School

ins
of Architecture, Science and Technology,
Yashwantrao Chavan Maharashtra Open University

Environmental
Prog:V136

Geosciences & [Link].

([Link].)
Computer
Applications
Sem 02

EVS023

Email: [Link]@[Link]

Website: [Link]

Phone: +91-253-2231473

A S T, Y C M O U , N a s h i k – 4 2 2 2 2 2 , M H , I n d i a
 Yashwantrao Chavan EVS023

Maharashtra Open Environmental Geosciences

University & Computer Applications

Brief Contents
Vice Chancellor‟s Message ....................................................... 5
Forward By The Director ......................................................... 6
Credit 01 .................................................................................. 7
Credit 01 –Unit 1-1 Principles: Scope and necessity, origin of the earth,
earth systems and its interaction – lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere
and biosphere ……… ......................................... …………...7
Credit 01 - Unit 1-2: Interior of the Earth, earth‟s materials – minerals and their
definition. Distribution and abundance of elements in the earth‟s crust. ..23
Credit 01 - Unit 1-3: The earth systems and biosphere: Structure and
composition of lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere and biosphere.
Geographical classification and zones of Environment. Energy budget of the
earth ………………………………….34
Credit 01 - Unit 1-4: Elements: Concepts of major, trace and REE. Classification
of trace elements, mobility of trace elements and geochemical cycles. ….52

Credit 02 ................................................................................ 69
Credit 02 - Unit 2-1: Biochemical factors in environmental health. Human use,
trace elements and health. Possible effects of imbalance of some trace elements.
Diseases induced by human use of land …………69
Credit 02 - Unit 2-2: The Ocean Environment - will focus on the physical
dynamics of the ocean basins themselves, the mechanisms that induce changes
into this environment and the mechanics behind surface and subsurface wave
action…...73
Credit 02 - Unit 2-3: Coastal processes, erosion, and controls.……………..83
Credit 02 - Unit 2-4: Volcanoes: types, hazards, and prediction ……………..86

Credit 03 .............................................................................. 106

Credit 03 - Unit 3-1: Climate: General relationship between landscapes, biomes
and climate. Climate of India. Indian Monsoon, Elnino, droughts, Tropical
cyclones and westerly disturbances. Earthquake and Tsunamis, Volcanoes,
Landslides ......................................................................... 106
Credit 03 - Unit 3-2: Remote Sensing in Environmental Monitoring: Principles of
remote sensing, its applications in Environmental Monitoring …….. 121
Credit 03 - Unit 3-3: Concept of remote sensing. EMR & its interaction with
matter, aerial photography types, camera, elements of photo
interpretation (Aerial photography image recognition) ………………….. 133

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 2

 Credit 03 - Unit 3-4: Geographical Information System (GIS): Concept of GIS,
types of geographical data, data structure, vector and raster data, their
advantages and disadvantages, Input, verification, storage and output of
geographical data. Importance of geographical information system in
environmental studies……………………………………………………………….. 143

Credit 04 .............................................................................. 161

Credit 04 - Unit 4-1: Basic concepts of computer, hardware, operating systems:
Windows, Unix and Linux, use of common application software in bi ology: word
processing, spreadsheets, graphics and data base …….…………………………161
Credit 04 - Unit 4-2: Introduction to web browsing software and search engines
with special reference to online environmental resources …………………… 175
Credit 04 - Unit 4-3: Computer applications in environmental modeling:
Computer-based modeling: Linear, regression, validation and forecasting .. 186
Credit 04 - Unit 4-1: Computer-based modeling for population and population
studies ............................................................................... 203

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 3

 EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications

Yashwantrao Chavan Maharashtra Open University

Vice-Chancellor: Prof. Dr. [Link]
School of Architecture, Science and Technology
Director of the School: Dr. Sunanda More
Programme Advisory Committee
Dr Sunanda More Dr Manoj Killedar [Link]
Director & Former Associate Professor, Assistant Professor, School of
Associate Professor, School of School of Architecture, Architecture, Science &
Architecture, Science & Science & Technology, Technology, YCMOU, Nashik
Technology, YCMOU, Nashik YCMOU, Nashik
Prof. Jaydeep Nikam Dr. Pondhe G.M. Prof. Dr. Sharad Ratan
Director [Link] and Head, Khandelwal
School of Continuing Department of Environmental Professor & Principal
Education and Health Science Science H.A.L. College of Science &
YCMOU, Nashik PadmshreeVikhe Patil College Commerce,
of Arts, Science and Ozar Township Tal: Niphad
Commerce, Dist: Nashik 422207
Pravaranagar, A/P-Loni-
413713
Prof. Pravin Nalawade [Link] V. Handore,
Assistant Professor and Head Department of
Environmental Science, KTHM College, Incharge, Research and Development Dept.
Nashik – 2
Sigma Wineries [Link].,Nashik

Development Team
Course Coordinator and Book Writer Book Editor
Instructional Technology
Editor
Dr. Pondhe G.M. Prof. Dr. Jaydeep Nikam
Dr Sunanda More [Link] and Head, Director
Director & Department of Environmental School of Continuing
Associate Professor, School of Science Education and Health Science
Architecture, Science & PadmshreeVikhe Patil College YCMOU, Nashik
Technology, YCMOU, Nashik of Arts, Science and
Commerce,
Pravaranagar, A/P-Loni-
413713

This work by YCMOU is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-

NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License .
 First Book Publication : 10-March-2022 Publication No:
 Publisher : Dr. Dinesh Bhonde, Registrar, YCMOU, Nashik - 422 222, MS
 ISBN No:

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 4

 V ICE C HANCELLOR ‟ S M ESSAGE

Dear Students,
Greetings!!!

I offer cordial welcome to all of you for the Master‟s degree programme of Yashwantrao
Chavan Maharashtra Open University.

As a post graduate student, you must have autonomy to learn, have information and
knowledge regarding different dimensions in the field of Environmental Science and at the same time
intellectual development is necessary for application of knowledge wisely. The process of learning
includes appropriate thinking, understanding important points, describing these points on the basis
of experience and observation, explaining them to others by speaking or writing about them. The
science of Education today accepts the principle that it is possible to achieve excellence and
knowledge in this regard.

The syllabus of this course has been structured in this book in such a way, to give you
autonomy to study easily without stirring from home. During the counseling sessions, scheduled at your
respective study centre, all your doubts will be clarified about the course and you will get guidance
from some qualified and experienced counsellors/ professors. This guidance will not only be based
on lectures, but it will also include various techniques such as question-answers, doubt
clarification. We expect your active participation in the contact sessions at the study centre. Our
emphasis is on „self study‟. If a student learns how to study, he will become independent in learning
throughout life. This course book has been written with the objective of helping in self-study and giving
you autonomy to learn at your convenience.

During this academic year, you have to give assignments, complete laboratory activities, field
visits and the Project work wherever required. You have to opt for specialization as per programme
structure. You will get experience and joy in personally doing above activities. This will enable
you to assess your own progress and thereby achieve a larger educational objective.

We wish that you will enjoy the courses of Yashwantrao Chavan Maharashtra Open
University, emerge successful and very soon become a knowledgeable and honorable Master‟s
degree holder of this university.

I congratulate “Development Team” for the development of this excellent high quality “Self-
Learning Material (SLM)” for the students. I hope and believe that this SLM will be immensely
useful for all students of this program.

Best Wishes!
- Prof. Dr. P. G. Patil
Vice-Chancellor, YCMOU

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 5

 F OREWORD B Y T HE D IRECTOR

Dear Students,
Greetings!!!
This book aims at acquainting the students with conceptual and applied fundamentals
about Environmental Science required at degree level.
The book has been specially designed for Science students. It has a comprehensive
coverage of environmental concepts and its application in practical life. The book
contains numerous examples to build understanding and skills.
The book is written with self- instructional format. Each chapter is prepared with
articulated structure to make the contents not only easy to understand but also
interesting to learn.
Each chapter begins with learning objectives which are stated using Action Verbs as
per the Bloom‟s Taxonomy. Each Unit is started with introduction to arouse or
stimulate curiosity of learner about the content/ topic. Thereafter the unit contains
explanation of concepts supported by tables, figures, exhibits and solved illustrations
wherever necessary for better effectiveness and understan ding.
This book is written in simple language, using spoken style and short sentences. Topics
of each unit of the book presents from simple to complex in logical sequence. This book
is appropriate for low achiever students with lower intellectual capacity and covers the
syllabus of the course.
Exercises given in the chapter include MCQs, conceptual questions and practical
questions so as to create a ladder in the minds of students to grasp each and every
aspect of a particular concept.
I thank the students who have been a constant motivation for us. I am grateful to the
writers, editors and the School faculty associated in this SLM development of the
Programme.
Best Wishes to all of you!!!

- Dr. Sunanda More

Director,
School of Architecture, Science and Technology,
YCMOU

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 6

 C REDIT 01

CREDIT 01 -UNIT 01-01: PRINCIPLES: SCOPE AND NECESSITY,

ORIGIN OF THE EARTH, EARTH SYSTEMS AND ITS INTERACTION –
LITHOSPHERE, ATMOSPHERE, HYDROSPHERE AND BIOSPHERE

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After successful completion of this unit, you will be able to

 Origin of The Earth

 Earth systems and its interaction

 Lithosphere, atmosphere

 Hydrosphere and biosphere

1-1 PRINCIPLES: SCOPEAND NECESSITY, ORIGIN OF THE EARTH, EARTH

SYSTEMS AND ITS INTERACTION – LITHOSPHERE, ATMOSPHERE,
HYDROSPHERE AND BIOSPHERE

Earth's Beginnings

The Earth, like the other planets, is thought to have formed 4.5 billion years ago as a
frozen cloud of dust and gases left over from the Sun's birth. For perhaps 500 million
years, Earth's innards remained solid and re latively chilly, around 2,000 degrees
Fahrenheit. According to the best known evidence, the principal constituents were iron
and silicates, with little amounts of other elements, some of which were radioactive.

Energy released by radioactive decay over mil lions of years? Is it mostly made up of
uranium, thorium, and potassium? Earth was gradually heated, causing some of its
constituents to melt. The iron melted first, and because it was heavier, it sunk to the
centre. This pushed up the silicates it had dis covered. The iron eventually reached the
centre, over 4,000 miles underground, and began to deposit after many years. There
were no eyes around to see the chaos that must have erupted on the face of the Earth at
the time? On the surface, massive heaves and bubblings, bursting volcanoes, and
streaming lava covering everything in sight. The iron in the centre eventually gathered
to form the core. As the Earth cooled, a thin but fairly stable crust of solid rock formed
around it. Depressions in the crust were natural basins where water coming from the
planet's centre via volcanoes and fractures accumulated to produce the seas. Earth
gradually took on its current appearance.

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 7

How did the Earth and other planets come into being?

From the gas giants Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune to the rocky inner planets, the
Solar System is made up of a diverse range of planets and moons. Centuries of research
into Earth, its neighbouring planets, and meteorites have resulted in the creation of
models of the Solar System's formation. Astronomical observations from increasingly
powerful telescopes, as well as satellite studies of asteroids, comets, and other planets,
as well as geochemical studies of stardust and meteorites, have contributed a new
dimension to these models.

While it is widely accepted that the Sun and planets all formed from the same nebular
cloud, nothing is known about how Earth's chemical makeup evolved, or why the other
planets are so dissimilar to Earth and one another. Why, for example, has Earth, unlik e
every other planet, kept the unique features that allow it to support life, such as the
availability of water? New measurements of Solar System components, as well as
extrasolar planets and objects, will help researchers learn more about Earth's and the
Solar System's origins.

2. What happened during the "dark age" of Earth's history (the first 500 million years)?

It is now thought that a Mars-sized planet collided with Earth during its formation,
resulting in a massive cloud of debris that became Earth's Moon and generating so
much heat that the entire planet melted. However, little is known about how the molten
rock that resulted grew into the Earth we know today during the planet's birth.

The Hadean Eon, which spans the first 500 million years of Earth' s life, is a crucial
missing link in understanding how the planet's atmosphere, oceans, and distinct layers
of core, mantle, and outer crust formed. Scientists have little clue how quickly the
surface environment developed, how the transformation occurred, or when conditions
became friendly enough for life to thrive. Some indications from Earth's oldest minerals
(zircons), as well as the Moon and other planets, are gradually revealing a clearer
picture of the Hadean Eon. There will undoubtedly be more break throughs in the future.
The quantity of information that can be recovered from even the tiniest pieces of old
rocks and minerals is fast rising, and many more ancient rocks and mineral samples are
predicted to be discovered with concerted effort.

3. What is the origin of life?

In his book The Origin of Species, Charles Darwin (1859) proposed that new species
emerge by modifying existing ones, and that life itself is the basic material of life.
However, non-living predecessors had to take root somewhere for the tree of life to take

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 8

root. When did life initially appear, where did it appear, and in what form? One of
science's most fascinating, complex, and enduring mysteries is the genesis of life.
Scientists have worked hard in the lab to produce life from sp arks and gases in order to
learn more about how life began on Earth. Even determining what those early
conditions were still a difficult task. What materials did life begin with? Did life begin
in a "warm small pond," possibly a tidal pool that was repeate dly dried and renewed, as
Darwin hypothesised? Or is it possible that life exists among hydrothermal vents?
Could life's origins be found somewhere else than Earth? A fundamental Earth science
problem is to develop an accurate understanding of the physical conditions and
chemical building blocks available to early life. Clues to these puzzles come mostly
from studies of Earth's primordial rocks and minerals, which are the only remaining
evidence of the time when life first appeared on the planet.

Fig. 1.1 The Histrot of Life on Earth

(Source: Department of Science & Technology, Republic of South Africa)

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 9

 Fig. 1.2 Spheres of Earth

(Source: [Link]

Spheres of Earth:

The area near the surface of the earth can be divided up into four interconnected geo -
spheres that make up the carbon cycle these include:

 Lithosphere

 Hydrosphere

 Biosphere

 Atmosphere

The understanding of '-sphere- in this situation means 'to surround or encompass'..

The following help us understand the mean of the four spheres:

 Lithosphere - litho referring to rocks and minerals

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 10

 Hydrosphere - hydro referring to water

 Biosphere - bio referring to life

 Atmosphere - atmo referring to steam and vapour

The Lithosphere - It is believed the lithosphere evolved about 4.6 billion years ago. The
lithosphere refers to the solid, rocky crust that covers the entire planet. This solid,
rocky crust is composed of a number of different rocks that have been grouped into
three categories based on how they are formed. These three groups include:

 Metamorphic rocks – Metamorphic rocks are formed by heat and / or pressure from
pre-existing rocks.

 Igneous rocks – igneous rocks are formed by the cooling of hot molten rock also
known as magma. When the hot magma cools it begins to harden meaning once it had
fully cooled it create what is known to be an igneous rock.

 Sedimentary rocks – sedimentary rocks are formed from preexisting rocks. When
rocks erode and mix with other dirt, clay and p articles then settle together the mix
together to form a sedimentary rock.

The lithosphere includes a various number of different landforms such as mountains,

valleys, rocks, minerals and soil. The lithosphere is constantly changing due to forces
and pressures such as the sun, wind, ice, water and chemical changes. The earth‘s
surface is composed into two types of lithospheres. There are known as the oceanic and
continental lithospheres. The oceanic lithosphere includes the uppermost layers of
mantle which is topped with a thin yet heavy oceanic crust. This is where the
hydrosphere and lithosphere meet. The continental lithosphere includes the uppermost
layers of mantle which is topped with a thick yet light continental crust. This is where
the atmosphere, biosphere and hydrosphere meet the lithosphere.

The Hydrosphere - The hydrosphere refers to the most important resource. The
hydrosphere includes all forms of water in the Earth‘s environment. The forms of water
include things such as the ocean, lakes, rivers, snow and glaciers, water underneath the
earth‘s surface and even the water vapour that is found in the atmosphere. The
hydrosphere is always in motion as seen through the movement and flow of water in
rivers, streams and the ocean (beach). Plant and an imal organisms rely on the
hydrosphere for their survival as water is essential. The hydrosphere is also home to
many plants and animals and it believed that the hydrosphere covers approximately
70% of the earth‘s surface.

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 11

The Biosphere - The biosphere is composed of all living organisms, including; plants
and animals. It is believed that all life exists in the biosphere. Most of the living
organisms are found from up to three meters below ground to thirty meters above it and
also in the 200 meters of the ocean and seas. The biosphere could not survive if it
wasn't for the other spheres as all organisms need water from the hydrosphere, minerals
for the lithosphere and gases from the atmosphere. Energy flow is essential to maintain
the structure of organisms by the splitting of phosphate bonds.

The Atmosphere - The atmosphere refers to the air that surrounds the earth. The
atmosphere is always in motion and constantly changing. It‘s believed that there are
about 14 different gases that make up the atmosphere. The atmosphere is also
responsible for the weather as the weather occurs within the lower atmosphere. The
bottom layer of the atmosphere is known as the troposphere. The troposphere is where
the weather happens. It is the warmest near the Earth because of the heat rising from
the earth‘s surface but it becomes colder with altitude. This layer is separated from the
next by what is known as tropopause. The tropopause is the point in which temperatures
will begin to change due to the increase of altitude. Abov e the tropopause is the
stratosphere. The stratosphere is where there large concentration of ozone gas is found.
The ozone gasses are essential as they absorb a large percent of radiant solar energy,
protecting the earth from harmful ultra violet rays also known as UV. The coldest of
spheres is known as the mesosphere this is where the water vapor often freezes to create
clouds that are purely made of ice. The mesosphere is separated from the thermosphere
by the mesopause. The topmost layer is known as the thermosphere, this is where many
satellites circle the earth. Due to the thin air and proximity of the sun, the temperatures
in the thermosphere tend to rapidly increase and decrease.

Important Points:

● The elastic, invisible and tasteless mixture of gases that surrounds the earth form
what is termed as air.

● The atmosphere denotes all the air surrounding the earth.

● The environment is the general term with major constituents as biotic and abiotic
environments and it also includes atmosphere having major constituents of N2, O2, and
other gases.

● Weather is the general condition of atmosphere at a particulat time and the place.

● Weather can be described by various meterological phenomenon such as rain fall,

atmospheric pressure, cloudiness, wind speed and direction, temperature, humidity etc.

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 12

● The average weather conditions of a place or a region throughout the season is called
climate, which is governed by latitude position in relation to oceans or continents, local
geographical conditions etc.

● Climate can be described by a number of terms like rate of evaporation, wind speed
and direction, temperature, lightening and thunder storms, solar radiation, incidences of
fog, visibility etc.

●The science which deals with climate and climate phenomenon is known as
climatology. Air as an ecological factor: The gaseous mixture of troposphere is nothing
but air. The air is utilized by organisms in the process of respiration to liberate
chemical energy from food during oxidation. The presence of nitrogen, oxygen and
carbon dioxide in air is of great importance because these gases keep on cycling in
nature between organisms and their atmosphere through various cycles such as carbon
cycle, nitrogen cycle, water cycle etc. Oxygen is available in sufficient amounts in land
environment. It becomes scarce only at high altitude, deep in ground or in water soaked
soil. Oxygen dissolved in water is used up by aquatic organisms. The amount of oxygen
dissolved in water depends upon the temperature and depth of water. Warm water has a
lower capacity to dissolve oxygen than the cold water. Carbon dioxide provides carbon
to the plants. Atmospheric nitrogen is directly used by some nitrogen fixing bacteria of
roots of some plants. Reaction of atmospheric oxygen: Oxygen in the troposphere plays
an important role in the processes taking place on earth‘s surface. Oxygen takes part in
energy producing reaction like burning of fossil oils. CH4 (in natural gas) + 2O2 =
CO2+ 2H20 Atmospheric oxygen is also used by aerobic organisms in the degradation
of organic material or in oxidative weathering processes. HCHO + O2 =(Organisms)
CO2+ H20 The CO2 and H2O formed in the above reactions are utilized by the green
plants in the process of photosynthesis and oxygen is again returned in the atmosphere.
Atmospheric Carbon dioxide – Carbon dioxide is the non pollutant species in the
atmosphere. The atmospheric CO2, along with water vapours, is mainly responsible for
the absorption of solar energy from the sun (photosynthesis) and re-radiation of this
energy back to the earth‘s surface. An increase in concentration of CO2 in atmosphere
is found to increase the temperature of the earth. For example, CO2 in the atmosphere
prevents the long wave infra red heat radiation from the earth from escaping into outer
space and deflect it back to the earth causing rise in temperature of the earth. This is
called as green house effect. Climate and Weather Climate is generally defined as the
average state of weather and is one of the basic elements in the natural environment.
Weather is day to day condition of the atmosphere at any place as regards temperature,
rainfall, wind, humidity, sunshine and cloudiness etc. Climate affects land forms, soil

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 13

types and vegetation. Weather refers mainly to a day, a week, a month or a little longer
(i.e. short periods), while climate is concerned with average conditions over long
periods. Both weather and climate are affected by various factors, such as: 1. Direction
of the sun‘s rays. 2. Length of the day. 3. Altitude 4. Distribution of land and water
bodies. 5. Direction of mountain range. 6. Air pressure 7. Wind and ocean currents etc.
Inversion of Temperature: Altitude affects the climate in several ways. As we go higher
up a mountain there is a decrease in temperature. The rate of decrease in temperature is
not uniform and varies with time of day, season and place. It has been observed that the
average decrease of temperature upward in the troposphere is about 6 -6.5◦C per km
above sea level. This rate of fall of temperature with height is called as normal lapse
rate. Hydrosphere Hydrosphere covers more than 75 percent of the earth‘s surface as
oceans or as fresh water. Hydrosphere includes sea, rivers, oceans, lake s, ponds,
streams etc. Evaporation of water from oceans, cloud formation and precipitation are
responsible for worldwide water supply through hydrological cycles. Water is essential
to all life. Life was first originated in water. Solubility of gases in wa ter Most gases
especially those that are essential for life are soluble in water. Oxygen dissolved in
water is used by most living organisms for respiration. Oxygen is a limiting factor for
aquatic animals as the saturation concentration of oxygen in water is governed by
temperature and salinity. The lower the temperature, the greater the oxygen retaining
capacity of water, whether it is fresh water or sea water. Respiration, decomposition of
organic materials and stream pollution all tend to reduce the amo unt of available
oxygen. The deepest layers of water usually have low oxygen concentration in deeper
lakes and ocean areas. This is due to continuous decomposition of organic materials,
respiration of organisms and complete absence of photosynthetic activi ty. Nitrogen is
significantly less soluble in water then oxygen. It is chemically inert and does not react
with water. Some bacteria, fungi, blue green algae etc, can use nitrogen to satisfy their
nitrogen requirement Carbon dioxide is produced by the deco mposition of organic
matter and the respiratory activity of aquatic plants and animals. CO2 gas is most
essential for the photosynthesis of green plants. CO2 also combines with water to form
carbonic acid (H2CO3) which influences the PH or H+ ion concentra tion of water.
Lithosphere Lithosphere means the mantle of rocks constituting the earth‘s crust. The
solid component of the earth is called lithosphere, which is related with edaphic factor
and includes mainly soil, earth, rocks and mountains etc. The lith osphere mainly
contains three layers- crust, mantle and outer and inner core. The core is the central
fluid or vapourised sphere having diameter of about 2500 km. form the centre. Core is
probably composed of nickel-iron. The mantle extends about 2900-3000 km above the
core and is in the molten state. The outer most solid zone of the earth is known as crust.

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 14

It is about 8-40 km above the mantle. The surface of crust is covered with the soil. So
the soil is probable the most significant part of the lithosphe re. Soil- Soil is the upper
most part of the earth‘s crust, and is a mixture of organic as well as weathered rock and
materials necessary for the growth of plants. The organic matter and weathered rock
materials are formed through the physical, chemical an d biological processes occurring
slowly and slowly for a long period at earth‘s surface. Soil is a store house of minerals,
a reservoir of water, a conserver of soil fertility, a producer of vegetative crops, a home
of wild life and livestock. The soil also supplies nutrients to the plants and is one of the
most important ecological factor, called edaphic factor. The science which deals with
the study of soil is called soil science, pedology or edaphology. Besides being the
source of nutrients and water to plants, the soil is also the medium for the detritus food
chain. A number of soil microbes such as bacteria, algae, fungi, protozoa etc. bound in
or on soil particles decompose the nutrients released in detritus and taken back into the
plants through their roots. Rocks- Soil is formed by different kinds of rocks. Rocks are
made of different kinds of minerals. Some important minerals areAsbestos - It is a heat
resistant mineral and is used to make fireproof materials. Calcite - This mineral makes
up the chalk and limestone. Diamond- It is a form of carbon and is the hardest
substance known. Fluorite- It is mainly used in the steel industry. Graphite - Like
diamond, it is another form of carbon and is used in making lead pencils. Gypsum -
Gypsum is used in the manufacture of chalk and plaster of Paris. Haematite - It is deep
blood red coloured ore of iron. Quartz- It is the mineral that makes up sand and gravel.
It is used in making electrical instruments. Talc- It is also known as soapstone and is
the softest mineral. Talcum powder is made from talc. It should be noted that -
Important 1. Geologists have classified nearly 3000 minerals. 2. Of the 92 elements
(basic chemical substances) that occur naturally in the Earth‘s crust, 22, including gold
and silver, are sometimes found in free states. The other occur in combinations with one
or more other elements. 3. Sedimentary rocks cover about 75% of the world‘s land
areas. 4. Igneous rocks make up 95% of the top 16 km (10 miles) of the earth‘s crust. 5.
The moon rocks collected by astronauts are igneous in type. There are no sedimentary
rocks on the moon, because moon has no atmosphere and so weathering and erosion do
not occur.

● The earth is a cold, spherical, solid planet of the solar system, which spins on
its axis and revolves round the sun at a certain constant distance.

● The solid component of the earth is known as lithosphere.

● The core is the central fluid or vapourised sphere having diameter of about
2500 km from the centre and it is generally made of nickel - iron.

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 15

 ● The mantle extends about 2900 km above the core. This is in molten state.

● The crust is the outermost solid zone of the earth. It is about 8 to 40 km above
the mantle.

