 2NaCl + I2. This reaction showcases chlorine's ability to displace iodine from iodide due to its higher electronegativity and reactivity as a halogen .
![II. SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS: [4M]
1. Derive Bragg’s equation? [62-1]
2. What is doping? Explain n – type and p – type semico](/p?url=https%3A%2F%2Fscreenshots.scribd.com%2FScribd%2F252_100_85%2F326%2F634025740%2F2.jpeg&__src=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.scribd.com%2Fdocument%2F634025740%2FUntitled&__type=image)
![II. VERY SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS: [2M]
1. What are antacids, antibiotics & antiseptics? Give examples? [105-1, 6, 7]
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