● The crust is very complex and its surface is covered with the solid supp orting
rich and varied biotic communities.

● The soil is one of the most important ecological factor, called edaphic factor.

● Soil is the most characteristic feature of terrestrial environment.

● Soil is loose, unconsolidated top layer of earth‘s crust .

● Soil in the form of mud is the main source of nutrients for all aquatic plants
(hydrophytes), rooted or submerged or free floating. Biosphere Biosphere
indicates domain of living organisms and their interactions with environment,
i.e. the atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere.

● The entire world basically can broadly be classified into biotic world and
abiotic world. The abiotic world can further be divided into three classes: The
atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water) and the lithosphere (earth) . To these
three ecological components, we can add the biosphere, known as biotic world
or biological world.

● The atmosphere, the hydrosphere, the lithosphere and the biosphere represent
four major global components of the world ecosystem.

● The biosphere is that part of the earth in which life exists. In other words, the
sum of those portions of the atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere into which
life penetrates is nothing but biosphere.

● Biosphere or ecosphere may be regarded as a biochemical syst em capable of

capturing, converting, storing and utilizing the sun‘s energy.

● The biosphere can be divided into a series of biogeographical regions, each

inhabited by distinctive species of animals and plants. These organisms move
freely from one place to another within each region, but not from one region to
another, thing being prevented by various barriers like river, lake, sea, desert,
mountain etc.

(Credit: [Link]

The Systems of the Earth

What does the Earth's system entail?

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 16

Earth is increasingly being viewed as a dynamic system — a collection of
interconnected, interdependent, or interacting pieces that constitute a unified whole or
entity. On a macro level, the Earth system exists and functions as a whole due to the
interactions of its pieces, which are referred to as components. It's easier to think of the
Earth system at a lower level, or micro level, in terms of four central components
known as subsystems: the hydrosphere, geosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere.

Complex and dynamic systems, as well as stable and unstable ones, exist.

The complexity of systems varies, and the Earth's subsystems are all dynamic.
Manipulation of one component of a subsystem might have unanticipated consequences
in other sections of that subsystem and/or other subsystems, which is crucial to
comprehending the Earth system's complexity. Because the subsystem is attempting to
preserve stability, if one variable changes, other variables may be affected to varied
degrees.

This degree of response also indicates whether these systems are stable or unstable. A
glacier, for example, is a highly fragile system: if the temperature in the atmosphere
goes over the melting point of ice, the glacier melts and loses ice, retreating. A tree, on
the other hand, is a reasonably stable system that adjusts environmental changes due to
water scarcity, for example, by shrinking the size of its leaves' stomata to return to a
state of relative equilibrium.

On a larger scale, rising temperatures in the atmosphere in a region c an trigger a chain

reaction of environmental changes to restore balance across subsystems, including
changes in evaporation and transpiration rates, weather patterns such as winds and
precipitation, salinity of water bodies such as lakes and seas, and the types of species
and numbers of organisms. Each reaction to a change can set off a cascade of
interconnected reactions, making the consequences of any single change in this vast and
dynamic Earth system difficult to anticipate.

These subsystems are linked by processes and cycles that, throughout time, store, alter,
and/or transmit matter and energy throughout the Earth system in ways that are
governed by the principles of matter and energy conservation. The Sun and, on
occasion, energy sources within the Earth provide the energy that drives these
processes.

On Earth, there are five major systems, or spheres. The geosphere is made up of the
interior and surface of the Earth, which are both made up of rocks. The second system
is made up of the biosphere, which is the limited area of the planet that can support
living creatures. The hydrosphere, which is made up of parts of the Earth that are

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 17

covered with massive volumes of water, is the third system. The fourth system is the
atmosphere, which is a gaseous envelope that keeps the planet warm while also
providing oxygen for breathing and carbon dioxide for photosynthesis. Finally, the
cryosphere, which contains massive amounts of ice at the poles and elsewhere, is the
fifth system. To keep the Earth as we know it, all five of these massive and intricate
systems interact with one another.

One of Earth's most noticeable aspects when viewed from space is its abundance of
water. Although liquid water is found all over the world, the vast majority of the water
on Earth, 96.5 percent, is saline (salty) and therefore unfit for humans and most other
animals to drink. The hydrosphere is made up of all liquid water on Earth, both fresh
and salt, although it is also a part of other spheres. Water vapour in the atmosphere, for
example, is considered part of the hydrosphere. Ice is part of the hydrosphere, but it is
given its own term, the cryosphere, because it is frozen water. Although rivers and lakes
appear to be more numerous than glaciers and icebergs, the cryosphere holds around
three-quarters of all fresh water on the planet.

The Earth systems are not only interrelated, but they also overlap; what affects one can
influence another. Precipitation, such as rain or snow, can fall to Earth's surface when a
parcel of air in the atmosphere gets saturated with water. By fostering erosion and
weathering, surface processes that gradually break down huge rocks into smaller ones,
precipitation connects the hydrosphere and the geosphere. Erosion and weathering turn
massive chunks of rock—even mountains—into sediments like sand or mud over time.
Large glaciers rip fragments of rock from the bedrock beneath them, and the cryosphere
can play a role in erosion. From partially molten rock beneath the crust to ancient,
towering mountains to grains of sand on a beach, the geosphere encompasses all the
rocks that make up Earth.

The biosphere, a global ecosystem that includes all living organisms on Earth, is housed
in both the geosphere and the hydrosphere. The biosphere is the limited portion o f the
Earth's environment where living creatures can thrive. It is home to a diverse group of
creatures, including fungi, plants, and animals, that live in harmony. Biodiversity is the
term used by biologists and ecologists to describe the diversity of lif e. The term "biotic
factors" refers to all living creatures in a given environment. Abiotic variables, or non -
living things that creatures require to survive, such as water, air, and light, are also
included in the biosphere.

The biosphere's atmosphere—a mixture of gases that includes nitrogen and oxygen, as
well as less prevalent gases including water vapour, ozone, carbon dioxide, and argon —

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 18

is also necessary for life. Atmospheric gases operate together to keep global
temperatures within livable ranges, protect the Earth's surface from dangerous UV
radiation from the sun, and allow life to flourish.

All of Earth's systems are clearly intertwined, but this intertwining can sometimes have
unanticipated and detrimental repercussions. Human fossil fuel consumpt ion is one
example of interaction between all realms. Plants and animals, all part of the biosphere,
died and degraded millions of years ago, forming deposits of these fuels. The remains
were compacted within Earth at that time, forming coal, oil, and natu ral gas, and
therefore became part of the geosphere. Humans, who are biosphere members, now burn
these elements as fuel to unleash the energy they contain. By -products of combustion,
such as carbon dioxide, are released into the environment. They contribut e to global
warming by altering and straining the cryosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere in the
process.

The various interactions between Earth's systems are complicated, and they happen all
the time, even though their consequences aren't always apparent. Volcanic eruptions and
tsunamis are dramatic instances of Earth's systems interacting, but there are also subtle,
practically imperceptible changes that modify ocean chemistry, the composition of our
atmosphere, and the microbial richness in soil. From Ear th's inner core to the top of the
atmosphere, every component of this planet contributes to the billions of lifeforms that
call it home.

Interactions between Earth's systems

Environmental science is the study of the interactions between the environment's

physical, chemical, and biological components, as well as their consequences on all
types of creatures. Earth science (sometimes known as geoscience) is a broad phrase
that encompasses all Earth-related sciences (geology, meteorology, oceanography, etc).
Although both environmental and earth science cover substantially the same subject,
environmental science emphasises the biological domain, whereas earth science
emphasises the physical sphere.

The interactions of four primary systems or "spheres" are studie d in environmental and
earth science.

• The geosphere is made up of the Earth's core, mantle, and crust.

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 19

 Fig. 1.3 System of Earth

(Source: [Link] -page/earth-system-matter-and-energy-

cycles)

• The troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, and ionosphere make up the

Earth's atmosphere, which is separated into troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere,
thermosphere, and ionosphere.

• The hydrosphere encompasses all solid, liquid, and gaseous water on Earth, spanning
from the ocean's depths to the troposphere's higher reaches where water can be found.
97% of the hydrosphere is found in salty oceans, with the rest in the atmosphere as
vapour or droplets, and as liquid in ground water, lakes, rivers, glaciers, and
snowfields.

• The biosphere is made up of all of Earth's life forms, which are separated into biomes
such as tundra, boreal forest, temperate deciduous woodland, temperate grassland,
desert, savannah, tropical rainforest, chaparral, freshwater, and marine.

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 20

Despite the fact that the four systems have distinct identities, there is significant
interaction between them. Environmental scientists look at how occurrences in one
sphere affect happenings in other spheres.

The fundamental elements of the earth's system

The earth system is an interconnected system in and of itself, but it may be broken
down into four basic components, subsystems, or spheres: geosphere, atmosphere,
hydrosphere, and biosphere. These components are systems in and of themselves, and
they are intricately linked. The four major components of the earth system can be
concisely defined as follows.

• The geosphere is the rock and mineral -rich portion of the planet, which includes the
solid crust, molten mantle, and liquid and solid regions of the earth's core. The
geosphere forms a layer of soil in many places where nutrients become available to
living creatures, providing a vital biological environment and the foundation for many
forms of life. Erosion, weathering, and transport processes, as well as tect onic forces
and volcanic activity, all contribute to the creation of landforms such as mountains,
hills, and plateaux on the geosphere's surface.

• The atmosphere is a gaseous layer that surrounds the earth and is maintained in place
by gravity. Solar radiation warms the earth's surface and is re-emitted and transported
to the atmosphere, which provides energy to the atmosphere. Evaporation drains water
from the earth's surface, and the atmosphere then operates to redistribute heat and
moisture across the planet's surface. In addition, the atmosphere contains life -sustaining
elements like as carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and hydrogen.

• The hydrosphere is made up of parts of the earth's system that are made up of liquid,
gaseous (vapour), and solid (ice) water. The hydrosphere encompasses the earth's
oceans and seas, as well as its ice sheets, sea ice, and glaciers, as well as its lakes,
rivers, and streams, as well as atmospheric moisture and ice crystals, and permafrost
zones. Both saltwater and freshwater systems are included in the hydrosphere, as well
as moisture found in the soil (soil water) and within rocks (groundwater). Water is
required for the survival and maintenance of life on the planet. The hydrosphere is
separated into fluid water systems and the cryosphere in various classifications (the ice
systems).

• The biosphere - this sphere contains all living species and is inextricably linked to the
other three: most live organisms require gases from the atmosphere, water from the
hydrosphere, and nutrients and minerals from the geosphere. Living organisms require a
medium for survival and have evolved to live in one of the other three spheres.

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 21

However, much of the biosphere is contained inside a shallow surface layer that
includes the lower atmosphere, the geosphere's surface, and the upper 100 metres of the
ocean. Humans are part of the biosphere, even if they are increasingly responsible for
the production of entirely artificial systems (such as cities).

SELF-TEST 01
1) The oceans were formed within __________ from the formation of the earth

a) 500 million years ago

b) 300 million years ago

c) 400 million years ago

d) 200 million years ago

2) Which one of the following is not related to the formation or modification of the
present atmosphere?

a) Solar winds

b) Differentiation

c) Degassing

d) Photosynthesis

3) The terrestrial planets were formed in the close vicinity of the

a) Parent star

b) Asteroids

c) Escaping gases

d) Outer planets

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 01

1) How was the Earth evolved?

2) How has the earth changed since it was formed?

1.2 INTERIOR OF THE EARTH, EARTH‟S MATERIALS – MINERALS AND THEIR

DEFINITION. DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE OF ELEMENTS IN THE EARTH‟S
CRUST

The earth's interior:

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 22

The crust, mantle, and core are the three primary layers that make up the Earth's
interior.

From the Earth's surface to the so-called Mohorovicic discontinuity, also known as the
Moho, the hard, brittle crust extends. The Moho is found at a depth of around 10
kilometres (6 miles) below the seafloor and 35 kilometres (22 miles) below the surface
of continents. The mantle, a viscous layer that makes up more than half of Earth's
volume, lies beneath the Moho.

The Gutenberg discontinuity, located about 2,880 kilometres (1,798 miles) beneath
Earth's surface, separates the mantle from the core. The outer core is made up of molten
and liquid iron and nickel, while the inner core is solid and far denser than either iron
or nickel.

Fig. 1.4 Interior of Earth

(Source: [Link] )

What do you need to know about the earth's interior?

• Because of its enormous size and the changing nature of its internal composition,
direct views of the earth's interior are impossible.

• It is nearly difficult for humans to travel to the earth's centre (the earth's radius is
6,370 kilometres).

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 23

• We have only been able to examine the earth's interior directly up to a depth of a few
kilometres through mining and drilling operations.

• The rapid rise in temperature beneath the earth's surface is mostly to blame for
limiting direct observations inside the planet.

• However, scientists have a good picture of how the earth's interior looks thanks to
several direct and indirect sources.

Sources of information on the earth's interior

Direct sources include:

1. Mining-related rocks

2. Eruptions of volcanoes

Sources that is not direct

1. By looking at the pace at which temperature and pressure change from the surface to
the interior.

2. Meteors, because they are made of the same components as the earth.

3. Gravity, which is stronger near the poles and weaker near the equator.

4. Gravity anomaly, or the variation in gravity value as a function of material mass,

provides information about the materials that make up the earth's interior.

Sources of magnetic energy

6. Seismic Waves: The shadow zones of body waves (primary and secondary waves)
provide information about the state of inner materials.

The internal structure of the earth

The crust, mantle, and core are the three layers that make up the earth's internal
structure.

Compositional divisions include core, mantle, and crust. The crust, which is made up
primarily of oceanic crust and continental crust, accounts for less than 1% of th e Earth's
total mass. The mantle is extremely heated and accounts for roughly 68 percent of the
Earth's mass. Finally, the core is primarily composed of iron metal. About 31% of the
Earth's mass is made up of the core.

Crust

The crust of the Earth is a cold, thin, fragile outer shell of rock that covers the entire
planet. In comparison to the planet's radius, the crust is extremely thin. There are two

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 24

forms of crust, each with its unique set of physical and chemical characteristics. Magma
that erupts on the seafloor to form basalt lava flows or cools deeper to form intrusive
igneous rock gabbro makes up the oceanic crust. The seafloor is covered in sediments,
chiefly muds and the shells of small sea animals. Sediment is thickest along the shore,
where it is transported by rivers and wind currents from the continents.

Many diverse types of igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks make up the
continental crust. Granite is the most common rock type, and it is far less dense than
the mafic igneous rocks found in the oceanic crust. Continental crust rises higher on the
mantle than oceanic crust, which sinks into the mantle to form basins, due to its
thickness and low density. These basins fill with water to generate the planet's seas.

The lithosphere is the planet's outermost mechanical layer, which is brittle and hard.
The lithosphere has a thickness of around 100 kilometres. The crust and uppermost
mantle, both of which are brittle, are included in the definition of the lithosphere,
which is based on how earth elements behave. When strains apply on the lithosphere, it
breaks because it is stiff and brittle. This is what an earthquake feels like.

• It is the earth's outermost solid layer, which is typically 8 -40 kilometres thick.

• It has a fragile nature.

• The crust accounts for nearly 1% of the earth's volume and 0.5 percent of its mass.

• The crust thickness beneath the oceanic and continental areas differs. When compared
to continental crust, the oceanic crust is thinner (approximately 5km) (about 30kms).

• Because the major constituent parts of crust are silica (Si) and aluminium (Al), it is
commonly referred to as SIAL (Sometimes SIAL is used to refer Lithosphere, which is
the region comprising the crust and uppermost solid mantle, also).

• The average density of the materials in the crust is 3 grammes per cubic centimetre.

• The Conrad Discontinuity is the boundary between the hydrosphere and the crust.

Mantle

The mantle's two most crucial characteristics are that it is comprised of solid rock and
that it is extremely heated. Seismic waves, heat movement, and meteorites have all
provided evidence that the mantle is formed of rock. The properties are similar to those
of peridotite, an ultramafic rock composed of iron - and magnesium-rich silicate
minerals. Peridotite is a mineral that is rarely found on the surface of the Earth.
Because of the heat that flows outward from it and because of its physical qualities,
scientists know that the mantle is extremely hot. Heat moves through the Earth in two

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 25

ways: conduction and convection. Conduction is described as heat transfer that occurs
as a result of fast atom collisions, which can only occur in solid materials. Heat is
transferred from warmer to cooler areas until they are all at the same temperature. The
mantle is heated primarily due to heat transfer from the core. The process of a
substance that can move and flow developing convection currents is known as
convection.

Convection in the mantle is similar to convection in a stovetop pot of water. As material

near the core heats up, convection currents form within the Earth's mantle. Particles
move more quickly as the core heats the bottom layer of mantle material, lowering its
density and forcing it to rise. The convection stream is started by the ascending
material. The warm material spreads horizontally when it reaches the surface. Because
it is no longer near the core, the material cools. It cools down and gets thick enough to
sink back into the mantle. The material moves horizontally at the bottom of the mantle
and is heated by the core. The mantle convection cell is complete when it reaches the
point where warm mantle material rises.

• The mantle is the region of the interior beyond the crust.

• The Mohorovich Discontinuity, often known as the Moho discontinuity, i s a boundary

between the crust and the mantle.

• The mantle is around 2900 kilometres thick.

• The mantle accounts for around 84 percent of the earth's volume and 67 percent of its
mass.

• Because Silicon and Magnesium are key constituent elements of the m antle, it is also
known as SIMA.

• The layer's density is higher than the crust, ranging from 3.3 to 5.4 grammes per cubic
centimetre.

• The Lithosphere is made up of the topmost solid section of the mantle and the entire
crust.

• The asthenosphere (located between 80 and 200 kilometres below the lithosphere) is a
very viscous, mechanically weak, and ductile deforming area of the upper mantle.

• The asthenosphere is the primary source of magma and the layer through which
lithospheric/continental plates move (plate tectonics).

• Repetti Discontinuity is the separation of the top and lower mantles.

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 26

• Mesosphere refers to the part of the mantle just below the lithosphere and
asthenosphere but above the core.

Core

A thick metallic core resides at the planet's ce ntre. For a variety of reasons, scientists
believe the core is made of metal. The density of Earth's surface layers is substantially
lower than the planet's overall density, as determined by its rotation. The interior must
be denser than usual if the surface layers are less dense than typical. According to
calculations, the core is around 85% iron metal, with nickel metal accounting for the
majority of the remaining 15%. Metal meteorites are also regarded to be a
representation of the core. The planet would not have a magnetic field if its core was
not made of metal. Magnetism exists in metals such as iron, but not in rock, which
makes up the mantle and crust. S-waves halt at the inner core, indicating that the outer
core is liquid and the inner core is solid. Convection in the liquid outer core causes the
strong magnetic field. Heat from the considerably hotter inner core causes convection
currents in the outer core. The disintegration of radioactive elements in the inner core
generates the heat that prevents the outer core from hardening.

• It's the deepest layer that surrounds the earth's core.

• Guttenberg's Discontinuity separates the core from the mantle.

• It is also known as NIFE since it is mostly made up of iron (Fe) and nickel (Ni).

• The earth's core accounts for almost 15% of its volume and 32.5 percent of its mass.

• The earth's core is the densest layer, with densities ranging from 9.5 -14.5g/cm3.

• The inner core and outer core are the two sub -layers that make up the Core.

• The inner core is in a solid state, while the outer core is liquid (or semi -liquid).

• The Lehmann Discontinuity is a separation between the upper and lower cores.

• The term "barysphere" is sometimes used to refer to the earth's core, and other times
to the entire interior.

Thermodynamics of the Earth's Interior: Temperature, Pressure, and Density

Temperature

• In mines and deep wells, a rise in temperature is noted as depth increases.

• These findings, combined with molten lava blasted from the earth's centre, suggest
that the temperature rises as one moves closer to the planet's core.

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 27

• Different observations demonstrate that the pace of temperature increase from the
surface to the earth's core is not uniform. It moves faster in certain areas and slower in
others.

• At first, the temperature rises at a rate of 10 degrees Celsius for every 32 metres of
depth gained.

• The temperature rises at a pace of 120 degrees Celsius per kilometre in the upper 100
kilometres and 200 degrees Celsius per kilometre in the next 300 kilometres. However,
as you go deeper, this pace drops to just 100C per km.

• As a result, it is expected that the rate of temperature growth under the surface is
decreasing towards the centre (do not mistake rate of temperature increase with
temperature increase). The temperature rises steadily from the earth's surface to its
core).

• The temperature at the core is predicted to be between 30000 and 50000 degrees
Celsius, although it might be much higher due to chemical reactions under tremendous
pressure.

• Even at such a high temperature, the materials at the earth's core are solid due to the
immense pressure exerted by the overlying materials.

Pressure

• The pressure is rising from the surface to the centre of the earth, just like the
temperature.

• It's because of the massive weight of the overlaying elements, such as rocks.

• It is predicted that the pressure in the deeper parts is extremely high, nearly 3 to 4
million times more than the pressure in the atmosphere at sea level.

• At high temperatures, the materials beneath the earth's surface melt towards the
centre, but due to high pressure, these molten materials solidify and are most likely in a
plastic condition.

Density

• The density of the earth's strata increases towards the centre due to increased pressure
and the presence of heavier components such as Nickel and Iron.

• The average density of the layers rises from the crust to the core, reaching roughly
14.5g/cm3 in the very centre.

Materials and minerals found on the planet

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 28

What Are the Components of the Earth's Surface?

Consider what you're walking on the next time you go for a walk. What is the
composition of the earth? The crust is the earth's outermost layer, and it is responsible
for the bulk of life on the planet. It promotes plant growth, animal surv ival, the
structural integrity of our land, and the advancement of human civilization.

Earth's materials are the four basic components that make up the earth's crust. Minerals,
rocks, dirt, and water are examples of these materials. The mix of these compon ents is
what allows life to exist on Earth.

Minerals

Let's start with minerals and take a closer look at them. Minerals are inorganic solids
with a crystalline form and a defined chemical composition that exist naturally. Because
minerals are created by natural geological processes, they are referred to as naturally
occurring minerals. Minerals are non-living and have a crystalline structure, which
means that the atoms that make up the mineral are organised in a repeating three -
dimensional pattern. Because all minerals are made up of precise amounts of certain
elements, they are said to have a fixed composition.

On Earth, about 4,500 distinct minerals have been recognised. Each one has a distinct
crystalline structure and chemical composition. A mineral is s omething like salt. If you
examine a grain of salt closely, you will notice that it is a solid with a distinct shape
and pattern.

Rocks

We can talk about rocks now that we know what minerals are. Natural aggregates of
minerals or mineral-like compounds are referred to as rocks. One type of mineral,
several minerals, or no minerals at all can be found in rocks. Limestone is a type of
rock made up of the mineral calcite. The limestone is made up of several calcite
crystals bonded together. Granite is a rock made up of a variety of minerals such as
quartz, biotite, potassium feldspar, and plagioclase feldspar. Coal is an example of a
rock that is made up entirely of decomposing organic matter rather than minerals.

The way rocks are produced is frequently used t o classify them. Sedimentary, igneous,
and metamorphic rocks are the three types of rocks. Sedimentary rocks are made up of
layers of sediment that have accumulated through time. When molten lava cools and
hardens, igneous rocks develop. When an existing r ock undergoes metamorphism as a
result of heat, pressure, or another physical force, metamorphic rocks are created.

Soil

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 29

Another of Earth's components is soil. Soil is made up of broken -down rocks and
minerals, as well as decomposing organic stuff. The maj ority of the decomposing
organic stuff is dead plant debris. Larger rocks and minerals are eroded or weathered
into smaller bits, resulting in broken -down rocks and minerals. Soil is made up of 45
percent rock and mineral fragments, 5% degraded organic mat ter, and 50% pore space
on average. Plants link their roots to the rock and mineral fragments in order to secure
themselves in place. Decomposed organic matter is responsible for the production of
nutrients for plants as well as the retention of water. Pore spaces in soil are critical
because they allow water and air to move. Water and air convey nutrients and carbon
dioxide, both of which are necessary for plant growth.

Minerals

Rocks make up the majority of the Earth's surface. Mineral aggregates form roc ks. A
mineral is made up of atoms. To comprehend rocks, we must first comprehend minerals.
Let's start with an explanation of what a mineral is.

The term "mineral" refers to a substance that

• It was developed naturally (it forms in nature on its own [some say without the aid of
humans])

• Stable (it cannot be a liquid or a gas)

• Having a distinct chemical make-up (every time we see the same mineral it has the
same chemical composition that can be expressed by a chemical formula).

• as well as a distinctive crystalline structure (atoms are arranged within the mineral in
a specific ordered manner).

Examples

• Glass - is a solid that can be naturally generated (volcanic glass termed obsidian), but
its chemical composition is not always consistent, and it lack s a crystalline structure
(individual atoms in a glass are arranged randomly similar to the arrangement in a
liquid). As a result, glass isn't a mineral.

• Ice - Is naturally created, solid, has a definite chemical composition given by the
formula H2O, and when solid, has a definite crystalline structure. As a result, ice is a
mineral. Because liquid water is not solid and lacks a crystalline structure, it is not
classified as such.

Minerals Found in the Earth's Crust

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 30

The chemical ingredients available to produce minerals determine the variety of
minerals we observe. The following are the most abundant elements in the Earth's crust:

1. O, or oxygen, is a gas that makes up 45.2 percent of the total mass of the human
body.

2. Silicon, which accounts for 27.2 percent of the total

3. Al (Aluminum) 8% of total

4. Fe, or iron, accounts for 5.8% of the total.

Calcium is number five on the list. 5.1 percentage point

Magnesium 2.8 percent, 6. Mg

6. Sodium is 2.3 percent of the total.

Potassium 1.7 percent (7. K)

Titanium (Ti) is the eighth element. 0.9 percentage point

H stands for Hydrogen. 0.14 percentage point

Manganese (Mn) is the tenth element in the periodic table. 0.1 percentage point

Phosphorous (0.1%) is the eleventh element in the periodic table.

It's worth noting that carbon (one of life's most abundant components) isn't in the top
12.

There are only roughly 3000 minerals recognised due to the limited amount of elements
contained in the Earth's crust. Only about 20 to 30 of these minerals are found in
nature. The Silicates, which are made up of Si and O, are the most common minerals.
Silicates are made up of the tetrahedron SiO4. Four oxygen atoms are linked to a single
silicon atom.

Mineral Formation:

Minerals are created by a variety of natural processes. Among them are the following:

• Igneous rocks are formed by the process of crystallisation from melt.

• Water precipitation is the process that produces chemical sedimentary rocks.

• Precipitation from living organisms (biochemical sedimentary rocks)

• Change to a more stable state - the process that leads to the creation of soil and
metamorphic rocks through weathering.

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 31

• Precipitation caused by vapour. (This isn't typical, although it does happen
occasionally near volcanic vents.)

We can determine the process by which minerals develop in nature because each
process produces various minerals. Temperature and pressure conditions for each
process can be determined through laboratory experimentation.

Minerals to Consider for This Course

Three minerals are particularly significant for the purposes of this course (others may
be added as needed): Chemical Formula for Quartz - SiO2. In igneous rocks, quartz is
one of the principal minerals formed by crystallisation from a melt. Quartz is stable
(does not break down or change) at temperatures near the Earth's surface, despite the
fact that it is generated at rather high temperatures. As a result, quartz is a major
component of sand, soil, and sedimentary rocks known as sandstones.

Clay minerals are sheet silicates with a crystalline structure that permits them to break
easily along parallel sheets. Clay minerals are formed when other minerals are altered
during the chemical weathering process (alteration that occurs near the Earth's surface).
Clay minerals are thus important components of soils and can also be found in shale or
mudstone, which is a sedimentary rock.

• Calcite (CaCO3) is a mineral with the chemical formula CaCO3 (calcium carbonate).
Under mildly acidic conditions, calcite dissolves readily in water. Calci te can be
precipitated directly from water in this manner. To precipitate their shells, organisms
can extract Calcium and Carbonate ions from water. As a result, calcite is a major
component of chemical and biochemical sedimentary rocks.

The abundance and distribution of elements in the earth's crust

The abundance of elements in the Earth's crust is tabulated, with the estimated crustal
abundance for each chemical element expressed in milligrammes per kilogramme
(mg/kg), or parts per million (ppm) by mass ( 10,000 ppm = 1%).

Estimating elemental abundance is challenging because (a) the upper and lower crusts
have very different compositions, and (b) the composition of the continental crust
varies greatly depending on location.

Chemical element abundance (atom fraction) in Earth's upper continental crust as a

function of atomic number. In the Goldschmidt classification of elements, the rarest
elements in the crust (shown in yellow) are siderophile (iron -loving) elements, not the
heaviest. Because they were transferred further into the Earth's core, they were
depleted. Their quantity is higher in meteoroids. Tellurium and selenium are

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 32

concentrated as sulphides in the core, but have been depleted in the nebula due to
preaccretional sorting, which caused them to fo rm volatile hydrogen selenide and
hydrogen telluride.

• The Earth's crust accounts for 1% of the planet's total volume. The crust is made up of
many different elements, some of which are more abundant than others.

• The most prevalent elements in the Earth 's crust are oxygen, silicon, iron, and
aluminium, which account for 88.1 percent of its mass.

• No one has ever travelled to the Earth's core. We've gotten about a third of the way to
the mantle thus far.

The elements in the Earth's crust provide all of mankind's basic building components.

SELF-TEST 02
1) The vibration direction parallel to the wave direction in the vertical plane is present
in

a) P-waves

b) S-waves

c) Surface waves

d) L-wave

2) The interior of the earth can only be understood by ______________

a) Direct methods

b) Indirect methods

c) Both the indirect and direct methods

d) None of the above

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 02

1) What is evidence of Earth's interior?

2) Why is Earth's interior important?

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 33

1-3 THE EARTH SYSTEMS AND BIOSPHERE: STRUCTURE AND

COMPOSITION OF LITHOSPHERE, HYDROSPHERE , ATMOSPHERE AND

BIOSPHERE. GEOGRAPHICAL CLASSIFICATION AND ZONES OF

ENVIRONMENT. ENERGY BUDGET OF THE EARTH

The Earth's System:

The earth system is an interconnected system in and of itself, but it may be broken
down into four basic components, subsystems, or spheres: geosphere, atmosphere,
hydrosphere, and biosphere. These components are systems in and of themselves, and
they are intricately linked. The four major components of the earth system can be
concisely defined as follows.

Fig. 1.5 Earth and Biosphere

(Source: [Link] -are-the-earths-systems/)

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 34

• The geosphere is the rock and mineral -rich portion of the planet, which includes the
solid crust, molten mantle, and liquid and solid regions of the ear th's core. The
geosphere forms a layer of soil in many places where nutrients become available to
living creatures, providing a vital biological environment and the foundation for many
forms of life. Erosion, weathering, and transport processes, as well as tectonic forces
and volcanic activity, all contribute to the creation of landforms such as mountains,
hills, and plateaux on the geosphere's surface.

• The atmosphere is a gaseous layer that surrounds the earth and is maintained in place
by gravity. Solar radiation warms the earth's surface and is re -emitted and transported
to the atmosphere, which provides energy to the atmosphere. Evaporation drains water
from the earth's surface, and the atmosphere then operates to redistribute heat and
moisture across the planet's surface. In addition, the atmosphere contains life -sustaining
elements like as carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and hydrogen.

• The hydrosphere is made up of parts of the earth's system that are made up of liquid,
gaseous (vapour), and solid (ice) water. The hydrosphere encompasses the earth's
oceans and seas, as well as its ice sheets, sea ice, and glaciers, as well as its lakes,
rivers, and streams, as well as atmospheric moisture and ice crystals, and permafrost
zones. Both saltwater and freshwater systems are included in the hydrosphere, as well
as moisture found in the soil (soil water) and within rocks (groundwater). Water is
required for the survival and maintenance of life on the planet. The hydrosphere is
separated into fluid water systems and the cryosphere in various classifications (the ice
systems).

• The biosphere - this sphere contains all living species and is inextricably linked to the
other three: most live organisms require gases from the atmosphere, water from the
hydrosphere, and nutrients and minerals from the geosphere. Living organisms require a
medium for survival and have evolved to live in one of the other three spheres.
However, much of the biosphere is contained inside a shallow surface layer that
includes the lower atmosphere, the geosphere's surface, and the upper 100 metres of the
ocean. Humans are part of the biosphere, even if they are increasingly responsible for
the production of entirely artificial systems (such as cities).

Biosphere structure and composition

The term "biosphere" refers to all of the Earth's living organisms. The biosphere is
made up of all plants, animals, microorganisms, and their surroundings.

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 35

Abiotic (physical and inorganic) and biotic (living) components make up the
environment (organic).

Abiotic, biotic, and energetic components make up the structure of the Biosphere.

I. Abiotic Components: This category includes all non -living materials that are required
for all live species to survive. It is made up of three layers: lithosphere, atmosphere,
and hydrosphere. Organic life requires three essential elements: mineral nutrition,
gases, and water.

II. Biotic Components: Plants, animals, and humans all contribute to the biotic
components of the environment. There are three sub -systems to consider:

• Plants: They are an essential component of biotic components. Through the process of
photosynthesis, they are the major producers of food. They're known as autotrophs.

• Animals: They are known as Heterotrophs since they are the primary consumers of
plant products. They convert food into energy by using organic materials produced by
plants (used in growth and development).

• Microbes: They decompose the remains of deceased plants and animals.

III. Energy is a critical component of the biosphere, as it is require d for the

reproduction and generation of all biological species on the planet.

Biosphere structure and composition

Ecological System: The interactions of a specific collection of animals with abiotic

elements inside a specific environment, resulting in cle arly defined energy flows and
material cycles on land, water, and air.

Ecology is derived from the Greek words "oikos" (home) and "logy" (science). The
term was first used by Ernst Haeckel in 1869. Ecology is the study of interactions
between living things and their physical surroundings. As a result, abiotic and biotic
interactions are studied.

The combination of physical and chemical components that make up the general
environment is referred to as habitat.

Ecosystem: A system of interconnected biotic and abiotic components that interact with
one another. As a result, an ecosystem entails interactions between various components
as well as energy transfer between them.

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 36

Ecological adaptation: Plants and animals have evolved to adapt to a variety of
environmental situations over time.

1. Energy Flow in the Ecosystem:

This refers to the transmission of energy from one trophic level to the next. Trophic
level refers to the point at which food energy is transferred from one group to the next.
It happens as a result of the food chain.

2. The Food Web:

The food chain is the sequence of energy transmission from creatures in one trophic
level to species in another trophic level. The Sun is, without a doubt, the primary
source of energy. The availability of food at a lower trophic level determines the
number of creatures at that level.

In food chains, there are two sorts of organisms: autotrophs and heterotrophs.
Herbivores, carnivores, and omnivores are the three types of autotrophs.

Grazing and debris food chains are the two types of food chains.

The first level of the grazing food chain is inhabited by plants, while the last level is
held by carnivores. At each stage, energy is lost by respiration, excretion, or
breakdown.

2. Detritus Food Chain– This food chain is based on autotrophs capturing energy from
grazing animals. Organic waste originating from the grazing food chain decomposes.

Cycle of biogeochemical processes:

The Biogeochemical cycle is the cyclic flow of biosphere chemical components

between organisms and the environment. It entails the movement and circulation of
soluble inorganic substances (nutrients) derived from soil, as well as air forms of
inorganic chemicals, through the organic forms of diverse biotic components.

In the description of the biosphere, there are two types of biogeochemical cycles:

• Gaseous cycle — the atmosphere and the ocean are the principal nutrient reservoirs.

• Sedimentary cycle — Soil, sedimentary, and other crustal rocks are the main nutrient
reservoirs.

The Water Cycle (also known as the Hydrological Cycle):

It aids in the flow of water between the air, land, and sea, as well as between live plants
and animals. The hydrological cycle is propelled by solar energy. Massive evaporation
from oceans and other bodies of water occurs, resulting in cloud formation and

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 37

precipitation. It works as freshwater on the surface in the form of snow and
groundwater.

The Nitrogen Cycle (Nitrogen Cycle):

The nitrogen cycle is critical to the structure and composition of the biosphere. The
nitrogen cycle in the biosphere ensures a constant supply of nitrogen, which is required
for biological processes. Protein is created by animals and plants through their
metabolic processes, which results in the creation of organic nitrogen molecules. The
majority of nitrogenous organic waste in soil comes from dead and rotting plants, as
well as animal excreta. These organic wastes in the soil are then taken up by soil
microbes, who use the process of denitrification to convert soil nitrates to nitrogen,
while others change nitrogen into soluble nitrogen compounds.

The Cycle of Carbon

The atmosphere is a modest carbon reservoir, whereas the hydrosphere is a substantial

one. In the form of bicarbonate mineral deposits on the ocean floor, it contains
approximately 50 times more carbon than the atmosphere. Carbon is exchanged between
the hydrosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere in order for the cycle to work.

The Lithosphere's Composition and Structure

The crust and a section of the upper mantle that acts like a brittl e, inflexible solid make
up the lithosphere. The asthenosphere is molten upper mantle material that may flow
and behaves plastically.

Lithosphere and Crust:

The crust of the Earth is a cold, thin, fragile outer shell of rock that covers the entire
planet. In comparison to the planet's radius, the crust is extremely thin. There are two
forms of crust, each with its unique set of physical and chemical characteristics. Magma
that erupts on the seafloor to form basalt lava flows or cools deeper to form intrusiv e
igneous rock gabbro makes up the oceanic crust. The seafloor is covered in sediments,
chiefly muds and the shells of small sea animals. Sediment is thickest along the shore,
where it is transported by rivers and wind currents from the continents. Many di verse
types of igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks make up the continental crust.
Granite is the most common rock type, and it is far less dense than the mafic igneous
rocks found in the oceanic crust. Continental crust rises higher on the mantle t han
oceanic crust, which sinks into the mantle to form basins, due to its thickness and low
density. These basins fill with water to generate the planet's seas. The lithosphere is the
planet's outermost mechanical layer, which is brittle and hard. The lith osphere has a

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 38

thickness of around 100 kilometres. The crust and uppermost mantle, both of which are
brittle, are included in the definition of the lithosphere, which is based on how earth
elements behave. When strains apply on the lithosphere, it breaks be cause it is stiff and
brittle. This is what an earthquake feels like.

Mantle

The mantle's two most crucial characteristics are that it is comprised of solid rock and
that it is extremely heated. Seismic waves, heat movement, and meteorites have all
provided evidence that the mantle is formed of rock. The properties are similar to those
of peridotite, an ultramafic rock composed of iron - and magnesium-rich silicate
minerals. Peridotite is a mineral that is rarely found on the surface of the Earth.
Because of the heat that flows outward from it and because of its physical qualities,
scientists know that the mantle is extremely hot. Heat moves through the Earth in two
ways: conduction and convection. Conduction is described as heat transfer that occurs
as a result of fast atom collisions, which can only occur in solid materials. Heat is
transferred from warmer to cooler areas until they are all at the same temperature. The
mantle is heated primarily due to heat transfer from the core. The process of a
substance that can move and flow developing convection currents is known as
convection. Convection in the mantle is similar to convection in a stovetop pot of water.
As material near the core heats up, convection currents form within the Earth's mantle.
Particles move more quickly as the core heats the bottom layer of mantle material,
lowering its density and forcing it to rise. The convection stream is started by the
ascending material. The warm material spreads horizontally when it reaches the surface.
Because it is no longer near the core, the material cools. It cools down and gets thick
enough to sink back into the mantle. The material moves horizontally at the bottom of
the mantle and is heated by the core. The mantle convection cell is complete when it
reaches the point where warm mantle material rises.

Convection in the mantle is similar to convection in a stovetop pot of water. As material

near the core heats up, convection currents form within the Earth's mantle. Particles
move more quickly as the core heats the bottom layer of mantle material, lowering its
density and forcing it to rise. The convection stream is started by the ascending
material. The warm material spreads horizontally when it reaches the surface. Because
it is no longer near the core, the material cools. It cools down and gets thick enough to
sink back into the mantle. The material moves horizontally at the bottom of the mantle
and is heated by the core. The mantle convection cell is complete when it reaches the
point where warm mantle material rises.

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 39

Core

A thick metallic core resides at the planet's centre. For a variety of reasons, scientists
believe the core is made of metal. The density of Earth's surface layers is substantially
lower than the planet's overall density, as determined by its rotation. The interior must
be denser than usual if the surface layers are less dense than typical. According to
calculations, the core is around 85% iron metal, with nickel metal accounting for the
majority of the remaining 15%. Metal meteorites are also regarded to be a
representation of the core. The planet would not have a magnetic field if its core was
not made of metal. Magnetism exists in metals such as iron, but not in rock, which
makes up the mantle and crust. S-waves halt at the inner core, indicating that the outer
core is liquid and the inner core is solid. Convection in the liquid outer core causes the
strong magnetic field. Heat from the considerably hotter inner core causes convection
currents in the outer core. The disintegration of radioact ive elements in the inner core
generates the heat that prevents the outer core from hardening.

The Hydrosphere's Composition and Structure:

The Hydrosphere: An Overview

It is a component of the earth that consists of all liquid water on the globe. Oceans,
seas, lakes, ponds, rivers, and streams are examples of water storage areas.

In other words, whereas the seas only cover around 71 percent of the earth's surface
area, the hydrosphere is rather big. The hydrologic cycle is based on the mobility of the
hydrosphere and the exchange of water between the hydrosphere and the cryosphere.

Additionally, the constant movement and interchange of water aids in the formation of
currents that transport warm water from the tropics to the poles, so assisting in the
regulation of the Earth's temperature. As you can see, water exchange is an important
aspect of the hydrosphere.

The hydrosphere, above all, is primarily made up of water. Furthermore, there are
certain impurities or additions to it, like as dissolved minerals, gases, and particles.
Some of these are considered pollution, while others are critical to ecosystem health.

For example, too much silt can harm nearby habitats, whereas low levels of dissolved
oxygen in the water can cause hypoxic conditions, which can be harmful to ecosystems.

As a result, thriving ecosystems that surround various components of the hydrosphere

require a precise equilibrium. In addition, the hydrosphere is always in motion. Rivers
and streams have visible motion, but ponds and lakes have l ess visible motion.

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 40

Furthermore, we can see some large-scale motions of seas and oceans that transport
water over long distances, such as between continents or between poles and tropics.
Currents are examples of these types of motions.

They essentially transport warm water from the tropics to the poles and cool water from
the poles to the tropics. These currents can be found at both the surface and the depths
of the ocean.

Hydrosphere's Importance

We rarely consider the hydrosphere's importance in keeping u s alive since we take it for
granted. The hydrosphere is significant because water supports a variety of living
forms. It also regulates the atmosphere and plays an important role in ecosystems.

The hydrosphere encompasses all water on the planet's surface . It is made up of

saltwater, freshwater, and frozen water, as well as groundwater and water at lower
altitudes.

Now let's take a look at how it works:

Water's Importance in Cells

Water makes up around 75% of each cell in a live body, allowing it to functi on
properly. Cells would be unable to function normally if we did not have water, as life
cannot exist without it.

Humans require water to survive.

Water is used in a variety of ways by humans. Water is obviously used for drinking, but
it is also used for residential functions such as washing and cleaning, as well as in
industries. In addition, we use water to generate electricity through hydropower.

Water provides a habitat.

The Hydrosphere provides a home for a variety of plants and animals. Water dissolv es a
variety of gases, including CO2, O2, nutrients including ammonium and nitrite(NO –2),
and other ions. In order for life to exist in water, certain chemicals must be present.

Control the weather

The water's specific heat is one of its distinguishing fea tures. This indicates that it takes
a long time for water to heat up and cool down. It aids in the regulation of Earth's
temperatures, ensuring that they remain within a range that is suitable for the existence
of life on the planet.

Hydrosphere Components

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 41

We regard every water storage region on Earth that retains liquid water to be part of the
hydrosphere. As a result, the hydrosphere is made up of a diverse range of formations,
including:

Oceans: The vast majority of the water on our planet is saltwater, and the oceans
contain the vast bulk of this saltwater.

Freshwater is substantially less prevalent than saltwater and can be found in a range of
environments.

Lakes, rivers, and streams are examples of surface sources of freshwater.

Groundwater: The freshwater contained beneath the ground accounts for only a small
part of the total freshwater on the planet.

Water that melts from glaciers is known as glacial water.

The hydrosphere's chemical composition

The chemical makeup of the hydrosphere is similar to th at of sea water, with hydrogen,
oxygen, chlorine, and sodium predominating.
land. The amount of mineral substances in land water (salinity) varies a lot depending
on local variables and, most importantly, climate. Fresh (river and fresh lake salinity
ranges from 50 to 1000 mg/kg) land water i
water has a salinity of roughly 35 g/kg (35%), while sea water has a salinity of 1 -2
percent (Gulf of Finland, Baltic Sea) to 41,5%. (Red Sea). Salty lakes have the highest
salt concentration (Dead Sea up to 260 percent )

Impacts of Humans on the Hydrosphere

Humans, as we all know, have a significant impact on the environment, and the
hydrosphere is no exception. Water pollution, river damming, wetland drainage, climate
change, and irrigation have all had a signific ant impact.

Eutrophication occurs when fertilisers and sewage are released into water storage
places, causing aquatic ecosystems to be artificially enhanced with nutrients.

Excessive algal blooms in the water might result in dangerous hypoxic conditions. A cid
rain has resulted from SOx and NOx emissions from fossil fuel combustion, causing
acidification of hydrosphere components and harming adjacent ecosystems.

Finally, when we reroute and dam rivers, we disrupt the normal flow of water in the
hydrosphere. In other words, it causes harm to nearby ecosystems that rely on the water
source.

Atmospheric Composition and Structure

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 42

The atmosphere of the Earth is made up of 78 percent nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and 0.93
percent argon. Water vapour, carbon dioxide, and ozone are among the trace gases
found in the remaining 0.1 percent. All of these trace gases have a significant impact on
the global climate. The way temperature changes with altitude can be used to divide the
atmosphere into vertical layers. The troposphere , which comprises over 80% of the
atmospheric mass and virtually all of the water vapour, is the layer closest to the
surface. The stratosphere, the next layer, contains the majority of the ozone in the
atmosphere, which filters high-energy radiation from the sun and allows life on the
earth to exist. The mesosphere and thermosphere are located above the stratosphere.
These two layers contain ions, which are charged atoms and molecules. The ionosphere
is the layer between the upper mesosphere and the lower thermosphere; it is crucial for
radio communications because radio waves can bounce off it and travel enormous
distances. The current atmosphere is assumed to have formed from gases released by
volcanoes. Excess emissions from plants that produce oxygen as a waste product during
photosynthesis are thought to have accumulated as oxygen. Some key atmospheric
components, such as carbon dioxide and ozone, may be affected by human activity.

The atmosphere's composition

The most important gases

Nitrogen (chemical symbol N2), the most prevalent atmospheric gas, is essentially
inert, meaning it does not readily mix with other molecules to generate new chemical
compounds. The second most prevalent gas, oxygen (O2), is essential for every animal
life on Earth, from humans to microorganisms, to breathe. Oxygen, in contrast to
nitrogen, is a highly reactive gas. It takes part in oxidation, which includes things like
apples becoming brown after being sliced, iron rusting, and fire, which is an extremely
fast oxidation reaction. Argon (Ar) makes up little under 1% of the atmosphere and is
an inert noble gas, meaning it does not participate in chemical reactions under normal
conditions. These three gases together make up 99.96 percent of the atmosphere. The
remaining 0.04 percent is made up of a wide range of trace gases, some of which are
essential to life on Earth.

Trace gases of importance

Carbon dioxide (CO2) has an impact on Earth's temperature and is an important

component of the biosphere, which is the collection of li ving creatures that inhabit the
planet's surface. CO2 makes up only approximately 0.0325 percent of the atmosphere.
Plant life requires carbon dioxide for photosynthesis, the process of harnessing sunlight
to store energy as simple sugars, which is essential for all life on Earth. Carbon dioxide

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 43

belongs to the group of chemicals known as greenhouse gases. These gases are made up
of molecules that absorb and release heat-producing infrared radiation. The majority of
the solar energy emitted by the sun is visible and falls within a limited spectrum of
wavelengths. This energy is absorbed by the Earth's surface and then re -radiated into
space as longer wavelength infrared radiation rather than visible light. Part of this
radiation is absorbed by greenhouse gas molecules before it escapes to space, and some
of it is re-emitted back toward the surface. As a result, part of the escaping heat is
trapped, raising the overall temperature of the atmosphere. The Earth's surface would be
90°F (32°C) cooler if greenhouse gases were not present in the atmosphere.

Water vapour (H2 O) is present in modest and extremely variable levels in the
atmosphere. While it is almost absent in the majority of the atmosphere, it can reach a
concentration of up to 4% in particularly warm, humid locations near the surface.
Despite its scarcity, atmospheric water has a greater impact on Earth than any of the
main gases, with the exception of oxygen. The hydrologic cycle, which transfers water
between the oceans, land surface waters, the atmos phere, and the polar ice caps,
includes water vapour. Water cycling is responsible for erosion and rock weathering, as
well as determining the weather on Earth and establishing climate conditions that make
land areas dry or wet, habitable or inhospitable. When water vapour is sufficiently
cooled, it condenses to liquid water droplets or, at lower temperatures, solid ice
crystals, forming clouds. Aside from causing rain or snow, clouds influence Earth's
climate by reflecting some of the sun's energy, making the planet slightly cooler. Water
vapour is a significant greenhouse gas as well. It is more common near the tropics than
in the polar regions, and it is concentrated near the surface.

Ozone (O3) is nearly primarily present in a layer between 9 and 36 mile s (15 and 60
kilometres) in height. Ozone gas is irritating to the eyes and skin at lower altitudes, and
it chemically destroys rubber and plant tissue. It is, nonetheless, essential to life on
Earth since it absorbs the majority of the sun's high -energy radiation, which is
hazardous to plants and animals. The ultraviolet (UV) zone contains a fraction of the
energy emitted by the sun. Suntans are caused by this shorter wavelength radiation,
which is intense enough to destroy cells, induce skin cancer, and b urn skin. Ozone
molecules, along with O2 molecules, absorb nearly all high -energy UV rays, shielding
the Earth's surface from the most harmful radiation. The initial stage in this process
takes place high in the atmosphere, when O2 molecules absorb extreme ly high-energy
UV rays. Each absorbing molecule splits into two oxygen atoms as a result. After
colliding with another O2 molecule, the oxygen atoms form an ozone molecule, O3 (a
third molecule is required in the collision to carry away excess energy). Ozo ne may

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 44

absorb UV with a slightly longer wavelength, removing one of its oxygen atoms and
leaving only O2. Due to its high reactivity, the free oxygen atom will almost
immediately unite with another O2, generating more ozone. The cycle's final two
phases repeat themselves, but they don't form any new chemical compounds; they
simply absorb ultraviolet radiation. Ozone levels in the stratosphere are extremely low.
The ozone gas would form a layer about 0.1–0.16 in (2.5–4.0 mm) thick if it were fully
delivered to the surface. Even though it is thin, this layer is sufficient to protect Earth's
inhabitants from hazardous sun radiation.

Aerosols

Aside from gases, the atmosphere contains a diverse range of suspended particles
known as aerosols. These particles can be liquid or solid, and they're small enough that
gravity may take a long time to pull them out of the atmosphere. Aerosols are made up
of suspended soil or desert sand particles, smoke particles from wildfires, salt particles
from evaporated ocean water, plant pollen, volcanic dust, and particles caused by
pollution from coal-fired power plants, to name a few. Aerosols have a big impact on
the heat balance, cloud development, and optical characteristics of the atmosphere.

Aerosol particles come in a wide range of sizes. Raindrops floating in a cloud have a
diameter of 0.04–0.24 in (1–6 mm). The diameter of fine desert sand and cloud droplets
is as small as 0.0004 in (0.01 mm). Sea salt and smoke particles have a diameter of
1/100th of a millimetre, or around 0.0001 mm, or 0.1 micrometre (1 micrometre = one
thousandth of a millimetre). Particles that form when certain gases condense —that is,
when many gas molecules come together to form a stable cluster —are the tiniest of all.
These are Aitkin nuclei, which have dimensions of a few nanometres (1 nanometre
equals one millionth of a millimetre).

The size of some aerosol particles permits them to scatter sunlight efficiently and create
haze in the atmosphere. Aerosols can act as collection locations for water vapo ur
molecules, promoting the creation of cloud droplets and hastening the production of
clouds under certain conditions. They may also have an impact on the Earth's climate.
Aerosols are known to reflect a portion of incoming solar radiation back to space,
lowering Earth's surface temperature. The goal of current study is to determine how
much cooling aerosols contribute, as well as how and when aerosols originate in the
atmosphere.

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 45

Structure of the atmosphere:

Based on atmospheric pressure and temperature profiles, the atmosphere can be split
into layers (the way these quantities change with height). The temperature of the
atmosphere gradually lowers from roughly 290K (63°F; 17°C) near the surface to
around 220K (–64°F;–53°C) at 6 mi (10 km) above the surface. The troposphere is the
first layer, with pressures ranging from over 1,000 millibars at sea level to 100
millibars at the tropopause, the top of the layer. The temperature rises with increasing
altitude above the tropopause, up to around 27 miles (45 km). The stratosphere is an
area of rising temperatures that spans a pressure range of 100 millibars at its base to
around 10 millibars at the stratopause, the layer's apex. The temperature begins to
plummet with altitude over 30 miles (50 kilometres), rea ching a very cold minimum of
180K (–135°F;–93°C) at roughly 48 miles (80 km). This layer is the mesosphere, which
has an atmospheric pressure of only 0.01 millibars (or 1/100,000th of the surface
pressure) at its top (the mesopause). The thermosphere, whic h extends hundreds of
miles above the mesosphere and into space, is located above the mesosphere. Because
air molecules become scarcer as the atmosphere merges with the stuff present in space,
pinpointing the precise top of the atmosphere is impossible.

The thermosphere is the upper atmosphere:

Over 80% of the mass of the atmosphere, as well as nearly all of the water vapour, is
found in the troposphere. The air we breathe, the winds we see, and the clouds that
deliver us rain are all part of this layer. The troposphere, whose name means "changing
sphere," is where all of our weather takes place. This layer contains all of the cold
fronts, warm fronts, high- and low-pressure systems, storm systems, and other features
visible on a weather map. The tropopause may be penetrated by severe thunderstorms.

Within the troposphere, temperature drops at a rate of around 11.7°F per 3,281 ft (6.5°C
per 1,000 metres) as one rises in altitude. The lapse rate is the name given to this
number. When air begins to rise, the rules of thermodynamics dictate that it expand and
cool at a quicker rate. This means that if a parcel of air rises, it will quickly find itself
cooler and denser than its surroundings and sink back down. This is an example of a
stable atmosphere that has no vertical air movement. A cold air mass may migrate into
an area and have a higher lapse rate because air masses travel within the troposphere.
That is, as you get higher, the temperature drops faster. Under these conditions,
ascending and cooling air will become warmer than the air surrounding it. It then
behaves like a hot-air balloon: because it is less dense and buoyant than the surrounding
air, it will continue to rise and cool through a process known as convection. The

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 46

atmosphere is believed to be unstable if this continues, and the rising parcel of air will
cool to the point where its water vapour condenses into cloud droplets. A convective
cloud has formed from the air parcel. A storm cloud will form if the buoyancy is strong
enough, and cloud droplets will grow to the size of raindrops and begin to fall out of
the cloud as rain. Storm clouds and precipitation are thus feasible under certain
situations due to the temperature profile of the troposphere.

Cumulonimbus clouds (the type that produce heavy rain, violent winds, and hail) can
develop tall enough to reach or extend into the tropopause during a strong
thunderstorm. They come into contact with powerful stratospheric winds, which could
shear off the tops of the clouds, halting their expansion. Thi s phenomenon can be seen
in the anvil clouds that accompany intense summer thunderstorms.

The upper reaches of the atmosphere

The start of the stratosphere is defined as the point at which the temperature reaches its
lowest point and the lapse rate abruptly drops to zero. One important consequence of
this temperature structure is that it prevents rising air. When air starts to rise, it
becomes cooler and denser than the air around it. As a result, the stratosphere is
extremely stable.

The stratosphere contains the majority of the ozone in the Earth's atmosphere, and the
presence of ozone is what causes the stratosphere's temperature profile. Short -wave
solar radiation is absorbed by both ozone and oxygen gas. Heat is released as a result of
the subsequent reactions. This heat warms the atmosphere in the layer between 12 and
27 miles (20 and 45 kilometres), giving the stratosphere its distinctive temperature
increase with altitude.

Concerns have been raised about the ozone layer. Scientists from the British An tarctic
Survey discovered that the amount of stratospheric ozone over the South Pole dropped
considerably during the spring months in 1985, then recovered somewhat as summer
approached. According to historical data, springtime ozone losses began in the lat e
1960s and became substantially more severe by the late 1970s. During the late winter
and early spring of the mid-1980s, practically all ozone was vanishing from regions of
the polar stratosphere. These ozone losses, termed the ozone hole, were the subjec t of
extensive field and laboratory investigation.

Despite the fact that the stratosphere contains very little water, ice crystal clouds may
occur in the lower stratosphere above the polar regions at times. Because of their
iridescent beauty, early Arctic explorers dubbed these clouds nacreous or mother-of-
pearl clouds. Under extremely cold temperatures, very thin and widespread clouds have

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 47

been discovered to form in the polar stratosphere. These clouds, known as polar
stratospheric clouds or PSCs, look to be little ice crystals or frozen ice and nitric acid
mixes. PSCs play a crucial role in the ozone hole's formation.

According to the current understanding, chlorine is the chemical responsible for ozone
breakdown in the ozone hole. Chlorine is thought to e nter the stratosphere via
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), which are industrial chemicals used as refrigerants,
aerosol propellants, and solvents. Experiments in the lab show that after destroying an
ozone molecule, chlorine is trapped in a state that prevents it from reacting with any
more ozone. It can, however, chemically combine with other chlorine compounds on the
surfaces of polar stratospheric cloud particles, allowing chlorine to attack even more
ozone. To put it another way, each chlorine molecule is re cycled multiple times,
allowing it to destroy thousands of ozone molecules. Because of the significance of
chlorine in ozone depletion, an international agreement called the Montreal Protocol
was signed in 1987, committing the participating developed count ries to phase out
CFCs.

The mesosphere and thermosphere are two layers of the atmosphere.

The ionosphere is a zone between the upper mesosphere and the lower thermosphere
that contains charged atoms and molecules (ions). Nitrogen gas, atomic oxygen,
nitrogen (O and N), and nitric oxide are among the atmospheric constituents at this
level (NO). All of these are exposed to high levels of UV and x -ray radiation from the
sun, which can cause ionisation, or the loss of an electron, resulting in a positively
charged atom or molecule. The ionosphere is a layer of the atmosphere that is rich in
free electrons and positive ions. The propagation of radio waves is affected by this
charged particle region, which reflects them like a mirror reflects light. The ionosphere
allows radio signals to be tuned in from a long distance away. Even if mountains or the
curvature of the Earth block direct radio waves from the transmitter, the waves bounced
off the ionosphere can still be received. Because the sun's radiation is no lon ger
available to keep electrons and ions ionised, the number of electrons and ions in the
lower layers drops dramatically after the sun sets. The top layers, on the other hand,
retain some ions even at night. As a result, the ionosphere rises at night, all owing radio
waves to bounce over longer distances. This is why it is easier to listen to more distant
radio stations at night than it is during the day.

The aurora is a dazzling night-time show of colours and flashes that occurs in the upper
thermosphere. The sun emits energetic particles that generate the aurora. The Earth's
magnetic field traps these particles, which collide with the few gas atoms present above

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 48

60 miles (100 kilometres), mostly atomic oxygen (O) and nitrogen gas (N2). The atoms
and molecules emit light as a result of the collisions, resulting in dazzling displays.

The atmosphere's past and future

If there exited an atmosphere after Earth originated around 4.5 billion years ago, it was
most likely very different from what we have today. Wit h an abundance of hydrogen,
methane, and ammonia gases, it most likely resembled those of the outer planets —
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. After the primary atmosphere was lost, the
current atmosphere formed. According to one idea, the Sun blasted E arth's primary
atmosphere away. If the Sun is like other stars of its kind, it may have gone through a
phase where it blasted material furiously outward toward the planets. All of the planets
in the inner solar system,

Key Words:

Infrared radiation- Radiation similar to visible light but of slightly longer wavelength.
Infrared radiation is perceived as heat by humans.

The ionosphere is a region of the atmosphere above 48 miles (80 kilometres) that
contains high concentrations of charged atoms and molecules (ions).

The rate at which the atmosphere cools as you climb higher in altitude.

Mesosphere — The third layer of the atmosphere, with a height of 30 –48 miles (50–80
kilometres) and a low lapse rate.

The sharp decrease in stratospheric ozone that occurs ever y spring over Antarctica is
known as the ozone hole.

The stratosphere is a layer of the upper atmosphere that extends from 5 –10.6 miles (8–
17 kilometres) to about 31 miles (50 kilometres), depending on the season and latitude.
There are few convective air currents in the stratosphere, and air temperature varies
little with height.

The thermosphere is the uppermost layer of the atmosphere, beginning at roughly 48

miles (80 kilometres) and extending hundreds of miles into space. This layer can have
very high gas temperatures due to bombardment by very energetic solar radiation.

The troposphere, also known as the lower atmosphere, is a layer of air that extends up
to 15 miles (24 kilometres) above the Earth's surface.

Ultraviolet radiation (UVR) is a type of radiation that is similar to visible light but has
a shorter wavelength and therefore more energy.

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 49

X-ray radiation —Light radiation with wavelengths shorter than the shortest ultraviolet;
extremely powerful and damaging to living creatures.

The gaseous envelopes of all planets, including Earth, would have been gone. When
gases were freed from the early Earth's crust by volcanic activity, a secondary
atmosphere began to form. Water vapour, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and sulphur or
sulphur compounds were among the gases identified. This early secondary atmosphere
was devoid of oxygen.

Volcanoes emitted a significant amount of water vapour, which produced clouds that
rained down on the early Earth, generating the oceans. The new oceans gradually
absorbed most of the carbon dioxide since it dissolves quickly in water. Because
nitrogen is inert, it was allowed in the atmosphere to become the most prevalent gas.
Early plant life began to use the carbon dioxide that remained in the process of
photosynthesis. This could have started around two to three billion years ago, most
likely in an ocean or aquatic environment, according to geologic evidence. Around this
time, aerobic (oxygen-using) bacteria and other early animal life appeared, which used
photosynthetic products and emitted CO2. As long as all plant material was consumed
by an oxygen-breathing organism, the CO2 and O2 cycles were completed; the two
gases remained in balance. However, before it could degrade, some plant material was
inevitably lost or buried. As a result, carbon dioxide was efficiently eliminated from the
atmosphere, resulting in a net increase in oxygen. Over billions of years, a significant
surplus built up in this fashion, and oxygen now makes up more than 20% of the
atmosphere (and carbon dioxide makes up less than 0.033 percent ). As a result, all
animal life is dependent on the oxygen that the biosphere has progressively collected
over the previous two billion years.

It's difficult to anticipate how the atmosphere may change in the future. Ther e is
growing concern that human activity is affecting the atmosphere to the point where it
may have an impact on Earth's climate. This is especially true when it comes to carbon
dioxide. When coal and oil are dug up and burned, buried carbon dioxide is rel eased
back into the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide acts as a greenhouse gas, trapping infrared
(heat) energy emitted by the Earth and thus warming the atmosphere.

Geographical classification and environmental zones of the earth's energy budget

The energy budget of the Earth is the difference between the energy it receives from the
Sun and the energy it loses back into space. Smaller energy sources, such as Earth's
internal heat, are considered, but they provide only a little amount compared to solar
energy. The energy budget also takes into account the flow of energy through the

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 50

climate system. Solar irradiance is unevenly distributed because the Sun heats the
equatorial tropics more than the polar regions. As the energy seeks equilibrium across
the planet, interactions in the Earth's climate system, which includes the planet's water,
ice, atmosphere, rocky crust, and all living things, are triggered. The climate of the
Earth is the product of this process.

Many factors influence the Earth's energy budget, includ ing atmospheric aerosols,
greenhouse gases, the planet's surface albedo (reflectivity), clouds, vegetation, land use
patterns, and others. Earth is in radiative equilibrium when the incoming and outgoing
energy fluxes are balanced, and the climate system i s reasonably stable. When the
planet absorbs more energy than it gives back to space, global warming happens, and
when the outgoing energy is larger, global cooling occurs. Since at least 1970, multiple
types of measurements and observations have revealed a warming imbalance. The rate
of warming generated by this human-driven phenomenon is unprecedented.

There is a delay before the average global surface temperature changes appreciably
when the energy budget changes. This is owing to the seas', land's, and cryosphere's
thermal inertia. Most climate models require accurate calculation of these energy flows
and storage levels.

SELF-TEST
1) Biosphere is defined as

a) Part of the earth water and atmosphere which inhabits living organism

b) Part of the soil where animals and plants are found

c) Atmosphere in which life exists

d) None of the above

2) Biosphere consists of

a) Lithosphere

b) Atmosphere

c) Hydrosphere

d) All the above

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS

1) How does the biosphere affect Earth's systems?
2) What are the subsystem of the earth necessary for life to exist? .

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 51

1-4 ELEMENTS: CONCEPTS OF MAJOR, TRACE AND REE.
CLASSIFICATION OF TRACE ELEMENTS, MOBILITY OF TRACE ELEMENTS
AND GEOCHEMICAL CYCLES

Chemical element, also known as element, any component that cannot be dissolved
into simpler compounds by regular chemical processes. Previously, the four
substances air, water, fire, and earth were thought to make up the physical universe.
All matter is made up of elements, which are the basic building blocks.

The genesis of the elements and their abundance throughout the cosmos are discussed
in this article. The geochemical distribution of these basic substances in the Earth's
crust and interior, as well as their prevalence in the hydrosphere and atmosphere, are
discussed in depth.

Observations in general

There are now 118 chemical elements identified. About 20% of them do not exist in
nature (or are only present in trace levels) and are only known because they have been
synthesised in the lab. Under usual conditions, 11 of the known elements (hydrogen,
nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine, chlorine, and the six noble gases) are gases, two (bromine
and mercury) are liquids (two more, caesium and gallium, melt at just above room
temperature), and the remainder are solids. Compounds are formed when elements
combine to generate a wide range of more complex substances. There are nearly an
endless amount of potential compounds; maybe a million are known, and more are
discovered every day. When two or more elements mix to form a compound, their
individual identities are lost, and the final product has qualities that are significantly
different from the original elements. For example, the gaseous elements hydrogen and
oxygen, which have very different properties, can combine to make water, which has
none of the qualities of either oxygen or hydrogen. Water is definitely not an element
because it is made up of the two chemicals hydrogen and oxygen, which can be
chemically decomposed; nonetheless, these two substances constitute elements
because they cannot be broken into simpler molecules by any known chemical
mechanism. The majority of naturally occurring matter samples are chemical mixes.
For example, seawater is made up of water and a variety of chemical compounds, the
most common of which is sodium chloride, sometimes known as table salt. Mixtures
vary from compounds in that physical processes can separate them into their
EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 52
constituent parts; for example, evaporation separates water from the other compounds
in saltwater.

The evolution of the concept of element over time

The contemporary definition of an element is clear, as it is based on the utilisation of

chemical and physical processes to distinguish elements from compounds and mixes.
However, since the dawn of time, the existence of fundamental components from
which all matter is formed has been the subject of considerable speculative inquiry.
Thales, Anaximenes, and Heracleitus, all ancient Greek philosophers, proposed that
all substance is made up of one essential principle—or element. This element was
thought to be water by Thales, air by Anaximenes, and fire by Heracleitus.
Empedocles, another Greek philosopher, held a different viewpoint, believing that all
substances are made up of four elements: air, earth, fire, and water. Aristotle
concurred, emphasising that these four elements are bearers of basic traits, with fire
being connected with dryness and heat, air with heat and moisture, water with
moisture and cold, and soil with cold and dryness. These philosophers believed that
all other substances were made up of combinations of the four elements, and that the
qualities of substances reflected their elemental compositions. As a result, Greek
thought included the belief that all matter could be defined in terms of elemental
properties; the elements themselves were considered nonmaterial in this sense. Only
one part of the contemporary definition of an element was present in the Greek
concept of an element, which was recognised for approximately 2,000 years: elements
have characteristic traits.

As alchemists got more proficient in their understanding of chemical processes in the

late Middle Ages, Greek ideas of substance composition became less satisfactory. To
accommodate newly found chemical reactions, additional elemental characteristics
were incorporated. As a result, sulphur has come to symbolise the property of
combustibility, mercury has come to represent volatility or fluidity, and salt has come
to represent the characteristic of fixity in fire (or incombustibility). These three
alchemical principles, or elements, were likewise abstractions of attributes reflecting
the nature of matter, rather than physical things.

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 53

The crucial distinction between a mixture and a chemical compound was ultimately
realised, and English chemist Robert Boyle established the fundamental character of a
chemical element in 1661. He said that the four Greek elements couldn't possibly be
chemical elements because they couldn't combine to make other substances or be
separated from them. Boyle emphasised the physical nature of elements and how they
are related to the compounds they generate in today's operations.

Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier, a French scientist, presented what is thought to be the first

list of elemental chemicals based on Boyle's definition in 1789. The list of elements
created by Lavoisier was based on a meticulous, quantitative analysis of breakdown
and recombination reactions. Because he couldn't come up with experiments to
decompose or produce specific things from known elements, Lavoisier included
substances like lime, alumina, and silica in his list of elements, which are today
proven to be relatively stable compounds. The presence of light and heat (caloric)
among the elements indicates that Lavoisier retained some influence from the ancient
Greek understanding of the elements.

Because they occur in nature in relatively pure form, seven chemicals identified today
as elements—gold, silver, copper, iron, lead, tin, and mercury—were known to the
ancients. They are mentioned in the Bible and the Caraka-samhita, an early Hindu
medicinal treatise. When methods for isolating elements from their compounds
became more understood in the second half of the 18th century, sixteen more elements
were found. After the introduction of quantitative analytical procedures, eight y-two
more followed.

The elements' atomic structure

Understanding of the nature of matter progressed in lockstep with the creation of the
concept of elements. Matter has been thought to be continuous or discontinuous at
various periods throughout history. Continuous matter is thought to be homogenous
and infinitely divisible, with each component having the same properties regardless of
size. This was essentially Aristotle's point of view when he linked his elemental
properties to continuous matter. Discontinuous matter, on the other hand, is thought of
as particulate—that is, only divisible up to a point, the point at which certain basic
units known as atoms are reached. According to this theory, which is also known as

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 54

the atomic hypothesis, subdividing the fundamental unit (atom) can only result in
particles with vastly different properties. As a result, atoms would be the ultimate
carriers of bulk matter's attributes.

Democritus, a Greek philosopher, is credited with developing the atomic hypothesis,

which states that all substance is made up of atoms of the four elements: earth, air,
fire, and water. However, until scientific results in the 16th century forced a return to
the atomic hypothesis, Aristotle's view of continuous substance prevailed and affected
thought. The atomic theory was supported by two forms of experimental evidence:
first, the precise behaviour of gaseous substances, and second, quantitative weight
connections seen with a variety of chemical reactions. John Dalton, an English
scientist, was the first to postulate the existence of atoms with distinct sets of
attributes to explain the empirically derived principles of chemical combination.
Chemical combining power (valence) and relative atomic weights were the most
interesting features at the time. Following that, multiple independent experimental
confirmations of the atomic hypothesis were conducted, and it is now widely
accepted. Individual uranium and thorium atoms were really spotted using an electron
microscope in 1969.

Major element concept

Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sulphur are major elements that make up
more than 1% of the weight of coal. The percentage of carbon in the atmosphere
grows with rank, whereas the percentages of oxygen and hydrogen decrease.

The elements that make up 95 percent of the earth's crust are known as geological
main elements. Si, Al, Ca, Mg, Na, K, Ti, Fe, Mn, and P are the elements. X-ray
fluorescence (XRF) has traditionally been used for major element (whole rock)
geochemistry, although inductively coupled plasma (ICP) technologies can now be
used. SGS has the necessary experience and equipment required to analyse this suite
using any method through our global laboratory network.

Minor elements are those that make up 1.0 to 0.01 percent of the weight of a coal.
Sodium, magnesium, aluminium, silicon, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, titanium,
manganese, and iron are all common minor elements in coal. The majority of minor

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 55

elements are found in coal's minerals, while phosphorus is found in the organic c oal
matrix as well. Coal contains a large number of minor elements. Not all of these
minor elements can be found in all coal seams, and those that do can be found in
varying quantities. Within a same coal bed, minor element concentrations might
fluctuate vertically and laterally (see, for example, Finkelman, 1981, 1995;
Schweinfurth and Finkelman, 2003; Swaine, 2013).

The idea of a trace element

Trace elements (or trace metals) are minerals found in trace levels in living tissues.
Some are known to be nutritionally important, others may be needed (albeit the
evidence is only suggestive or insufficient), while the others are deemed unnecessary.
Trace elements are primarily used as catalysts in enzyme systems; however, some
metallic ions, like as iron and copper, are involved in energy metabolism's oxidation-
reduction reactions. Iron, which is found in haemoglobin and myoglobin, is also
important for oxygen transport.

If taken at high enough amounts for long enough periods of time, all trace elements
are poisonous. For some critical trace elements, the difference between hazardous and
optimum intakes to meet physiological needs is significant, but for others, it is
considerably smaller.

This chapter provides an overview of the roles of iron, zinc, fluoride, selenium,
copper, chromium, iodine, manganese, and molybdenum in the aetiology and
prevention of chronic illnesses. Aluminium, cadmium, mercury, arsenic, and lead are
also examined; these elements have not been proven to be required for humans, but
the committee included them because they are regularly absorbed as contaminants in
food or water. Interactions among the various trace elements are briefly discussed as
well.

Epidemiologic data on the link between several trace elements and the occurrence of
diseases like cancer, cardiovascular disease, and hypertension is lacking. Cadmium,
chromium, and selenium have been the subjects of the majority of these research.
Furthermore, the majority of the research does not pertain to eating exposure, but
rather to inhalation exposure in the workplace, for example. Animal feeding tests have

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 56

also yielded inconclusive results. The committee finds knowledge gaps and offers
research directions.

Trace elements are mobile.

Solutes, including trace elements, are transported through soil via water. Although
solubility is a requirement for mobility, the movement of trace elements in the
rhizosphere is influenced by a variety of rate-limited or kinetic geochemical and
hydrological processes. The movement of dissolved trace elements in soils is
principally determined by their spatial concentration gradient and water mass flow.
The latter is determined by the matric water potential of the soil, its porosity, and
long-distance preferential transport processes through macropores. It's also possible
for non-equilibrium chemical or physical reactions to occur. Nonuniform water flows
and preferential transport can cause physical nonequilibrium.

Because the diffusive and connective water fluxes in sandy soils are higher than in
loams or clays, dissolved trace elements will be more mobile. Plant absorption or
sorption onto plant roots, which act as a sink for water and solutes, reduces mobility.
Plant release or desorption will improve mobility.

Trace Element Mobility Mechanisms

The mobility of TEs in soils is controlled by basic physical, chemical, and biological
mechanisms. The first main group includes physicochemical processes (discussed
below) that promote and govern mechanisms such as solubility and precipitation,
adsorption, complexation, and encapsulation/occlusion. The processes that sequester
TEs are collectively referred to as sorption, which influences the solid-liquid phase
partitioning to a great extent. Because biological processes may be limited by the
toxicity of the metals of concern, these processes are likely to predominate in severely
metal-contaminated soils.

Processes Physicochemical

The bulk of TEs in soils are found in the solid phase, where they can be attached to
the surface of the solids in the soil, precipitated as diverse minerals, or simply
coprecipitated within various forms. Only a small part of most TEs is dissolved in soil

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 57

solution; the majority of dissolved TE is bound to organic acids in the soil solution,
with the balance distributed as inorganic ion pairs and free ions. This free ion pool is
typically small in comparison to the other TE pools, but it is the most chemically and
physiologically reactive. As a result, knowing the mobility, transport, and fate of TEs
in soils is crucial.

Cycles of geochemistry

The Earth system (which includes the Earth and its atmosphere) is made up of 92
different natural elements' atoms. Since the Earth was formed 4.5 billion years ago by
gravitational accretion of a cloud of gases and dust, almost all of these atoms have
been present in the Earth system. Following that, material from extraterrestrial
sources such as meteorites has played a minor role. Except for the lightest atoms (H,
He), gravity prevents atoms from escaping into space, and even then it is incredibly
sluggish.

As a result, since the Earth's formation, the assembly of atoms that make up the Earth
system has been roughly preserved. Atoms, in the form of various molecules, are
constantly migrating between the Earth's numerous reservoirs. The flow of elements
through the Earth's reservoirs is referred to as geochemical cycling, and the phrase
emphasises the cyclical nature of the flow in a closed system.

REE is a concept.

The rare-earth elements (REE) are a group of 17 almost identical glossy silvery-white
soft heavy metals often known as rare-earth metals, rare-earth oxides, or lanthanides
(though yttrium and scandium are usually classified as rare-earths). Scandium and
yttrium are rare-earth elements that exist in the same ore deposits as lanthanides and
have comparable chemical properties, but differing electrical and magnetic properties.

The "Red Book" of the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (p. 45)
advocates using lanthanoid instead of lanthanide. A negative ion is usually denoted by
the suffix "-ide." However, due to widespread current usage, the term "lanthanide" is
still permitted and is nearly equivalent to the term "rare earth element."

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 58

These metals tarnish slowly in air at ambient temperature and slowly react with cold
water to generate hydroxides, which release hydrogen. They combine with steam to
create oxides, which ignite spontaneously at high temperatures (400 °C) and burn
with a fiery, colourful pyrotechnic flare.

There is no known biological function for these elements or their derivatives . Water-
soluble chemicals are mild to moderately hazardous, whereas insoluble molecules are
not.

Rare earths have a wide range of applications in electrical and electronic components,
lasers, glass, magnetic materials, and industrial processes, but their names and
properties are unfamiliar to most people because they do not occur as base metals or
in lump or visible quantities like iron or aluminium. One of the most well -known
examples is the sale of extraordinarily powerful neodymium magnets as novelty
items.

Rare-earth elements, despite their name, are quite numerous in the Earth's crust, with
cerium being the 25th most abundant element at 68 parts per million, more abundant
than copper. Promethium is radioactive in all isotopes and does not occur naturall y in
the earth's crust; however, a trace quantity is produced through uranium 238 decay.
They are frequently found in minerals containing thorium and, less frequently,
uranium. Rare-earth elements are frequently scattered and not found concentrated in
rare-earth minerals due to their geochemical characteristics. As a result, economically
viable mineral resources are few (i.e. "rare"). Gadolinite, a black mineral comprised
of cerium, yttrium, iron, silicon, and other elements, was the first rare-earth mineral
found in 1787. This mineral was discovered in a mine in the Swedish village of
Ytterby, and four of the rare-earth elements have names derived from it.

Cycle of the geochemical elements

Individual elements or sets of elements in the crustal and subcrustal zones of the
Earth, as well as on its surface, undergo a geochemical cycle. Geochemical
differentiation (i.e., the natural separation and concentration of elements by Earth
processes) and heat-assisted elemental recombination processes are included in the
concept of a geochemical cycle.

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 59

The geochemical cycle in the lithosphere (i.e., the crust and upper mantle) begins
with the crystallisation of magma at the surface or at depth. The igneous rock is then
broken down by surface modification and weathering, which is followed by
transportation and deposition of the resultant material as sediment. This silt becomes
lithified and then metamorphosed until it melts and new magma is produced. This
perfect cycle can be broken at any time. As the cycle progresses, each element may be
affected differently. Minerals including iron, magnesium, and calcium, for example,
break down and are conveyed in solution during the weathering of an igneous rock,
but silicon-rich quartz and feldspar are primarily transported as sediment. Due to the
precipitation of calcium or magnesium carbonates, some sedimentary rocks are
dominated by quartz and feldspar, whereas others are dominated by calcium and
magnesium. Sodium, for example, remains in solution until it is precipitated under
severe circumstances. As partial melting of sedimentary rocks begins, elements are
separated based on their melting properties; volatiles are discharged into the
environment, and chemically divided bodies move physically. While the geochemical
cycle appears to be stable in the near term, long-term, or secular, changes occur.
Continents and oceans, for example, have evolved over geologic time.

A geochemical cycle is the course that chemical elements traverse in the Earth's
surface and crust, as defined by Earth science. The term "geochemical" refers to the
combination of geological and chemical forces. Geochemical cycles are the
geological term for the migration of heated and compressed chemical elements and
compounds such as silicon, aluminium, and general alkali metals through subduction
and volcanism.

Natural element separation and concentration, as well as heat-assisted recombination

processes, are all part of the geochemical cycle. Changes may not be visible in the
short term, such as with biogeochemical cycles, but over long periods of time, such as
the evolution of continents and oceans, large-scale changes occur.

Distinguishing between biogeochemical cycles

Because both cycles deal with Earth's reservoirs, some people may use the terms
biogeochemical cycle and geochemical cycle interchangeably. A biogeochemical
cycle, on the other hand, is concerned with chemical interactions in surface reservoirs

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 60

like the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere, whereas a geochemical
cycle is concerned with chemical interactions in crustal and sub crustal reservoirs like
the deep earth and lithosphere.

The Earth's System

The Earth as a system is open to solar and cosmic radiation, yet it is practically closed
to matter. It follows the law of conservation of mass, which states that matter cannot
be generated or destroyed. As a result, the matter, while modified and moved, remains
the same as it was when the Earth was formed. Surface reservoirs, which include the
atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere, pedosphere, and lithosphere, and isolated
reservoirs, which include deep Earth and outer space, make up the Earth system's
seven reservoirs. The interactions between the deep earth, which consists of the
Earth's mantle and core, and the lithosphere, which comprises of the Earth's crust, are
discussed in geochemical cycles.

Pathways

The flow of material between the deep Earth and the surface reservoirs is known as
flux in geochemical cycles. This happens as a result of two independent processes:
volcanism and tectonic plate subduction.

At convergent borders, subduction occurs when one tectonic plate moves beneath
another and descends into the mantle as the plates converge. This causes one plate to
sink into the mantle, resulting in a wide spectrum of geochemical changes or cycling.

Volcanism is the separation of one tectonic plate from another at divergent

boundaries, resulting in a rupture through which molten rock (magma) erupts onto the
Earth's surface. Igneous rocks are formed when molten rock lava cools and
crystallises. Extrusive igneous rocks are created when crystallisation happens at the
Earth's surface.

Important Cycles:

Geochemical cycles are divided into the following categories and examples:

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 61

 1. Deep water cycle
2. Deep carbon cycle
3. Iron cycle
4. Carbonate–silicate cycle
5. Phosphorus cycle
6. Sulfur cycle
7. Mercury cycle
8. Rock cycle

SELF-TEST
1) How many periods and groups are present in the periodic table?

a) 7 periods and 18 groups

b) 8 periods and 7 groups

c) 7 periods and 7 groups

d) 8 periods and 8 groups

2) Which of the following forms the basis of the modern periodic table?

a) Atomic mass

b) Atomic number

c) Number of nucleons

d) All of these

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS WITH MODEL ANSWER

1) What are the 4 types of elements?

2) What is special about elements?

SUMMARY
The Earth formed 4.5 billion years ago as a frozen cloud of dust and gases left over
from the Sun's birth. It was gradually heated, causing some of its constituents to melt.
The iron melted first, and because it was heavier, it sunk to the centre. The Hadean Eon,
which spans the first 500 million years of Earth's life, is a crucial missing link in
understanding how the planet's atmosphere, oce ans, and distinct layers of core, mantle,
and outer crust formed. New measurements of Solar System components will help
researchers learn more about Earth's and the Solar System's origins.

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 62

The origin of life is one of science's enduring mysteries. Scientis ts have worked hard to
produce life from sparks and gases in order to learn more about how life began. A
fundamental Earth science problem is to develop an accurate understanding of the
conditions and chemical building blocks available to early life. On Ea rth, there are five
major systems, or spheres. These subsystems are linked by processes and cycles that
store, alter, and/or transmit matter and energy.

To keep the Earth as we know it, all five of these massive and intricate systems interact
with one another. The hydrosphere is made up of all liquid water on Earth, both fresh
and salt-free. The cryosphere holds around three-quarters of all fresh water on the
planet. The biosphere is the limited portion of Earth's environment where living
creatures can thrive. The biosphere is the area of Earth that comprises all its physical,
chemical, and biological components.

Interactions between Earth's systems are complicated and happen all the time, even
though they aren't always apparent. The earth system is an inte rconnected system in and
of itself. It may be broken down into four basic components, subsystems, or spheres:
geosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere. These components are intricately
linked and have distinct identities but significant interactio n between them. The
hydrosphere is made up of parts of the earth's system that are composed of water.

Water is required for the survival and maintenance of life on the planet. It includes the
oceans, ice sheets, sea ice, and glaciers, as well as its lakes, rivers, and streams.

The crust, mantle and core are the three layers that make up the Earth's internal
structure. The outer core is made up of molten and liquid iron and nickel, while the
inner core is solid and far denser than either iron or nickel. Scie ntists have a good
picture of how the earth's interior looks thanks to several indirect sources. The crust
accounts for nearly 1% of the earth's volume and 0.5% of its mass. Continental crust
rises higher on the mantle than oceanic crust.

The lithosphere is the planet's outermost solid layer, which is 8-40km thick. The mantle
is the region of the Earth where heat from the core passes most easily. It has properties
similar to that of peridotite, an ultramafic rock composed of iron - and magnesium-rich
silicate minerals. The average density of the materials in the crust is 3 grams per cubic
centimetre. The lithosphere is made up of the topmost solid section of the mantle and
the entire crust.

The asthenosphere is the layer through which lithospheric/continental plates move. The
earth's core accounts for almost 15% of its volume and 32.5 percent of its mass.
Thermodynamics of the Earth's Interior: Temperature, Pressure, and Density. The

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 63

temperature at the core is predicted to be between 30000 and 50000 degrees Ce lsius.
Pressure in the deeper parts is 4 million times more than the pressure in the atmosphere
at sea level.

The crust is the earth's outermost layer, and it is responsible for the bulk of life on the
planet. The average density of the layers rises from t he crust to the core, reaching
roughly 14.5g/cm3 in the very centre. Minerals, rocks, dirt, and water are examples of
these materials. Rocks make up the majority of the Earth's surface. Sedimentary,
igneous, and metamorphic rocks are the three types of roc ks.

Soil is made up of 45 percent rock and mineral fragments, 5% degraded organic matter,
and 50% pore space. Minerals are created by a variety of natural processes. The most
common minerals are silicates, which are made up of Si and O. Liquid water is not a
mineral as it lacks a crystalline structure. Only about 20 to 30 of these minerals are
found in nature.

In igneous rocks, quartz is one of the principal minerals formed by crystallisation from
a melt. Quartz is stable (does not break down or change) at temperatures near the
Earth's surface. Clay minerals are formed when other minerals are altered during the
chemical weathering process. Estimating elemental abundance is challenging because
the upper and lower crusts have very different compositions. The m ost prevalent
elements in the Earth's crust are oxygen, silicon, iron, and aluminium. Tellurium and
selenium are concentrated as sulphides in the core, but have been depleted in the
nebula. The geosphere is the rock and mineral-rich portion of the planet. The
atmosphere is a gaseous layer that surrounds the earth and is maintained in place by
gravity. The hydrosphere encompasses the earth's oceans and seas, as well as its ice
sheets, sea ice, and glaciers. The term "biosphere" refers to all of the Earth's l iving
organisms. It is made up of all plants, animals, microorganisms, and their surroundings.

Most live organisms require gases from the atmosphere, water from the hydrosphere,
and nutrients and minerals from the geosphere. An ecosystem is a system of
interconnected biotic and abiotic components that interact with one another. The food
chain is the sequence of energy transmission from creatures in one trophic level to
species in another. At each stage, energy is lost by respiration, excretion, or breakdown .
The nitrogen cycle ensures a constant supply of nitrogen, which is required for
biological processes.

The majority of nitrogenous organic waste in soil comes from dead and rotting plants.
Carbon is exchanged between the hydrosphere, atmosphere, and biosp here in order for
the cycle to work. Continental crust rises higher on the mantle than oceanic crust,

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 64

which sinks into the mantle. The lithosphere is the planet's outermost mechanical layer,
which is brittle and hard. Scientists know that the Earth's mantl e is composed of solid
rock.

The mantle is heated primarily due to heat transfer from the core. Heat moves through
the Earth in two ways: conduction and convection. Convection in the mantle is similar
to convection in a stovetop pot of water. Convection in the Earth's mantle is similar to
convection in a stovetop pot of water. Heat from the considerably hotter inner core
causes convection currents in the outer core.

The hydrosphere is a component of the earth consisting of all liquid water on the globe.
The hydrosphere is all water on the planet's surface. It is made up of saltwater,
freshwater, and frozen water, as well as groundwater and water at lower altitudes. It
also regulates the atmosphere and plays an important role in ecosystems. Water makes
up 75% of each cell in a live body allowing it to function properly.

The hydrosphere is made up of a diverse range of formations, including oceans, lakes,

rivers, and land. Water's specific heat is one of its distinguishing features. It aids in the
regulation of Earth's temperatures, ensuring they remain within a range suitable for life
on the planet. Excessive algal blooms in the water might result in dangerous hypoxic
conditions. Acid rain has resulted from SOx and NOx emissions from fossil fuel
combustion.

Water vapour, carbon dioxide, and ozone are among the trace gases found in the
atmosphere. All of these trace gases have a significant impact on the global climate.
Nitrogen (N2) is the most prevalent gas in the atmosphere. CO2 (CO2) and oxygen (O2)
are essential for all plant and animal life on Earth. Argon (Ar) makes up little under 1%
of the atmosphere and is an inert noble gas.

Water vapour (H2 O) is present in modest and extremely variable levels in the
atmosphere. It has a greater impact on Earth than an y of the main gases, with the
exception of oxygen. Clouds are formed when water vapour condenses to liquid water
droplets or solid ice crystals. Ozone molecules, along with O2 molecules, absorb nearly
all high-energy UV rays. Ozone levels in the stratosphe re are extremely low.

The ozone would form a layer about 0.1–0.16 in (2.5–4.0 mm) thick if it were fully
delivered to the surface. The atmosphere contains a diverse range of suspended
particles known as aerosols. Aerosols have a big impact on the heat bala nce, cloud
development, and optical characteristics of the atmosphere. They can act as collection
locations for water vapour molecules, promoting the creation of cloud droplets. The

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 65

temperature of the atmosphere gradually lowers from roughly 290K (63°F; 17 °C) near
the surface to around 220K at 6 mi (10 km) above the surface.

The stratosphere is an area of rising temperatures that spans a pressure range of 100
millibars at its base. Temperatures drop at a rate of around 11.7°F per 3,281 ft (6.5°C
per 1,000 metres) as one rises in altitude. When air starts to rise, it becomes cooler and
denser than the air around it. The stratosphere contains the majority of the ozone in the
Earth's atmosphere. During the 1980s, practically all ozone was vanishing from regions
of the polar stratosphere.

Chlorine is thought to enter the stratosphere via chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). The

ionosphere is the region of the atmosphere that contains charged atoms and molecules
(ions). This charged region allows radio signals to be tuned in from a long distance
away. The propagation of radio waves is affected by this charged particle region, which
reflects them like a mirror. The aurora is a dazzling night -time show of colours and
flashes that occurs in the upper thermosphere.

The sun emits energetic particles that generate the aurora. Earth's magnetic field traps
these particles, which collide with the few gas atoms present above 60 miles (100km).

All matter is made up of elements, which are the basic building blocks. Under usual
conditions, 11 of the known elements (hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine, chlorine)
are gases. Compounds are formed when elements combine to generate a wide range of
more complex substances. The existence of fundamental components from which all
matter is formed has been debated for 2,000 years. Ancient Greek alchemists believed
that substances were made up of combinations of the four elements.

English chemist Robert Boyle established the fundamental character of a chemical

element in 1661. Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier's 1789 list of elements is thought to be the
first list of elemental chemicals. The presence of light and heat (caloric) among the
elements indicates that they were influenced by ancient Greek understanding of matter.
Lettuce, alumina, and silica were included because they were relatively stable
compounds. The elements that make up 95% of the earth's crust are known as
geological main elements.

SGS has the necessary experience and equipment to analyse coal using inductively
coupled plasma (ICP) technologies. The majority of minor elements are found in coal's
minerals, while phosphorus is found in organic coal matrix. Trace elements (or trace
metals) are minerals found in trace levels in living tissues. Trace elements are primarily
used as catalysts in enzyme systems. Some metallic ions, like as iron and copper, are
involved in energy metabolism's oxidation -reduction reactions.

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 66

All trace elements are poisonous if taken at high enough amounts for long enough
periods of time. In sandy soils, dissolved trace e lements (TE) are more mobile than in
loams or clays. Mobility of TEs in soils is controlled by basic physical, chemical, and
biological mechanisms. Processes such as adsorption, complexation, and
encapsulation/occlusion govern their solubility and transpor t. The rare-earth elements
(REE) are a group of 17 almost identical glossy silvery -white soft heavy metals.

These metals tarnish slowly in air at ambient temperature and slowly react with cold
water to generate hydroxides, which release hydrogen. They igni te spontaneously at
high temperatures (400 °C) and burn with a fiery, colourful pyrotechnic flare. A
geochemical cycle is the course that chemical elements traverse in the Earth's surface
and crust. The term "geochemical" refers to combination of geologica l and chemical
forces. Natural element separation and concentration, as well as heat -assisted
recombination processes, are all part of the geochemicals cycle.

Some people may use the terms biogeochemical cycle and geochemical cycle
interchangeably. The Earth as a system is open to solar and cosmic radiation, yet it is
practically closed to matter. Flow of material between the deep Earth and surface
reservoirs is known as flux in geochemical cycles.

REFERENCES
1. [Link]
earth
2. [Link]
3. [Link]
4. [Link]
5. [Link]
organizing/files/[Link]
6. [Link]
Demo/unit1/page_15.htm
7. [Link]
background-information
8. [Link]
9. [Link] -interior/
10. [Link]
[Link]#:~:text=These%20four%20materials%20include%20minerals,
minerals%20or%20mineral%2Dlike%20substances.

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 67

 11. [Link]
12. [Link]
t
13. [Link]
crust/
14. [Link]
Demo/unit1/page_15.htm
15. [Link]
study-material-notes/
16. [Link]
structure-of-
earth/#:~:text=The%20lithosphere%20is%20composed%20of,composition%20
and%20by%20mechanical%20properties.
17. [Link]
0English/Tab2/Tab/[Link]
18. [Link]
19. [Link]
maps/atmosphere-composition-and-
structure#:~:text=Earth's%20atmosphere%20is%20composed,effects%20on%20E
arth's%20climate.
20. [Link]
21. [Link]
22. [Link]
[Link]#:~:text=Major%20elements%20are%20elements%20that,and%20hy
drogen%20decrease%20with%20rank.
23. [Link]
24. [Link]
25. [Link]
0(or%20trace%20metals,are%20considered%20to%20be%20nonessential.
26. [Link]
27. [Link]
28. [Link]

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 68

 C REDIT 02

CREDIT 02-UNIT 2-1

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After successful completion of this unit, you will be able to

 Biochemical factors in environmental health

 The Ocean Environment

 Coastal processes, erosion, and controls

 Volcanoes: types, hazards, and prediction

2-1 BIOCHEMICAL FACTORS IN ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH . HUMAN USE ,

TRACE ELEMENTS AND HEALTH. POSSIBLE EFFECTS OF IMBALANCE OF

SOME TRACE ELEMENTS . DISEASES INDUCED BY HUMAN USE OF LAND .

The truth is that pinpointing the particular components that produce an environmen tal
health problem is difficult. Environmental health issues are complicated and arise for a
variety of reasons; including a person's genetic proclivity to acquire an illness or
condition (scientists call this genetic susceptibility). What we do know is th at an issue
with environmental health is most likely caused by physical, biological, and even
economic variables.

The air we breathe, the water we drink, the food we eat, and the homes, buildings, and
communities in which we live and work can all contribut e to environmental health
issues, sometimes by interfering with the body's normal functioning. The following are
some potential sources of environmental health issues:

Air pollution is a mixture of natural and manufactured chemicals found both indoors
and outdoors, ranging from car exhaust to wildfires and e -cigarette smoke to ozone.

Hundreds of chemicals are used in consumer products ranging from electronics to

furniture to assist prevent flames from spreading.

People are exposed to lead through old paint, contaminated soil and water, ceramics,
and even house dust.

Engineered nanomaterials are a source of concern since the particles are so small and
are employed in a variety of consumer products, structures, and electronics.

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 69

Perfluorinated chemicals: These compounds aid in friction reduction and are also used
to make materials stain, water, and grease resistant.

Smoke contains hundreds of toxins, including arsenic, formaldehyde, and lead, in just
one cigarette.

Pesticides are chemicals that are used to kill, repel, or control pests ranging from weeds
to fungus to insects.

Many of the things we're exposed to in our surroundings, according to scientists, are
linked to health concerns like cancer, asthma, and Parkinson's disease. But it's not just
about what we're exposed to: A potential environmental impact on health can trigger a
chain of biological events in the body that modify how it functions - yet these changes
can be good or negative, and they are extremely individual based on genes and
circumstances.

Obesity, for example, is linked to both genes and chemical exposure. However, the
amount of daily movement a person gets can be a better predictor of whether or not
they are at a healthy weight. That implies parks, affordable healthy food, and even
sidewalks are essential environmental elements in assisting people in maintaining a
healthy BMI.

While exposure to certain substances is harmful, an environmental health condition can

also be caused by a lack of something beneficial. Pesticides have been linked to a utism,
but new research reveals that not obtaining enough folic acid during pregnancy may
also play a role. Folic acid is advised for all pregnant women to help avoid neural tube
problems, but it can also help prevent autism.

Another issue to examine is economy, which has a significant impact on how disease,
illness, and disability manifest themselves over time. Autism, for example, has been
linked to a mother's immunological response, which experts hope will one day allow
them to detect the illness before a baby is born. Children with autism may benefit from
early intervention, but only if their families have access to high -quality health care.

The human body is made up of elements that can be split into two categories: plentiful
elements and trace elements. Major elements (oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, etc.)
that are involved in the formation of covalent bonds and are important constituents of
tissues, and semi-major elements (oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, etc.) that are
involved in the functions of the living body through the maintenance of osmotic
pressure and membrane potentials (potassium, sodium, etc.). The major elements make
up 96 percent of total body weight, whereas the semi -major elements make up 3 to 4%

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 70

of total body weight. Nutritional diseases can result from a lack of important nutrients,
and their presence in excess can contribute to obesity. Water and electrolyte imbalances
are frequently caused by semi-major element deficiencies or surplus situations. Zinc
(Zn), copper (Cu), selenium (Se), chromium (Cr), cobalt (Co), iodine (I), manganese
(Mn), and molybdenum (Mo) are all essential trace elements in the human body (Mo).
Despite accounting for only 0.02 percent of total body weight, these components play
important roles, such as serving as active centres of enzymes or as trace bioactive
compounds. Reduced enzyme activity is one of the most common consequences of trace
element deficiency. However, because each trace element is linked to so many enzymes,
a single trace element deficit is frequently associated with a slew of symptoms rather
than a single clinical presentation. Because trace elements are present in such minute
levels and there are no distinct clinical signs or symptoms associated with their
deficiency, it might be difficult for clinicians to detect deficits in specific trace
elements.

Toxicity and Deficiency of Trace Elements

Many of the trace elements to which humans are exposed on a daily basis are beneficial
to their health, whereas others have no biological purpose. C hromium, cobalt, copper,
iodine, iron, manganese, nickel, selenium, and zinc are the mineral elements described
here that have nutritional significance. Antimony, aluminium, bismuth, beryllium,
cadmium, lead, mercury, and thallium are all non-essential elements for humans. When
levels of both necessary and non-essential components exceed a particular threshold,
they might be hazardous. Toxicity signs and symptoms are linked to the route of
exposure, the specific element form, and the type of exposure (acute or chronic).
Essential mineral shortages can occur in people with chronic illnesses, bariatric surgery
patients, and premature babies.

Infectious diseases are spreading at an unprecedented rate over the world, and global
food demand is expected to rise dramatically by 2100. In this paper, we summarise the
paths by which expected agricultural growth and intensification will affect human
infectious diseases, as well as how human infectious diseases may affect food
production and distribution. To feed 11 billion people, significant increases in crop and
animal production will be required, resulting in increased agricultural use of
antibiotics, water, pesticides, and fertiliser, as well as increased contact rates between
humans and wild and domestic animals, all of which will have implications for the
emergence and spread of infectious agents. Indeed, according to our review of the
literature, agricultural factors have been linked to more than 25% of all — and more
than 50% of zoonotic — infectious diseases that have appeared in humans since 1940,

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 71

levels that are certain to rise as agriculture grows and intensifies. To meet the public
health problem faced by feeding 11 billion people, we suggest agricultural and disease
management and policy activities, as well as additional research.

SELF-TEST 01
1) ___________ is an important mineral nutrient

a) Hydrogen

b) Nitrogen

c) Oxygen

d) Carbon

2) __________ is a trace element

a) Phosphorous

b) Carbon

c) Magnesium

d) Sodium

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS

1) What is the purpose of trace elements in the human body?

2) What are the main sources of trace elements?

2-2 THE OCEAN ENVIRONMENT - WILL FOCUS ON THE PHYSICAL DYNAMICS

OF THE OCEAN BASINS THEMSELVES, THE MECHANISMS THAT INDUCE
CHANGES INTO THIS ENVIRONMENT AND THE MECHANICS BEHIND SURFACE
AND SUBSURFACE WAVE ACTION

From global climate regulation to local livelihoods and nourishment, the ocean supplies
critical ecological services for human populations. Monitoring is crucial for gaining a
better understanding of the ocean: What is the c urrent state of the ocean? Who gains
and who loses as a result of the change? What's causing these shifts? How effective are
our efforts to deal with the changes?

The ocean covers 70 percent of the Earth's surface. Marine ecosystems and biodiversity,
on the other hand, are still poorly known in comparison to terrestrial systems. The
fundamental reason for our inadequate knowledge of the ocean is because most marine
ecosystems are remote, large, and difficult to reach, making marine research costly and
logistically demanding. Advanced technology and equipment, such as oceanographic

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 72

research vessels, submersibles, remotely operated vehicles, specially developed
sensors, and remote sensing facilities, are required to collect data on marine
biodiversity and ecosystem conditions. Furthermore, the maritime environment's
dynamic and interconnected nature presents additional challenges: monitoring
approaches that work well in one region may not be appropriate or useful in another.
When monitoring the ocean, it's crucial to keep in mind the high level of
interconnectedness that exists not just within the marine ecosystem, but also between
marine and terrestrial systems. The majority of changes in marine ecosystems are a
result of human activity on land. Nutrient run-off from farmland, for example, is a
major contributor to coastal eutrophication, and poorly managed plastic garbage from
coastal areas frequently ends up in the ocean. Integrated Coastal Zone Management
(ICZM) recognises the need for integrated marine and t errestrial management of these
coastal zones, which is home to around 40% of the world's population. It's worth noting
here that the agreed-upon Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) 14 Indicators (and
suggested indicators) are concerned with monitoring the state and quality of damaged
ecosystems, rather than the drivers and forces that underpin them. As a result, their goal
is to evaluate the effectiveness of measures taken to prevent marine concerns including
marine litter and eutrophication. Although the f ocus of this manual is on monitoring the
maritime environment, it is critical to combine this data with data on the terrestrial
environment, freshwater, climate, and socioeconomic conditions.

A combination of living species in the water environment is refe rred to as an ocean

ecosystem.

The oceans cover two-thirds of the Earth's surface. The Mariana Trench and the Tonga
Trench in the western Pacific Ocean, for example, are both deeper than Mount Everest
(32,800 feet). Within this ocean ecosystem, a diverse range of creatures have evolved in
response to varied environmental factors.

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 73

 Fig. 2.1 Ocean Environment

(Source: [Link] -to-the-ocean/)

Ocean Life's Beginnings

The Earth was created about 4.5 billion years ago. Water in the a tmosphere condensed
as it cooled, pelting the Earth with torrential showers that filled its enormous basins,
forming seas. Hydrogen, methane, ammonia, and water were all present in the
primordial atmosphere and oceans. When sparked by electrical discharges from
lightning, these chemicals are supposed to have combined to produce the first organic
molecules. Cyanobacteria are among the earliest known creatures (formerly referred to
as blue-green algae). Stromatolites, 3 billion-year-old Precambrian sea sediments in
Australia, have been found to have evidence of these early photosynthetic prokaryotes.
Although the diversity of life-forms seen in modern oceans did not emerge until much
later, many types of bacteria, algae, protozoa, and primitive metazoa evolved during the
Precambrian (about 4.6 billion to 542 million years ago) to exploit the world's early
marine habitats. A massive radiation of life occurred in the waters during the Cambrian
Period (about 542 million to 488 million years ago). In marine strata of this age, fossils
of familiar species such as cnidaria (jellyfish), echinoderms (feather stars), fish
predecessors (e.g., the protochordate Pikaia from the Burgess Shale of Canada), and
other vertebrates have been discovered. Changes in the physical con ditions of the ocean
that are thought to have occurred in the Precambrian Period —an increase in the
concentration of oxygen in seawater and a buildup of the ozone layer that reduced
dangerous ultraviolet radiation—may have facilitated the increase and dispersal of
living things.

The ecosystem of the sea

Topography, geography, and oceanography

The form of the world's oceans and seas has evolved dramatically during the last 600
million years. The Earth's crust is made up of many dynamic plates, according to p late
tectonics theory. Oceanic and continental plates float on the Earth's mantle's surface,
diverging, converging, or sliding against one another. When two plates diverge, magma
from the mantle wells up and cools, generating new crust; when they converge, one
plate descends—or is subducted—below the other, resorbing crust into the mantle. In
the maritime environment, both processes can be observed. Oceanic crust forms along

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 74

oceanic ridges or rift zones, which are massive undersea mountain ranges like the M id-
Atlantic Ridge. Subduction zones, which are frequently defined by deep -sea trenches
like the Kuril Trench off the coast of Japan, resorb excess crust.

As sea levels rise, the shape of the ocean changes as well. During ice ages, a greater
proportion of the Earth's water is trapped in the polar ice caps, resulting in a low sea
level. During interglacial periods, the sea level increases as the polar ice caps melt.
Changes in sea level have a significant impact on the distribution of marine habitats
like coral reefs. The Great Barrier Reef, for example, did not exist as it does today
during the last Pleistocene Ice Age; the continental shelf on which the reef now exists
was above the high-tide line.

The distribution of marine organisms in the oceans is not un iform. Different habitats
are created as a result of differences in the marine environment's properties, which
influence the types of species that live there. Marine ecosystems are influenced by light
availability, water depth, proximity to land, and topog raphic complexity.

The amount of light available has an impact on which creatures may live in a given area
in a marine habitat. The higher the depth of the water, the less light can penetrate until
there is no light at all below a particular depth. The aph otic zone is a vast expanse of
inky darkness that covers the vast majority of the ocean. The photic zone is the lit
region above it, within which the euphotic and disphotic zones are separated. The
euphotic zone is the layer that receives enough light for photosynthesis to occur closer
to the surface. The disphotic zone sits beneath, which is lit but not well enough to allow
respiration to outpace photosynthesis. The depth of these zones is determined by local
cloud cover, water turbidity, and ocean surface conditions. The euphotic zone can reach
depths of 80 to 100 metres, while the disphotic zone can reach depths of 80 to 700
metres. The photic zone, particularly the euphotic region, is densely populated with
marine species; nevertheless, many organisms li ve in the aphotic zone and move
vertically to the photic zone every night. Other organisms, such as tripod fish and some
sea cucumber and brittle star species, exist in complete darkness.

A water, or pelagic, environment and a bottom, or benthic, environme nt are two types
of marine environments. The neritic province, which contains the water above the
continental shelf, and the oceanic province, which encompasses the open waters beyond
the continental shelf, are divided within the pelagic environment. The n eritic province
is distinguished from the oceanic by its high nutrient levels, which are caused by
dissolved elements in riverine runoff. The epipelagic zone, which is essentially equal to
the photic zone, is where photosynthesis occurs in both neritic and oceanic waters.

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 75

Below this zone are the mesopelagic, which is between 200 and 1,000 metres deep, the
bathypelagic, which is between 1,000 and 4,000 metres deep, and the abyssalpelagic,
which is between 4,000 metres and the recesses of the deep -sea trenches.

There are also different zones in the benthic ecosystem. The supralittoral zone is
located above the high-tide mark and is rarely submerged. The intertidal zone, also
known as the littoral zone, extends from the high -tide mark (the highest point of the
tide) to shallow, offshore waters. The sublittoral refers to the environment beyond the
low-tide line and is frequently used to refer to continental shelf substrata that reach
depths of 150 to 300 metres. Clay, silt, and sand are examples of continental sh elf
sediments that have an impact on marine life and come from the land, mainly in the
form of riverine discharge. The bathyal zone, which extends from 150 to 4,000 metres
below the continental shelf and includes the falling continental slope and rise, is
located beyond the continental shelf. The abyssal zone (between 4,000 and 6,000
metres) covers a large percentage of the ocean floor. The hadal zone of the deep -sea
trenches is the deepest part of the oceans (more than 6,000 metres). Deep sea sediments
are mostly made up of the remains of dead marine creatures and their wastes.

Seawater's physical and chemical qualities include:

Seawater's physical and chemical qualities vary depending on latitude, depth, proximity
to land, and fresh water inflow. Dissolved compounds make up about 3.5 percent of
seawater, whereas the remaining 96.5 percent is pure water. Seawater's chemical
composition reflects a variety of activities, including rock and sediment erosion,
volcanic activity, gas exchange with the atmosphere, organism metabolic and
breakdown products, and rain. (See Saltwater: Dissolved inorganic Substances for a list
of the main ingredients of seawater.) In addition to carbon, living organisms require
nitrogen and phosphorus, both of which are small elements o f saltwater and hence are
frequently limiting factors in ocean biological cycles. Because phosphorus and nitrogen
are quickly absorbed by marine species, phosphorus and nitrogen concentrations in the
photic zone are typically low. The highest quantities of these nutrients are often found
below 500 metres, as a result of biological decomposition. Silicon (found in the
skeletons of radiolarians and diatoms; see Figure 2) and calcium are two other
significant elements (essential in the skeletons of many organi sms such as fish and
corals).

The ocean's chemical makeup is influenced by the chemical composition of the

atmosphere. Through the actions of marine plants, for example, carbon dioxide is
absorbed by the water and oxygen is released into the atmosphere. Po llution dumped

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 76

into the water can alter the ocean's chemical makeup, contrary to past notions that
toxins, for example, could be properly disposed of there.

Seawater's physical and chemical qualities have a big impact on species, and it varies a
lot depending on their size. Seawater, for example, is viscous to very little species like
ciliates (less than 1 mm [0.039 inch] long), but not to giant marine creatures like tuna.

Marine species have developed a wide range of physiological and morphological

characteristics that enable them to survive in the sea. Because of antifreeze proteins in
their blood, Notothenid fishes in Antarctica can live in water as low as 2° C (28° F).
Many creatures, such as cephalopods and some fish, may achieve neutral buoyancy by
secreting gas into internal chambers or swim bladders; others use lipids, which are less
dense than water, to achieve this effect. To attract prey, some animals, particularly
those in the aphotic zone, produce light. Hatchetfish and other animals in the disph otic
zone use photophores, which produce light, to break up the silhouette of their bodies
and avoid being seen by predators. Many marine species have unique organs that can
detect vibrations or sound in the water across long distances. Whales have a sound -
producing organ called a melon with which they communicate, and certain fishes have
lateral line systems that they utilise to find prey. Salinity tolerance varies widely among
organisms: stenohaline creatures have a poor tolerance for salinity variations, whereas
euryhaline organisms, which live in estuaries where river and sea meet, have a high
tolerance for big changes in salinity. Euryhaline creatures are likewise particularly
resistant to temperature changes. Animals that move between fresh and salt wa ter, such
as salmon and eels, can adjust their osmotic environment through active pumping or
salt retention (see biosphere: Salinity). In aquatic environments, body architecture
varies widely. The sleek, elongated shape of the cnidarian by -the-wind-sailor (Velella
velella), an animal that lives on the water's surface (pleuston) and sails with the help of
a modified flotation chamber, contrasts dramatically with the barracuda's sleek,
elongated shape.

Currents in the ocean

Many variables influence ocean water movement, including the Earth's rotation (which
causes the Coriolis effect), air circulation patterns that affect surface waters, and
temperature and salinity gradients between the tropics and polar regions (thermohaline
circulation). See ocean current for a more in-depth look at ocean circulation. The
resulting circulation patterns range from large -scale turbulences, such as the North
Subtropical Gyre, which stretches thousands of kilometres, to small -scale turbulences
of less than one metre.

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 77

These patterns have an impact on marine animals of all sizes, and they can determine a
species' range. Krill (Euphausia superba), for example, are only found in the Antarctic
Circumpolar Current. Both large and tiny pelagic creatures' distribution patterns are
altered. The Gulf Stream and the East Australian Current, for example, transport larvae
over large distances. As a result, when fish and invertebrate larvae from the tropics are
transported to high latitudes by these currents, cold temperate coral reefs receive a
tropical infusion. The Gulf Stream's ability to move eels from spawning places in the
Caribbean is critical to their effective recruitment to Europe. Estuaries and other
locations where the ocean is influenced by nearshore features, such as a vertical sa linity
gradient (halocline), see a lot of biological activity. Small creatures can get
concentrated in these habitats, providing a plentiful supply of food for other species.

Biota of the sea

Marine biota can be divided into creatures that live in either t he pelagic (plankton and
nekton) or benthic (benthic) environments (benthos). However, some creatures are
benthic in one life stage and pelagic in another. Producers of organic compounds can be
found in both environments. The photic zone in the pelagic env ironment is produced by
single-celled or multicelled plankton with photosynthetic pigments. Microalgae (such
as diatoms), macroalgae (such as the kelp Macrocystis pyrifera), and sea grass are
examples of benthic producers (e.g., Zostera).

Plankton

The countless, mostly tiny inhabitants of the pelagic environment are known as
plankton (see Figure 3). Because they supply sustenance for the nekton (e.g.,
crustaceans, fish, and squid) and benthos (see Figure 1 in the article on community
ecology), they are essential components of food chains in all marine ecosystems (see
Figure 1 in the article on community ecology) (e.g., sea squirts and sponges). They also
have a global impact on the biosphere since the photosynthetic activities of some
plankton are crucial to the balance of components in the Earth's atmosphere.

The word plankton comes from the Greek word planktos, which means wandering or
drifting, which is an apt description of how most plankton spend their lives, floating
with the ocean currents. However, not all plankton are unable to control their
movements, and several species rely on self-directed motions to survive.

Plankton can range in size from microscopic organisms (1 micrometre [0.000039 inch]
or less) to jellyfish with a gelatinous bell that can sp an 2 metres and tentacles that can
reach 15 metres. Most planktonic organisms, known as plankters, are smaller than one
mm (0.039 inch) in length. These microorganisms are photosynthetic and live on

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 78

nutrients in seawater. Plankton is a diverse group of cre atures that includes algae,
bacteria, protozoans, animal larvae, and crustaceans. Protists —eukaryotic, primarily
single-celled organisms—make up a substantial component of the plankton. Plants or
plantlike protists are classified as phytoplankton; animals or animal-like protists are
classified as zooplankton; and microorganisms, such as bacteria, are classified as
zooplankton. Photosynthesis is carried out by phytoplankton, which are the marine
community's producers; heterotrophic consumers are zooplankton.

Diatoms and dinoflagellates (lengths ranging from 15 to 1,000 micrometres) are two
highly diversified species of photosynthetic protists that are essential plankton
components. The most prevalent phytoplankton is diatoms. Some dinoflagellates devour
bacteria or algae in addition to photosynthesis. Flagellates, foraminiferans, radiolarians,
acantharians, and ciliates are other prominent protist families. Many of these protists
are major zooplankton consumers and food sources.

Meroplankton, which spend only a portion of their life cycle—usually the larval or
juvenile stage—as plankton, and holoplankton, who spend their entire lives as plankton,
are classified into two types. Many larval meroplankton (including sea urchins,
intertidal snails, crabs, lobsters, and fish) in coastal, oceanic, and even freshwater
habitats have little or no resemblance to their adult counterparts. These larvae may have
characteristics specific to the larval stage, such as the stunning spiky armour found on
the larvae of certain crustaceans (e.g., Squilla), which is likely utilised to ward off
predators.

Copepods, cladocerans, and euphausids (krill) are examples of major holoplanktonic

creatures. They are important components of the marine environment because they
provide as food sources for fish and marine mammals. Larvaceans, salps, and
siphonophores are gelatinous forms that graze on phytoplankton and other zooplankton.
Euphausids and some copepods are omnivorous zooplankton that eat both
phytoplankton and zooplankton; their feeding behaviour varies depending on the
availability and type of prey. Some zooplankton's grazing and predatory behaviour can
be so strong that it causes noticeable declines in phytoplankton or zooplankton
abundance (or biomass). When jellyfish are abundant in enclosed oceans, for example,
they can consume vast quantities of fish larvae, causing fish populations to plummet.

The carnivorous jellylike plankton is abundant. They use stinging cells (nematocysts) or
sticky cells to secure their victim (colloblasts of comb jellies). The wind propels large
numbers of the Portuguese man-of-war (Physalia), the by-the-wind-sailor (Velella
velella), and the little blue disk-shaped Porpita porpita around the surface, and they can

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 79

be found strewn on the beach after severe ons hore gusts. Comb jellies, as well as
siphonophores, salps, and scyphomedusae, are frequently seen beneath the surface.

In contrast to the variety of niches seen in the benthic environment, the pelagic
environment was long assumed to have few different habi tats. The pelagic world was
thought to be distinguished solely by plankton of various sizes due to its seeming
uniformity. However, small-scale changes in the pelagic environment have been
observed, which have an impact on biotic distributions. Living and dead matter
combine to form organic aggregates known as marine snow, on which plankton
community members may attach, resulting in biotic patchiness. Marine snow consists of
formations ranging in size from 0.5 millimetre to 1 centimetre, such as cell aggreg ates
and mucus, as well as floating macroalgae and other flotsam (although these aggregates
can be as small as 0.05 millimetre and as large as 100 centimetres). Many species of
microorganisms, phytoplankton, and zooplankton cling to the surface of marine s now,
and certain grazing copepods and predators feed on it. Marine snow can be prevalent at
times, especially following plankton blooms. Significant amounts of organic material
from the ocean's upper layers may descend to the ocean floor as marine snow, pr oviding
a valuable food supply for bottom inhabitants. Other structures in the marine
environment that plankton respond to include aggregates of phytoplankton cells that
form large rafts in tropical and temperate waters around the world (e.g., cells of
Oscillatoria [Trichodesmium] erthraeus) and various types of seaweed that detach from
the seafloor and drift (e.g., Sargassum, Phyllospora, Macrocystis).

Nekton

Nekton are the ocean's energetic swimmers and are frequently the most well -known
marine animals. In most marine food networks, nekton are the top predators (see Figure
1 of the community ecology article). It's not always easy to tell the difference between
nekton and plankton. Many huge marine species, such as marlin and tuna, spend their
larval stages as plankton and their adult stages as massive and active members of the
nekton, as previously described. Micronekton and macrozooplankton are terms used to
describe organisms like krill.

Vertebrates (such as fish, reptiles, and mammals), mollusks, and cru staceans make up
the great bulk of nekton. Fish are the most numerous nekton group, with over 16,000
species. Nekton can be found in marine waters at all depths and latitudes. Polar waters
are teeming with whales, penguins, seals, and icefish. Gulpers (Sac copharynx),
whalefish (family Cetomimidae), seven-gilled sharks, and other aphotic zone species

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 80

include lantern fish (family Myctophidae). The greatest diversity of nekton can be
found in tropical environments, which have a significant number of fish speci es.

The nekton includes the world's largest creatures, the blue whales (Balaenoptera
musculus), which can grow to be 25 to 30 metres long. Whale sharks (Rhinocodon
typus), the world's largest fish, feed on plankton and micronekton, as do other baleen
whales (order Mysticeti), which are differentiated by fine filtering plates in their
mouths (usually 12 to 14 metres long, with some reaching 17 metres). The toothed
whales (order Odontoceti—for example, killer whales, Orcinus orca), great white sharks
(Carcharodon carcharias), tiger sharks (Galeocerdo cuvier), black marlin (Makaira
indica), bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus), and giant groupers are the largest carnivores
that ingest huge prey (Epinephelus lanceolatus).

Nekton is the foundation of many important fisheries all over the world. Small schools
of anchovies, herring, and sardines account for about a quarter to a third of the annual
catch from the sea. Squid are another commercially important nekton. Demersal
(bottom-dwelling) fish such as halibut, sole, and cod are commercially important as
human food. On most cases, they are caught in continental shelf waters. Because
pelagic nekton abounds in upwelling locations with nutrient -rich waters, these places
are also popular fishing spots.

SELF-TEST 02
1) Groups of marine life includes

a) Plankton

b) Nekton

c) Benthos

d) All of them

2) A process by which salt is removed from ocean water is called

a) Salination

b) Desalination

c) Saturation

d) Sublimation

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS

1) What are some environmental issues in the ocean?

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 81

2) Write note in detail about Ocean environment .

2-3 COASTAL PROCESSES, EROSION, AND CONTROLS

Multiple interactions occur in coastal areas. The maritime environment, the terrestrial
environment, the atmosphere, biosphere, fluvial systems, and tecton ic processes, as
well as human development and management, are all included. All of this intriguing
interaction occurs inside a little strip of land/sea interface known as the coast. Each
coast is distinct in its own right, with its own set of interactions . It's difficult to grasp
these various interconnections, but with the correct framework of geographical
thinking, it's possible to have a true knowledge of why coasts look the way they do and
how these various processes interact to constantly change them.

Erosion, movement, and deposition are the three main maritime processes that affect
coasts. Erosion is the process of land being eroded by the power of waves.
Transportation refers to the process by which waves and tides lose energy, stop
transporting, and release eroded material, whereas deposition refers to the process by
which waves and tides lose energy, stop transporting, and release eroded material. Each
coastline has its own balance and equilibrium of erosion, transportation, and deposition,
all of which are highly influenced by the huge number of interactions mentioned above.
As a result, the terms "coastline of erosion" and "coastline of deposition" have been
coined.

In earth science, erosion is the removal of soil, rock, or dissolved material fro m one
area on the Earth's crust by surface processes (such as water flow or wind) and
transporting it to another region where it is deposited. Erosion differs from weathering
in that it does not involve movement. Physical or mechanical erosion refers to th e
removal of rock or soil as clastic sediment, as opposed to chemical erosion, which
involves the dissolving of soil or rock material. Eroded sediment or solutes can travel
thousands of kilometres or only a few millimetres.

Rainfall bedrock erosion in rivers; coastal erosion by the sea and waves; glacial
plucking, abrasion, and scour; areal flooding; wind abrasion; groundwater processes;
and mass movement processes in steep environments such as landslides and debris
flows are all examples of erosion agents. The rate at which these processes occur
determines how quickly a surface is degraded. Physical erosion is typically accelerated
on steeply sloping surfaces, and rates may be affected by climatically controlled factors
such as the amount of water provided (for example, by rain), storminess, wind speed,
wave fetch, or atmospheric temperature (especially for some ice -related processes).
There may be feedbacks between erosion rates and the amount of eroded material

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 82

already carried by a river or glacier, for example. Deposition, or the arrival and
placement of eroded materials in a new location, follows the transit of eroded materials
from their original location.

While erosion is a natural process, human activities have increased the pace of erosion
globally by 10-40 times. Intensive farming techniques in the Appalachian Mountains
have resulted in erosion rates that are up to 100 times higher than the region's natural
pace. [8] Both "on-site" and "off-site" difficulties are caused by excessive (or rapid)
erosion. Because to the loss of the nutrient-rich higher soil layers, on-site effects
include decreased agricultural output and (on natural landscapes) ecological collapse.
This can result in desertification in some circumstances. Sedimentation of streams and
eutrophication of water bodies, as well as sediment -related damage to roads and
dwellings, are all off-site consequences. Water and wind erosion are the two main
drivers of land degradation; together, they account for around 84 percent of all
degraded land on the planet, making excessive erosion one of the world's most serious
environmental issues.

In terms of increasing erosion, intensive agriculture, deforestation, highways,

anthropogenic climate change, and urban sprawl are among the most major human
activities. Many prevention and remediation measures, on the other hand, can help to
prevent or minimise erosion in sensitive soils.

In agriculture, land development, coastal areas, river banks, and construction, erosion
control is the activity of preventing or regulating wind or water erosion. Effective
erosion controls deal with surface runoff and are crucial in minimising water
contamination, soil erosion, wildlife habitat loss, and human property loss.

Erosion management is employed in a variety of situations , including natural areas,

agricultural settings, and urban settings. Erosion controls are frequently included in
stormwater runoff management schemes mandated by local governments in
metropolitan areas. A physical barrier, such as flora or rock, is freque ntly used to
absorb part of the energy of the wind or water that is generating the erosion. They also
entail the construction and maintenance of storm drains. They are frequently used on
building sites in conjunction with sediment controls such as sediment basins and silt
barriers.

Rivers would not meander and alter course without bank erosion, which is a natural
phenomenon. Land management practises that alter the hydrograph and/or vegetation
cover, on the other hand, can affect channel migration rates. Pe ople endeavour to keep
rivers in one location in many places, whether or not the banks are unstable due to

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 83

human activities. This can be done for environmental reclamation or to keep a river
from shifting course and flooding people's land. Placement of rip rap or gabions along
the bank is one way to accomplish this.

SELF-TEST
1) Coastal region is one of the

a) Artificial Resources

b) Natural Resources

c) None of the above

d) All of the above

2) Marine Resource mostly polluted due to following human activity

a) Oil Spill

b) Construction

c) Habitat

d) None of the above

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS

1) What causes ocean pollution?

2) How does ocean pollution affect humans?.

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 84

2-4 VOLCANOES: TYPES, HAZARDS, AND PREDICTION
A volcano is a crack in a planetary-mass object's crust that permits hot lava, volcanic
ash, and gases to escape from a magma chamber under the surface, such as Earth.

Volcanoes are most frequently found on Earth when tectonic plates are diverging or
converging, and the majority of them are found underwater. For example, div ergent
tectonic plates create volcanoes along a mid -ocean ridge like the Mid-Atlantic Ridge,
but convergent tectonic plates cause volcanoes in the Pacific Ring of Fire. Volcanoes
can also form when the crust's plates are extending and thinning, as in the E ast African
Rift, the Wells Gray-Clearwater volcanic zone, and the Rio Grande rift in North
America. Upwelling diapirs from the core–mantle barrier, 3,000 kilometres (1,900
miles) deep in the Earth, are thought to cause volcanism distant from plate boundar ies.
As a result, hotspot volcanism occurs, such as the Hawaiian hotspot. When two tectonic
plates glide past each other, volcanoes are rarely formed.

As ash and sulfuric acid droplets hide the Sun and cool the Earth's troposphere, large
eruptions can alter air temperature. Large volcanic eruptions have historically been
followed by volcanic winters, resulting in terrible famines.

On Earth, a volcano is a vent or fissure in the planet's crust that erupts lava, ash, rock,
and gases. The buildup of these eruptive products forms a volcano, which is also a
mountain.

According to a 2015 paper, volcanoes have been on Earth for a long time, likely
producing calamities such as the Permian mass extinction 250 million years ago, the
largest mass extinction in Earth's history. Volcanoes can and have existed on other
worlds as well: whereas volcanoes on the moon and Mars have been dormant for a long
time, volcanoes on Jupiter's moon Io are still quite active. Researchers are attempting to
predict when volcanic eruptions may occur on Earth by examining clues such as
crystals and gases associated with volcanoes.

According to the United States Geological Survey, the Earth's crust is 3 to 37 miles (5
to 60 kilometres) deep. According to a 2016 paper by Christopher Harrison of the
University of Miami, it is divided into seven major and 152 minor tectonic plates.
These plates float on top of a layer of magma, which is made up of semi -liquid rock and
dissolved gases. Magma, which is lighter than the surrounding solid rock, is oft en able
to force its way up via fractures and fissures at the plates' boundary – where they move
past, are driven under, or move away from one other. Magma might erupt from the vent
or flow like an overflowing cup out of the volcano. Lava is a term used to describe
magma that has erupted.

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 85

 Fig. 2.2 What Happens When A Volcano Erupts?

(Source: [Link] -[Link])

Volcanoes come in a variety of shapes and sizes.

When magma erupts as lava at the surface, it can build a variety of volcanoes,
depending on:

• the magma's viscosity, or stickiness; • the amount of gas in the magma; • the magma's
composition; and the method by which the magma reached the surface

There are two types of volcanoes: stratovolcanoes and shield volcanoes, while there are
many more volcanic structures that can arise from erupted magma (such as cinder cones
or lava domes) as well as processes that shape volcanoes. Learn the differences between
stratovolcanoes and shield volcanoes, as well as lava domes and calderas, in this
section.

Why do volcanoes come in diverse shapes and sizes?

In volcanology, viscosity is crucial. The eruption of highly viscous (sticky) magma

produces steep-sided volcanoes with slopes of 30–35 degrees. Because viscous volcanic
material does not flow far from its source, it builds up in layers, generating a cone -
shaped volcano known as a stratovolcano. Shield volcanoes, on the other hand, have

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 86

mild slopes of less than ten degrees and spew more fluid basalt lavas . When a shield
volcano erupts, the basalt can flow far away from the vent, resulting in broad, gentle
slopes.

1. Volcanic shields

A shield volcano is formed when a volcano emits low viscosity, runny lava that extends
far from the source and forms a volcano with gentle slopes. The majority of shield
volcanoes are generated by basaltic lava flows. The shield volcanoes Mauna Kea and
Mauna Loa are located on the island of Hawaii. Around the island of Hawai'i, they are
the world's largest active volcanoes, towering nearly 9 km above the sea bottom.

The third type of volcano, shield volcanoes, are virtually entirely made up of fluid lava
flows. Flow after flow flows out in all directions from a central summit vent, or set of
vents, forming a broad, gently sloping domical cone with a profile resembling a
warrior's shield. They are slowly built up by the accumulation of thousands of
extremely fluid lava flows known as basalt lava, which spread widely across large
distances before cooling as thin, gently dipping shee ts. Lavas frequently erupt from
vents along fractures (rift zones) that form on the cone's flanks. Shield volcanoes are
among of the world's largest volcanoes. Many shield volcanoes in northern California
and Oregon have diameters of 3 to 4 miles and heigh ts of 1,500 to 2,000 feet. Kilauea
and Mauna Loa on the island of Hawaii are two of the world's most active volcanoes,
and the Hawaiian Islands are made up of linear chains of volcanic volcanoes. At the
bases of the islands, the ocean floor is almost 15,00 0 feet deep. Mauna Loa, the greatest
shield volcano (and the world's largest active volcano), rises 13,677 feet above sea
level and rises over 28,000 feet above the deep ocean floor.

Basaltic lava flows out of long fissures instead of central vents in some eruptions,
flooding the surrounding countryside with lava flow after lava flow, building vast
plateaus. Iceland, southeast Washington, eastern Oregon, and southern Idaho all have
lava plateaus of this type. These lava flows are spectacularly exposed along the Snake
River in Idaho and the Columbia River in Washington and Oregon, and measure more
than a mile in total thickness.

2. Stratovolcano

Stratovolcanoes are more cone-shaped than shield volcanoes and have steeper slopes.
They are made of thick, sticky lava that is difficult to flow. As a result, lava gathers
around the vent, forming a volcano with steep sides. Because gas builds up in the
viscous magma, stratovolcanoes are more prone to erupt explosively.

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 87

Although andesite (called after the Andes Mounta ins) is the most prevalent rock type
erupted by stratovolcanoes, they also erupt a variety of other rocks in diverse tectonic
settings.

3. The lava dome

On the Caribbean island of Montserrat, the Soufriere Hills volcano is noted for its lava
dome complex at the summit, which has gone through phases of development and
collapse. When viscous lava is ejected, it cannot easily flow away from the vent due to
its lack of fluidity. Instead, the material piles up on top of the vent, generating a
massive, dome-shaped mass.

Volcanic or lava domes are formed by small, bulbous chunks of lava that are too
viscous to flow a long distance; as a result, the lava builds up over and around the vent
during extrusion. The majority of a dome's growth occurs from within. Its exte rior
surface hardens and cools as it expands, then shatters, sending loose shards down its
sides. Over the volcanic vent, some domes create rugged knobs or spines, while others
form short, steep-sided lava flows known as "coulees." Within the craters or on the
flanks of massive composite volcanoes, volcanic domes are common. The nearly
circular Novarupta Dome, was created during the 1912 eruption of Alaska's Katmai
Volcano, is 800 feet wide and 200 feet tall. The internal structure of this dome, which is
marked by layers of lava fanning upward and outward from the centre, suggests that it
evolved mostly through internal expansion.

Lassen Peak and Mono domes in California, as well as Mont Pelée in Martinique and
the Lesser Antilles, are examples of lava domes . In 1902, the rise of a dome at Mont
Pelée was accompanied by an extraordinarily devastating eruption. An incandescent,
high-velocity ash flow and associated hot gases and volcanic dust destroyed the coastal
town of St. Pierre, about 4 miles downslope to the south, killing over 30,000 people.

Only two men survived, one because he was imprisoned in a dungeon -like jail cell and
the other because he managed to escape the burning city.

4. Caldera

Magma is kept in a magma chamber beneath a volcano. When the mag ma chamber is
emptied by a huge, explosive eruption, the ceiling of the magma chamber can collapse,
forming a depression or bowl with very steep walls on the surface. These are calderas,
which can span tens of kilometres.

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 88

Calderas can also emerge when a single stratovolcano's summit is removed by an
eruption. Caldera-forming eruptions can obliterate large swaths of a stratovolcano. The
top is really blowable!

5. Cinder cones The simplest type of volcano is the cinder cone. They're made up of
congealed lava particles and blobs released from a single vent. The gas -charged lava is
violently pushed into the air, breaking into minute particles that harden and fall as
cinders surrounding the vent, forming a circular or oval cone. The apex of most cinder
cones has a bowl-shaped crater, and they rarely rise higher than a thousand feet above
their surroundings. Cinder cones can be found in abundance in western North America
as well as other volcanic regions throughout the world.

A cinder cone began to develop on a field near the Mexican community of Parcutin in
1943. Explosive eruptions caused by molten lava gas rapidly expanding and exiting
formed cinders that fell back around the vent, raising the cone to a height of 1,200 feet.
The cone's peak has a funnel-shaped crater from the most recent explosive eruption.
The molten rock gently spilled out over the cone's surrounding surface and travelled
downslope in lava flows when the excess gases had evaporated. This sequence of
events—eruption, cone and crater building, lava flow—is frequent in the production of
cinder cones.

Parcutin formed a distinctive cone, blanketed nearly 100 square miles in ashes, and
devastated the town of San Juan over the course of 9 years of activity. During Parcutin's
history, geologists from all over the world studied it and learnt a lot about volcanism,
its products, and the erosional change of a volcanic landform.

6. Volcanoes that are composites

Compound volcanoes, also known as stratovolcanoes, are responsible for some of the
world's most majestic mountains. They are massive, steep-sided symmetrical cones
made of alternating layers of lava flows, volcanic ash, cinders, stones, and bombs that
can rise up to 8,000 feet above the ground. Mount Fuji in Japan, Mount Cotopaxi in
Ecuador, Mount Shasta in California, Mount Hood in Oregon, and Mount St. Helens and
Mount Rainier in Washington are just a few of the world's most visible and majestic
mountains.

A crater at the top of most composite volcanoes comprises a central vent or a clustered
set of vents. Lavas emerge through fractures on the cone's flanks or flow through breaks
in the crater wall. Within the fissures, hardened lava produces dikes that act as ribs,
considerably strengthening the cone.

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 89

A conduit system is a characteristic of a composite volcano that allows magma from a
reservoir deep inside the Earth's crust to ascend to the surface. The volcano grows in
size as lava, cinders, ash, and other materials ejected through the conduit accumulate on
its slopes.

When a composite volcano is dormant, erosion starts to eat away at its cone. The
solidified lava filling the conduit (the volcanic plug) and cracks (the dikes) becomes
exposed when the cone is taken away, and it, too, is gradually diminished by erosion.
Finally, all that is left is the plug and dike complex protruding above the soil surface, a
telltale sign of the gone volcano.

Any potentially harmful volcanic process that puts human lives, livelihoods, or
infrastructure at risk is referred to as a volcanic hazard. Several dangers, includi ng as
lava flows, pyroclastic flows, lahars, jökulhlaups, and landslides or debris avalanches,
may influence the area around the volcano. Volcanic activity also causes hazards such
as tephra or ash falls, gas releases, and tsunamis, which can harm location s far from the
volcano. Such hazards can affect communities hundreds or thousands of kilometres
away from the volcano, posing serious health and economic risks (BGS, 2012).

Even though volcanoes can be dangerous, people live near them for a variety of
reasons. There may be emotional, societal, and financial advantages. Knowing about
volcanic dangers is simply one method that individuals living near volcanoes might
lower their risk.

Volcanic Hazards There are Several Types of Volcanic Hazards

A list of volcanic dangers is provided below.

Falling tephra and ash

Clast (particle) sizes can range from metres to microns, and volcanic products are
usually named after them. The term 'tephra' is used to describe all erupted clasts,
regardless of size, whereas the term 'ash' is used to designate particles smaller than 2
mm in size.

The majority of tephra will fall to the earth around the volcano during an eruption. This
can cause roofs to be loaded and road markings to be obscured, making travel
hazardous. Tephra loading on leaves can result in the burying of plants or the removal
of limbs from trees, posing a serious threat to agriculture.

Volcanic ash's fine-grained structure allows it to be easily transported by winds

hundreds to thousands of kilometres away from the volcano. It can also be sent high
into the atmosphere, reaching the stratosphere in some cases. Volcanic ash is made up

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 90

of microscopic, sharp, angular shards of glass and other volcanic debris, and it can
cause aircraft damage due to its abrasive nature.

Gas

Active volcanoes can generate a variety of gases before, during, and after an eruptive
event, which can cause a variety of health problems locally but also have the ability to
alter the global climate. Carbon dioxide, hydrogen chloride, hydrogen fluori de,
hydrogen sulphide, and sulphur dioxide are the five primary gases that are harmful to
human health.

Volcanic gases can be inhaled or come into contact with the skin and eyes, exposing
people to serious health risks. The health impacts range from minor to severe, with
some exposures resulting in death. People may report after being exposed.

Volcanic gases are particularly dangerous since they are invisible and can 'pond' in
depressions around an active volcano because they are thicker than ambient air. I nside
planes, high amounts of volcanic gas could pose a health risk. Sulphur gases decompose
into sulphate aerosols (mostly sulphuric acid), which can stay in the stratosphere for
years, generating short-term climate impacts.

Lava domes and lava flows

Lava flows are magma flows that have been projected onto a volcano's surface. Lava
rarely kills people because it moves slowly, giving people enough time to flee. It does,
however, use a combination of burial, crushing, and heat to destroy anything in its path .
Volcanic gases and aerosols are also released during these eruptions.

Lava flow viscosity, or how freely a fluid flows, rises with silica content and falls with
temperature and water content. Basalts with low viscosity and high iron/magnesium
content are the most fluid of the common lava types, erupting at temperatures of 1100 –
1200°C. They have the ability to travel relatively large distances. Andesites, which have
a high viscosity and are rich in silicon, are substantially less fluid than basalt and erup t
at temperatures of 700–900°C. They generate short, thick flows or steep -sided lava
domes that move only a short distance from volcanic vents. Lava flows vary in speed
from a few metres per hour for high-silica andesitic lavas to many kilometres per hour
for fluid basalts.

When high-viscosity lava is slowly ejected from a volcano, lava domes emerge.
Because of the lava's extreme viscosity, it cannot flow far from the vent and a lava
dome forms. These lava domes are especially dangerous since they are prone to
collapsing and creating pyroclastic density currents.

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 91

Basalts from floods

Flood basalts are a very rare type of lava flow. These eruptions are uncommon, and our
understanding of them is based on previous eruptions in areas like India's Deccan Traps
and Russia's Siberian Traps. Such eruptions can cover vast regions (over one million
square kilometres), have thicknesses of up to a kilometre, and emit large amounts of
gas; they can pollute the air and potentially have an impact on world climate.

Flood basalts that occur in Iceland can teach us a lot. The Holuhraun fissure eruption
surpassed flood basalt size in 2014. It is presently Iceland's greatest flood basalt since
the Laki eruption in 1783–1784, which killed over 20% of Iceland's population due to
environmental degradation and starvation. Through sulphur -bearing gas and aerosol
pollution, it most certainly increased death levels throughout Europe. Flood basalt
eruptions, thankfully, are quite unusual!

Flows of pyroclastic material

Pyroclastic flows are hot 'density currents' that flow at high speeds along the ground,
including a mixture of rock debris and gas. Although exceptionally powerful or
energetic pyroclastic flows have been observed to resist gravity and move uphill when
travelling under gravity, they prefer to flow down slopes, along valleys, and towards
lower terrain when travelling under gravity. Pyroclastic flows can have temperatures
ranging from 100°C to 600°C. They frequently travel at speeds of 110 kilometres per
hour or faster down the volcano's flanks.

The fountain has burst. pyroclastic flows are a type of pyroclastic flow that occurs

During explosive eruptive activity, pyroclastic flows can develop when the mixture of
gas and ash generated by the volcano is too dense to ascend buoyantl y into the
atmosphere, instead collapsing around the volcano.

pyroclastic flows from dome collapse

When volcanoes erupt very viscous lavas that form domes, pyroclastic flows can result
if the dome becomes unstable. When substantial sections of the dome col lapse and
disintegrate, pyroclastic flows form.

Avalanches of debris and landslides

Debris avalanches and landslides are common, but they aren't always caused by
volcanic activity or eruptions. They can be triggered by a volcanic explosion or dome
collapse, especially in areas with a lot of rain. Avalanches of debris are often
channelled into valleys and can travel long distances far beyond their origins. Debris

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 92

avalanches are difficult to mitigate because they can develop without warning, even on
dormant volcanoes, and ruin broad areas. Because of the high speed with which debris
avalanches travel, it is nearly hard to escape places in their path after they have started.

Lahars

A form of volcanic mudflow made up of volcanic debris and hot or cold water is k nown
as a lahar in Javanese. Lahars can travel at speeds ranging from less than 10 kilometres
per hour to tens of kilometres per hour. They can happen as a result of ice or snow
eruptions that produce significant amounts of meltwater, or they can be caused , or
mobilised, by heavy rains. These debris-laden flows can collect more and more loose
material as they move down river valleys.

Viscous mudflows can have the consistency of wet concrete and contain more than 60%
sediment (40% water). With a higher water content, less viscous mudflows resemble
torrential floods.

Lahars have been a major cause of death throughout history. For example, a lahar on
Colombia's Nevado del Ruiz volcano killed 23, 000 people in 1985, making it the
deadliest lahar occurrence in recorded history. Lahar deaths and injuries can be averted
if people are swiftly relocated to higher ground.

Tsunamis

Tsunami is a Japanese word that means 'harbour wave.' Tsunamis can occur as a result
of a variety of geological events, including earthquake s and landslides. Volcanoes can
also create tsunamis, albeit they are less common. In fact, tsunamis have resulted in the
greatest number of fatalities in the history of volcanic eruptions.

Tsunamis occur when water is displaced, whether in a lake or at se a. This can happen
on volcanoes by a variety of reasons, such as an underwater eruption, the collapse of a
portion of a volcanic edifice, or the entry of lahars or pyroclastic density currents into
the surrounding ocean.

Huge, deadly tsunamis affecting entire continents can be created during large,
explosive, pyroclastic density-forming eruptions, whereas submarine eruptions may
only produce small tsunamis.

The Krakatau eruption in Indonesia in 1883 is an example of such an occurrence. While

the actual cause of the tsunamis is still being debated, the eruption resulted in enormous
pyroclastic flows and the volcano's collapse. There were numerous tsunamis, the most
devastating of which killed around 36 000 people. In 2018, another tsunami erupted as
a result of activity at the same volcanic complex. Anak Krakatau, or 'child of Krakatau,'

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 93

is a volcano that has grown on the edge of the Krakatau caldera since 1883. In
December 2018, over half of the volcano crashed into the surrounding waters,
triggering a tsunami that wreaked havoc on much of the coast near the Sunda Straits,
killing over 400 people.

Identifying and Predicting Volcanic Eruptions

Volcanologists try to predict volcanic eruptions, but the task is nearly as difficult as
predicting an earthquake. Many signs can indicate that a volcano is ready to erupt, but
pinpointing the exact time and severity of the eruption is challenging. Previous volcanic
activity, earthquakes, slope deformation, and gas releases are all examples of this
evidence.

Volcanic Activity in the Past

The history of a volcano, including how long it has been since its last eruption and how
long it has been between eruptions, is a good place to start when anticipating eruptions.
If a volcano is active, it is now erupting or is showing symp toms of erupting in the near
future. A dormant volcano is one that hasn't erupted in a long time but has lately
erupted. Finally, an extinct volcano has stopped erupting and is unlikely to do so again.
Volcanoes, both active and dormant, are closely monito red, especially in populated
areas.

Earthquakes

Because moving magma causes the ground to tremble, the number and size of
earthquakes rises in the lead-up to an eruption. A volcano on the verge of erupting
might trigger a series of earthquakes. To determin e if an eruption is imminent, scientists
use seismographs, which record the length and strength of each earthquake. The slope
of the volcano can be pushed upward by magma and gas. Tiltmeters, which are sensors
that measure the angle of a volcano's slope, are the sole way to detect most ground
deformation. However, earth swelling can cause significant changes in the shape of a
volcano. Before the 1980 eruption, Mount St. Helens developed a bulge on its north
flank. Rockfalls and landslides may be exacerbated by ground swelling.

Emissions of greenhouse gases

Gases from a volcano may be able to escape before magma reaches the surface. Gas
emissions are measured in vents on or around the volcano by scientists. Sulfur dioxide
(SO2), carbon dioxide (CO2), hydrochloric acid (HCl), and even water vapour (H2O)
can all be monitored on-site or from afar using satellites. To aid in the prediction of
eruptions, the amounts of gases and their ratios are computed.

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 94

Monitoring from afar

Satellite technology can be used to monitor some gases. Temperature readings and
deformation are also monitored via satellites. Scientists are becoming more capable of
properly and safely detecting changes in a volcano as technology advances. Officials
may not know whether or not to order an evacuation because volcanologists are
frequently uncertain about eruptions. People will be dissatisfied and less willing to flee
the next time there is a threat of an eruption if they are evacuated and the eruption does
not occur. The costs of causing a business disruption are high. Scientists, on the other
hand, are still working to enhance the accuracy of their forecasts.

Volcanic activity forecasting

Volcanic eruption forecasting, also known as prediction of volcanic eruption, is a

multidisciplinary monitoring and research endeavour aimed at predicting the time and
intensity of a volcano's eruption. The prediction of hazardous eruptions, which could
result in catastrophic loss of life, property, and disruption of human activities, is
particularly important.

Seismic tremors (seismicity)

The fundamentals of volcano seismology

Seismic activity (earthquakes and tremors) is always present as volcanoes awaken and
ready to erupt, and it is a crucial link between eruptions. Some volcanoes have low -
level seismic activity that is typical, but an increase could indicate a greater likelihood
of an eruption. The sorts of earthquakes that occur, as well as where they begin and
stop, are also important indicators. Short -period earthquakes, long-period earthquakes,
and harmonic tremor are the three main types of volcanic seismicity.

• Normal fault-generated earthquakes are similar to short-period earthquakes. They are

caused by magma forcing its way upward breaking brittle rock. 'A' waves are short -
period earthquakes that indicate the growth of a magma body near the surface. Volcano -
Tectonic (or VT) events or earthquakes are terms used to describe these types of
seismic events.

• Long-period earthquakes are thought to indicate increased gas pressure in the

plumbing system of a volcano. They sound similar to "water hammer," which is a
clanging sound heard in a home's plumbing system. These oscillations, known as 'B'
waves, are the equivalent of acoustic vibrations in a chamber in the setting of magma
chambers within the volcanic dome. Resonance waves and long-period resonance events

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 95

are other names for these phenomena. Magma pushing on the underlying rock below the
surface is a common cause of harmonic tremors. They can be loud enough to be
perceived as humming or buzzing by humans and animals, thus the name.

Seismic patterns are complex and difficult to understand; however, rising seismic
activity is a good indicator of rising eruption danger, particularly if long -period events
become prominent and harmonic tremor episodes devel op.

Researchers can identify volcanic eruptions using a similar method that involves
monitoring infrasound, which is sub-audible sound below 20 Hz. The IMS Global
Infrasound Network has 60 stations throughout the world that operate to identify and
locate erupting volcanoes. It was originally put up to check compliance with nuclear
test ban treaties.

Tremors on icebergs

The similarities between iceberg tremors and volcanic tremors, which occur when they
run aground, may aid specialists in developing a better strategy for predicting volcanic
eruptions. Icebergs are physically easier to work with than volcanoes since their
structures are considerably simpler. Long durations and amplitudes, as well as common
frequency shifts, are shared by both volcanic and iceb erg tremors.

Emissions of gases

Gases escape as magma approaches the surface and its pressure drops. This is similar to
what happens when you open a bottle of carbonated beverage and carbon dioxide
escapes. Sulphur dioxide is one of the most common compon ents of volcanic gases, and
rising levels indicate the arrival of more magma near the surface. For example, on May
13, 1991, Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines began emitting an increasing volume of
sulphur dioxide. Just two weeks later, on May 28, sulphur dioxide emissions had risen
to 5,000 tonnes, ten times the previous level. On June 12, 1991, Mount Pinatubo
erupted. Sulphur dioxide emissions have plummeted to low levels before to eruptions
on multiple occasions, including before the Mount Pinatubo erupt ion and the 1993
Galeras, Colombia eruption. The closure of gas passageways by hardened lava,
according to most scientists, is the reason of the decline in gas levels. As a result of this
occurrence, the pressure in the volcano's plumbing system rises, inc reasing the risk of
an explosive eruption. A multi-component gas analyser system (Multi-GAS) is a set of
instruments that can measure volcanic gas plumes in real time with great resolution. [6]

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 96

Multi-GAS measurements of CO2/SO2 ratios can help predict volc anic activity by
detecting pre-eruptive degassing of rising magmas.

Deformation of the ground

A volcano's swelling indicates that magma has accumulated near the surface. Scientists
who are keeping an eye on an active volcano will frequently assess the slop e's tilt and
watch variations in the rate of swelling. An rise in swelling, especially if it is
accompanied by an increase in sulphur dioxide emissions and harmonic tremors, is a
strong indicator of imminent disaster. Mount St. Helens' deformation before t o the May
18, 1980 eruption was a textbook example of deformation, with the north flank of the
volcano bulging upwards as magma built up beneath it. Scientists can only detect most
examples of ground deformation with advanced technology, but they can still predict
future eruptions this way. The Hawaiian volcanoes have tremendous ground
deformation; the ground inflates prior to eruption and then deflates dramatically
afterward. This is owing to the Hawaiian volcanoes' shallow magma chambers, which
allow movement of the magma to be seen on the ground above.

Monitoring the temperature

Thermal emissivity fluctuations at the volcano's surface can be caused by magma

movement, changes in gas release, and hydrothermal activity. Several ways can be used
to measure these:

• FLIR (forward looking infrared radiometry) from hand -held instruments mounted on-
site, at a distance, or in the air; • infrared band satellite imaging; • in -situ thermometry
(hot springs, fumaroles);

• geothermal well enthalpy changes

Hydrology

Through the use of hydrology, there are four basic ways for predicting a volcanic
eruption:

• Hydrologic and hydraulic measurements from boreholes and wells are increasingly
being utilised to track changes in a volcano's subsurface gas pressure and thermal
regime. Water levels will rise and then drop sharply just before an eruption due to
increasing gas pressure, and thermal focusing (increased local heat flow) will reduce or
dry out aquifers.

• Locating lahars and other debris flows near their sources. Scienti sts from the USGS
have developed a low-cost, long-lasting, portable, and simple-to-install system to detect

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 97

and track the arrival and passage of debris flows and floods in river valleys that drain
active volcanoes.

• A river channel surrounding the volcano may pick up pre-eruption sediment,

indicating that an eruption is imminent. During periods of significant rainfall, the
majority of material is carried from volcanically disturbed watersheds. In the absence
of instrumental monitoring measures, this could indicate morphological changes and
increasing hydrothermal activity.

• A volcanic deposit on a river bank can easily be eroded, resulting in a dramatic

widening or deepening of the river channel. As a result, monitoring the width and depth
of river channels can be used to predict the likelihood of a future volcanic eruption.

Remote sensing is a technique for gathering information from a

The detection of electromagnetic energy absorbed, reflected, radiated, or dispersed

from the surface of a volcano or from its ejected material in an eruption cloud by
satellite sensors is known as remote sensing.

• 'Cloud sensing: Scientists can use data from two different thermal wavelengths to
enhance the visibility of eruption clouds and distinguish them from meteorologica l
clouds, allowing them to monitor the exceptionally cold eruption clouds from
volcanoes.

• 'Gas sensing: At some of the same wavelengths as ozone, sulphur dioxide may be
measured using remote sensing. Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometers (TOMS) can
quantify how much sulphur dioxide gas volcanoes release during eruptions. NASA's
Orbiting Carbon Observatory 2 has identified carbon dioxide emissions from volcanoes
in the short-wave infrared.

• Thermal sensing: The presence of new significant thermal signatures o r 'hot spots' on
the ground before an eruption, during an eruption, or in the presence of a very recent
volcanic deposit, such as lava flows or pyroclastic flows, could indicate new ground
heating, an eruption in progress, or the presence of a very recent volcanic deposit.

• Deformation sensing: Long-term geometric changes in the volcanic edifice, such as

uplift and depression, can be detected using satellite -borne spatial radar data.
Interferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR) digital elevation models generated
from radar data are subtracted from each other in this method to yield a differential
image that displays topographic change rates.

• Forest surveillance: It was recently proved that by monitoring forest development, the
position of eruptive fractures might be anticipated months to years before eruptions.

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 98

During the 2002–2003 volcano eruptive events, this tool based on tree growth
monitoring was validated at both Mt. Niyragongo and Mt. Etna.

• Infrasound sensing: A relatively recent strategy to monitoring volcanic eruptions

involves employing infrasound sensors from the International Monitoring System (IMS)
infrasound network. This method of detection uses triangulation to establish the
position of the eruption by combining signals from various se nsors.

Mass failures and mass movements

Seismology (geophones), deformation, and meteorological techniques are used to

monitor mass motions and failures. Landslides, rock falls, pyroclastic flows, and mud
flows (lahars) are example of mass failures of volc anic material before, during, and
after eruptions.

The most famous volcanic landslide was undoubtedly the failure of a bulge formed by
intruding magma before to the 1980 Mt. St. Helens eruption. This landslide "uncorked"
the shallow magmatic intrusion, resulting in catastrophic failure and an unanticipated
lateral eruption blast. In the absence of instrumental monitoring, rock falls are common
during periods of greater deformation and can be a sign of increased activity. Mud
flows (lahars) are remobilized hydrated ash deposits from pyroclastic flows and ash fall
deposits that travel downslope at tremendous speeds and even at relatively shallow
angles. They are capable of moving enormous things such as loaded logging trucks,
homes, bridges, and rocks because to their tremendous density. Around volcanic
edifices, their deposits frequently form a second ring of debris fans, with the inner fan
containing initial ash deposits. Lahars can still provide a sheet flood hazard
downstream of the deposition of their finest load due to leftover water. It can take
months for lahar deposits to dry up enough to walk on. Lahar activity can cause
problems for several years after a big explosive eruption.

A group of scientists from the United States devised a system for predicti ng lahars.
Their method was developed by analysing rocks on Washington's Mount Rainier. The
warning mechanism is based on distinguishing between new and older rocks. Water and
heat hydrothermically modify fresh rocks, which are poor conductors of electrici ty. As a
result, they can anticipate the paths of a lahar if they know the age of the rocks and
hence their strength. On Mount Rainier, a system of Acoustic Flow Monitors (AFM) has
been installed to analyse ground disturbances that could lead to a lahar an d provide an
earlier warning.

SELF-TEST 04
1) Volcanoes are generally found where _______ pull apart or are coming together

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 99

 a) Intraplates

b) Tectonic plates

c) Earth's crust

d) None of these

2) Volcanoes can also form where there is stretching of the earth's ______ a nd where
the _____ goes thin?

a) Surface, crust

b) Plate, surface

c) Crust, crust

d) Plate, crust

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS

1) How are volcanoes made? .

2) What is a volcano? Where are the most active volcanoes?

SUMMARY
The air we breathe, the water we drink, and the fo od we eat can all contribute to
environmental health issues. A potential environmental impact on health can trigger a
chain of biological events in the body. These changes can be good or negative, and are
extremely individual based on genes and circumstanc es. The human body is made up of
elements that can be split into two categories. Major elements (oxygen, carbon,
hydrogen, nitrogen) make up 96 percent of total body weight. Nutritional diseases can
result from a lack of important nutrients. Water and elec trolyte imbalances are
frequently caused by semi-major element deficiencies. Infectious diseases are spreading
at an unprecedented rate over the world. Global food demand is expected to rise
dramatically by 2100. Agricultural factors have been linked to mo re than 25% of all —
and more than 50% of zoonotic — infectious diseases that have appeared in humans
since 1940.

The oceans cover two-thirds of the Earth's surface. The Mariana Trench and the Tonga
Trench in the western Pacific Ocean are deeper than Mount Everest (32,800 feet). A
diverse range of creatures have evolved in response to varied environmental factors.
The Earth's crust is made up of many dynamic plates, according to plate tectonics
theory. Oceanic and continental plates float on the Earth's man tle's surface, diverging,
converging, or sliding against one another.

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 100

Changes in sea level have a significant impact on the distribution of marine habitats.
The Aphotic zone is a vast expanse of inky darkness that covers the vast majority of the
ocean. The photic zone, particularly the euphotic region, is densely populated with
marine species. Other organisms, such as tripod fish and some sea cucumber and brittle
star species, exist in complete darkness. The intertidal zone extends from the high -tide
mark (the highest point of the tide) to shallow, offshore waters.

Deep sea sediments are mostly made up of the remains of dead marine creatures and
their wastes. Seawater's chemical composition reflects a variety of activities, including
rock and sediment erosion and volcanic activity. Seawater's physical and chemical
qualities have a big impact on species. Seawater is viscous to very little species like
ciliates, but not to giant marine creatures like tuna. Animals that move between fresh
and salt water can adjust their osmotic environment.

Marine biota can be divided into creatures that live in pelagic (plankton and nekton) or
benthic (benthic) environments. Estuaries and other locations where the ocean is
influenced by nearshore features such as vertical salini ty gradients (halocline) see a lot
of biological activity. Plankton is a diverse group of creatures that includes algae,
bacteria, protozoans, animal larvae, and crustaceans. Plankton can range in size from
microscopic organisms (1 micrometre [0.000039 inc h] or less) to jellyfish with a
gelatinous bell that can span 2 metres. Copepods, cladocerans, and euphausids (krill)
are examples of major holoplanktonic creatures.

They provide as food sources for fish and marine mammals. Larvaceans, salps, and
siphonophores are gelatinous forms that graze on phytoplankton. Living and dead
matter combine to form organic aggregates known as marine snow. Marine snow
consists of formations ranging in size from 0.5 millimetre to 1 centimetre. Many
species of microorganisms cling to the surface of marine snow, and predators feed on it.

Nekton are the ocean's energetic swimmers and are frequently the most well -known
marine animals. Many huge marine species, such as marlin and tuna, spend their larval
stages as plankton. Micronekton and macrozooplankton are terms used to describe
organisms like krill.

Multiple interactions occur in coastal areas. Erosion is the process of land being eroded
by the power of waves. Transportation refers to the process by which waves and tides
lose energy, stop transporting, and release eroded material. Each coastline has its own
balance and equilibrium of erosion, transportation, and deposition. Human activities
have increased the pace of erosion globally by 10 -40 times.

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 101

Erosion can lead to both on-site and "off-site" difficulties, such as soil erosion and
ecological collapse. Water and wind erosion are the two main drivers of land
degradation. Prevention and remediation measures can help to prevent or minimise
erosion in sensitive soils. Erosion controls are frequently included in stormwater runoff
management schemes mandated by local governments in metropolitan areas. They also
entail the construction and maintenance of storm drains.

A volcano is a volcanic vent or fissure in the planet's crust that e rupts lava, ash, rock,
and gases. Volcanoes have been on Earth for a long time, likely producing calamities
such as the Permian mass extinction 250 million years ago. The Earth's crust is 3 to 37
miles (5 to 60 kilometres) deep. It is divided into seven ma jor and 152 minor tectonic
plates. These plates float on top of a layer of magma, which is made up of semi -liquid
rock and dissolved gases.

The third type of volcano, shield volcanoes, are virtually entirely made up of fluid lava
flows. Mauna Loa is the greatest shield volcano (and the world's largest active
volcano). Stratovolcanoes are more cone -shaped and have steeper slopes. Volcanic or
lava domes are formed by small, bulbous chunks of lava that are too viscous to flow a
long distance. The dome's exterior surface hardens and cools as it expands, then
shatters, sending loose shards down its sides.

The simplest type of volcano is the cinder cone. They're made up of congealed lava
particles and blobs released from a single vent. Most cinder cones have a bow l-shaped
crater and rarely rise more than 1,000 feet above their surroundings. Volcanic activity
causes hazards such as tephra or ash falls, gas releases, and tsunamis. Such hazards can
affect communities hundreds or thousands of kilometres away from the v olcano.

Knowing about volcanic dangers is simply one method that individuals living near
volcanoes might lower their risk. Volcanic ash is made up of microscopic, sharp shards
of volcanic glass and other volcanic debris. Fine -grained ash can be easily transported
by winds hundreds to thousands of kilometres away from the volcano. It can also be
sent high into the atmosphere, reaching the stratosphere in some cases. Iceland's
Holuhraun fissure eruption surpassed flood basalt size in 2014.

Pyroclastic flows can have temperatures ranging from 100°C to 600°C. They travel at
speeds of 110 kilometres per hour or faster down the volcano's flanks. Debris
avalanches and landslides aren't always caused by volcanic activity. They can be
triggered by a volcanic explosion or dome collapse. Volcanoes can also create tsunamis,
albeit they are less common.

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 102

Tsunamis occur when water is displaced, whether in a lake or at sea. Identifying and
predicting volcanic eruptions is nearly as difficult as predicting earthquakes. Volcan oes,
both active and dormant, are closely monitored, especially in populated areas. Many
signs can indicate that a volcano is ready to erupt, but pinpointing the exact time and
severity of the eruption is challenging. Gases from a volcano may be able to es cape
before magma reaches the surface.

Gas emissions are measured in vents on or around the volcano by scientists. Scientists
are becoming more capable of properly and safely detecting changes in a volcano as
technology advances. Some volcanoes have low -level seismic activity that is typical.
Long-period earthquakes are thought to indicate increased gas pressure in the plumbing
system of a volcano. They sound similar to "water hammer," which is a clanging sound
heard in a home's plumbing system.

The similarities between iceberg tremors and volcanic tremors may aid specialists in
developing a better strategy for predicting eruptions. Gases escape as magma
approaches the surface and its pressure drops. Rising levels of sulphur dioxide indicate
the arrival of magma near the surface. Sulphur dioxide emissions have plummeted to
low levels before eruptions on multiple occasions, including before the 1991 Mount
Pinatubo eruption. A volcano's swelling indicates that magma has accumulated near the
surface.
An rise in swelling, especially if it is accompanied by an increase in sulphur dioxide
emissions and harmonic tremors, is a strong indicator of imminent disaster. Mount St.
Helens' deformation before to the 1980 eruption was a textbook example of
deformation.

REFERENCES
 [Link] -
environmental-factors-affect-health
 [Link]
 [Link]
 [Link]
 [Link]
 [Link]
 [Link]
20rupture,and%20most%20are%20found%20underwater.
 [Link]

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 103

  [Link]
 [Link]
volcanoes-
form/#:~:text=Strictly%20speaking%20there%20are%20two,well%20proc
esses%20that%20shape%20volcanoes
 [Link]
hazards/volcanoes/volcanic-
hazards/#:~:text=Several%20hazards%20may%20affect%20the,releases%
20of%20gas%20and%20tsunamis.
 [Link] -
volcanic-eruptions/
 [Link]

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 104

 C REDIT 03

CREDIT 03-UNIT 3-1:

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After successful completion of this unit, you will be able to

 Climate

 Remote Sensing in Environmental Monitoring

 Concept of remote sensing

 Geographical Information System (GIS)

3-1 CLIMATE: GENERAL RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LANDSCAPES , BIOMES

AND CLIMATE . CLIMATE OF INDIA. INDIAN MONSOON, ELNINO,

DROUGHTS, TROPICAL CYCLONES AND WESTERLY DISTURBANCES.

EARTHQUAKE AND TSUNAMIS, VOLCANOES, LANDSLIDES

Climate refers to a region's long-term weather trend, which is usually averaged over 30
years. It's the average and variability of meteorological variables over timescales
ranging from months to millions of years, to put it another way. Temperature, humidity,
air pressure, wind, and precipitation are some of the meteorological variables that are
regularly measured. Climate, in a wide sense, refers to the state of Earth's climate
system, which includes the ocean, land, and ice. The latitude/longitude, geography,
altitude, and neighbouring water bodies and currents all influence a location's climate.
Climates are classified by average and typical characteristics, the most frequent of
which are temperature and precipitation. The Köppen climatic categorization system
was the most extensively used system. The Thornthwaite system, which has been in use
since 1948, uses evapotranspiration, temperature, and precipitation data to investigate
biological variety and how climate change affects it. Finally, the Bergeron and Spatial
Synoptic Classification systems are concerned with the origin of air masses that
determine a region's climate.
The study of ancient climates is known as paleoclimatology. Paleoclimates are
estimated through proxy variables because there were few firsthand observations of
climate before the 19th century. Non-biotic evidence, such as sediments from lake beds
and ice cores, and biotic evidence, such as tree rings and coral, are among them.
Models of past, present, and future climates are known as climate models. Various

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 105

variables can cause climate change on both long and short periods. The topic of recent
warming is discussed in the context of global warming, which causes redistributions. As
an example, "A shift in isotherms of roughly 300–400 km [190–250 mi] in latitude (in
the temperate zone) or 500 m [550 yd] in elevation equates to a 3 °C [276 K; 37 °F]
difference in mean annual temperature. As a result of altering climate zones, species are
predicted to relocate upwards in elevation or nearer the poles in latitude."
Definition
The weather averaged over a long period is generally referred to as climate (from
Greek: klima, meaning inclination).
The normal averaging time is 30 years, although depending on the goal, alternative
durations may be utilised. Other data beyond the average are included in climate, such
as the magnitudes of day-to-day or year-to-year changes. The following is the definition
from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) glossary from 2001:
Climate is commonly defined in a restricted sense as "avera ge weather," or, more
precisely, as the statistical description of important quantities in terms of mean and
variability over timescales ranging from months to hundreds or millions of years.
According to the World Meteorological Organization, the classical era is 30 years
(WMO). Surface variables such as temperature, precipitation, and wind are the most
common. The status of the climatic system, including a statistical description, is
referred to as climate in a broader meaning.
According to the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), ""Climate normals" (CN)
are "reference points used by climatologists to compare present climatological trends to
past or usual patterns." The arithmetic average of a climate element (e.g. temperature)
during a 30-year period is defined as a CN. A 30-year period was chosen because it is
long enough to filter out interannual volatility and anomalies while simultaneously
being short enough to highlight longer climate trends."
The World Meteorological Organization arose from the In ternational Meteorological
Organization, which established a climatology technical commission in 1929. The
technical commission defined the thirty-year period from 1901 to 1930 as the reference
time frame for climatological standard normals during its 1934 Wiesbaden conference.
The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) agreed in 1982 to update climate
normals, which were then completed using data from 1 January 1961 to 31 December
1990.
The common statement "Climate is what you expect, weather is what you get"
effectively summarises the difference between climate and weather.
Climate is determined by a multitude of relatively constant characteristics over long
periods of time, including latitude, height, land -to-water ratio, and proximity to oceans

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 106

and mountains. Plate tectonics, for example, causes all of these variables to change only
over millions of years. Other climatic drivers are more dynamic: the thermohaline
circulation of the ocean warms the northern Atlantic Ocean by 5 degrees Celsius (9
degrees Fahrenheit) compared to other ocean basins. On a regional scale, other ocean
currents transport heat between land and water. On a regional scale, the density and
type of vegetation cover effect solar heat absorption, water retention, and rainfall. The
amount of solar energy retained by the earth is determined by changes in the amount of
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, resulting in global warming or cooling. The
variables that influence climate are numerous, and the interconnections are
complicated, but there is general agreement that the broad outlines are understood, at
least in terms of the factors that influence historical climate change.
The link between biomes and climate in general
A climate zone is determined by an area's climate characteristics, which include
temperature, humidity, precipitation amount and type, and season. The natural
vegetation of a region reflects the climate zone. Even if the weather is atypical for the
region on that day, astute travellers can figure out which climate zone th ey are in by
glancing at the plants.
The different climate zones are determined by the key variables that influence climate.
On practically all continents, both in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the same
sort of climate zone can be found at similar latitudes and in similar places. The climate
zones known as continental climates, which are not present at higher latitudes in the
Southern Hemisphere, are the only exception to this pattern. This is due to the fact that
the land masses of the Southern Hemisphere are too narrow to form a continental
climate.
The Köppen classification system is the most widely used system for climatic zone
classification. This system is based on temperature, precipitation amount, and the
seasons when precipitation occurs. Because climate influences the type of vegetation
that grows in a given location, vegetation is employed as a climate indicator.
A biome is made up of a climate type and its plants and animals. Because their
environments have similar benefits and challenges , biome creatures have certain
characteristics everywhere across the planet. Over time, the creatures have evolved in
comparable ways to that habitat. Cactus species, for example, can be found on different
continents but have adapted to the harsh desert in similar ways.
The Köppen classification system distinguishes five major climatic groups, each
designated by a capital letter A through E. There are subcategories for each lettered
group. Forest (f), monsoon (m), and wet/dry (w) kinds are some of these sub categories,
which are dependent on the amount of precipitation and the season in which it occurs.

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 107

What is the significance of climate to a biome?
The most important abiotic (non-living) element influencing the distribution of
different types of terrestrial biomes is climate. Climate influences the growing
conditions in a certain place, as well as the plants that can thrive there.
What's the connection between biomes and climate?
Climate refers to a region's average weather over a lengthy period of time. Air
temperature and precipitation are commonly used to classify climates. A biome is a
biological community with comparable plants spread across a territory, which might be
a small geographic area or the entire planet.
Climate and Biome Similarities
Atmospheric temperature and precipitation influence both biomes and climates. Plant
life in a specific place can also be used to deduce the climate and biome of an area.
Furthermore, climate has a considerable impact on which biomes will exist in a given
location.
Climatology and Biomes: What's the Difference?
Although a climate and a biome have certain similarities, they also have considerable
distinctions. The following are some of them.
• A biome is characterised mostly based on uniform types of flora, whereas a climate is
classified primarily based on air temperature and precipitation.
• A biome's presence can be determined by the climate, but a biome does not normally
govern or impact the climate in the same way.
• Climate is concerned with atmospheric science, whereas the concept of a biome is
concerned with biology.
India's climate
India's climate is diverse, with a wide range of meteorological conditions over a large
geographic area and varying topography, making generalisations difficult. In addition,
India has six primary climatic subtypes, ranging from arid deserts in the west to alpine
tundra and glaciers in the north, and wet tropical regions with rain forests in the
southwest and island territories, according to the Köppen system. Many locations have
dramatically distinct microclimates, making it one of the world's most climate -diverse
countries. With certain local adaptations, the country's meteorological agency follows
the worldwide norm of four seasons: winter (January and February), summer (March,
April, and May), monsoon (rainy) season (July to August), and a post -monsoon period
(September to November) (October to December).
The Thar Desert in the northwest and the Himalayas in the north work together to
generate a culturally and economically important monsoonal regime in India's
geography and geology. The Himalayas, as the world's highest and largest mountain

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 108

range, block freezing katabatic winds from the Tibetan Plateau and northerly Central
Asia. During the winter, most of North India is maintained w arm or only mildly chilly
or cold; in the summer, the same thermal dam keeps most of India hot. Because of its
coasts, the climate of South India is generally hotter and more humid.
Despite the fact that the Tropic of Cancer—the boundary between the tropics and the
subtropics—runs through the heart of India, the country's climate can be classified as
tropical. Monsoonal and other weather patterns in India, like much of the tropics, may
be highly variable: epochal droughts, heat waves, floods, cyclones, and other natural
calamities are sporadic, yet they have displaced or killed millions of people. As a result
of human-caused climate change, such climatic occurrences are anticipated to change in
frequency and severity. Global warming is also blamed for curren t and future vegetation
changes, sea level rise, and inundation of India's low -lying coastal districts.
Weather and Climate
Climate is defined as the sum of weather conditions and fluctuations over a vast area
over more than thirty years. But what is the d ifference between weather and climate?
The state of the atmosphere over a certain area at any given time is referred to as
weather. The weather can change throughout the day, but a country's climate remains
consistent for many years.

The Indian Climate

India's climate is classified as monsoon-type. South and southeast Asia have this type
of climate. There are, nevertheless, differences in climatic conditions within the
country. The temperature variation between night and day is the smallest in India's
coastal regions. The temperature difference between day and night in the interior is
enormous.
Controls over the weather
The elements that influence temperature changes in India's climate are known as
climatic controls. Six major climatic controls exist. They are as follows:
• Latitude: Because the planet is spherical, sunlight does not reach all parts of the globe
equally. As we travel from the equator to the poles, the temperature drops.
• Altitude: As we go from the earth's surface to greater altitudes, the temperature drops.
• Pressure and wind system: The pressure and wind system of any location are
influenced by its latitude and height. As a result, it has an impact on the temperature.
• Coastal locations are colder than interior regions due to their proxi mity to the water.
As the distance between the sea and the people grows, the sea's impact diminishes, and
the people are subjected to more harsh weather conditions.

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 109

• Ocean currents: Cold ocean currents flowing across a location reduce the temperature
of that region, whilst warm currents enhance it.
• Relief features: The obstacles that prevent currents from entering the country are
known as relief features. Cold and hot winds are deflected by high mountains.
Factors Affecting India's Climate
Latitude
We know that the Tropic of Cancer runs through the middle of Rann of Kuchchh in the
west and Mizoram in the east, separating tropical and sub -tropical portions of the globe.
As a result, India's climate has elements of both tropical and sub -tropical climates.
Altitude
India has mountains that rise to a height of roughly 6000 metres. The Himalayas block
central Asian cold winds from entering India. India has a milder winter than Central
Asia as a result of this.
Winds and Pressure
India has its own set of wind and pressure patterns. During the winter, the northern
Himalayan region experiences high pressure. As a result, the winds from this area blow
south, where the pressure is lower. The northern section of the country has lower
pressure in the summer. As a result, the wind direction has shifted. The winds from the
south are blowing in the direction of the north. The climate of India is heavily
influenced by these winds.
The Monsoon Season in India
India's climate is heavily influenced by monsoon winds. Monsoons a re caused by a
difference in temperature between the land and the water. You're undoubtedly aware
that land heats up more quickly than water. This difference in heating causes a
difference in pressures, which causes currents to flow. As a result, changes i n pressure
have an impact on the monsoons. In the tropical eastern -south Pacific Ocean, high
pressure prevails, whereas low pressure prevails in the tropical eastern Indian Ocean.
However, as the years have passed, the pressure conditions have shifted. As a result, the
pressure in the eastern Pacific is lower. Southern Oscillations, or SO, are a periodic
variation in pressure conditions.
The Four Seasons
India's climate has distinct seasonal patterns. The weather changes dramatically from
one season to the next. In the interior, temperature fluctuations are considerable.
Extreme temperatures are not common in coastal areas.

The Season of Cold Weather (Winter)

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 110

In India, the cold weather season begins in mid -November and lasts till February. The
coldest months are December and January. As we travel from south to north, the
temperature drops. In the winter, the average temperature in the south is 24° –25°
Celsius, whereas it is between 10° and 15° Celsius in the north.
The Season of Hot Weather (Summer)
In India, the hot weather season lasts from March through May. Temperatures in the
northwestern portions of the country reach 45° in May. Pre -monsoon showers are
typical in Kerala and Karnataka around the conclusion of the summer season. Because
they aid in the early ripening of mangoes in these states, they are commonly referred to
as'mango showers.'
The Monsoon Is Getting Stronger (Rainy Season)
By early June, the southern trade winds have brought enough of precipitation to the
region. The Western Ghats' windward side receives a lot of rain, more than 250 cm. The
monsoon is notorious for its unpredictability. While it causes severe flooding in one
area, it may also be the source of drought in another. Its arrival and departure are also
erratic.
Monsoons are dissipating (Transition Season)
The monsoons get weaker in October and November. The sun is moving southward. The
monsoon had left the Northern Plains by the beginning of October. The steamy rainy
season gives way to the dry winter season.
Rainfall Distribution
Every year, about 400 cm of rain falls in some parts of India. In Rajasthan and nearby
portions of Gujarat, Haryana, and Punjab, however, it is less than 60 cm. Moderate
rainfall falls across the rest of the country. The annual rainfall is significantly
unpredictable from year to year due to the nature of monsoons.
Elnino from India
In India, the monsoon will be influenced by where and when El Nino forms, as well as
how powerful or weak it is.
Monsoons (southwest monsoon and northeast monsoon) and cyclones , which typically
originate during the pre-monsoon (March-May) and post-monsoon (October–December)
seasons, are the two most important meteorological events on the Indian subcontinent.
The El Nino and Southern Oscillation (commonly known as ENSO) and the r ecently
discovered Indian Ocean Dipole, which refers to the temperature difference between the
surface waters in the west and east of the ocean, are two key phenomena that influence
the Indian Ocean.
Traditional El Nino, which is defined by strong anomalou s warming in the eastern
equatorial Pacific, and El Nino Modoki, which is marked by strong anomalous warming

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 111

in the central tropical Pacific and cooling in the eastern and western tropical Pacific,
are the two forms of El Nino.
The monsoon in India will be determined by where and when this El Nino forms, as
well as its strength or weakness. In this article, I discuss three factors that could be
influenced by El Nino or El Modoki.
Monsoon onset over Kerala (MOK) would be adversely impacted if El Nino over th e
Pacific Ocean intensifies this year, and El Nino and Indian Ocean Dipole occurrences
will be major variables. This is the result of study conducted by myself, my students
Syam Sankar and Sumesh K G, and Chris Reason. After researching inter -annual
fluctuations utilising data from over 60 years (1948 –2009), the research has already
been published in a number of national and international journals.
The anomalous persistence of westerlies and heightened convection over the south east
Arabian Sea and the southern Bay of Bengal are the most notable aspects of early MOK
years or early monsoon years. The persistence of easterlies and suppressed convections
in the same area are the explanations for the delayed MOK years or late monsoon.
Furthermore, in the western Pacific, sea surface temperature anomalies are negative
during delayed MOK and positive during early MOK. The impact of El Nio Modoki
occurrences on the genesis of tropical cyclones over the north Indian Ocean is the
second observation. The conclusion is based on a 2013 study published in Natural
Hazards. When compared to El Nino years, the frequency of tropical cyclones is higher
across the Arabian Sea and lower over the Bay of Bengal during the El NinoModoki
years. In comparison to a pure El Nino Modoki year, our current research suggests that
the occurrence of a Positive Indian Ocean Dipole (PIOD) along with El Nino Modoki
events can significantly alter the factors that influence the development or
strengthening of cyclonic circulation in the atmosphere (also known as cyclogenesis)
over the Arabian Sea. Several associated ocean -atmospheric events, including as El
Nino, El Nino Modki, Indian Ocean Dipole, and Madden Julian Oscillation, influence
this cyclonic circulation.
Tropical cyclones over the north Indian Ocean during La-Nia Modoki years are the
third observation. El Nino Modoki's polar opposite, La Nina Modoki, is marked by a
colder central Pacific flanked by warmer eastern and western Pacific. The frequency of
cyclonic storms in the Bay of Bengal is higher during La-Ninâ• aModoki years than
during conventional La-Ninâ• a years, according to a study published in the Indian
Journal of Geo Marine Sciences in 2010. And severe cyclonic storms occur more
frequently in canonical La-Ninâ• a years than in La-Ninâ• aModoki years. The research
also demonstrates that La-Ninâ• amodoki events do not promote the formation of
cyclones over the Arabian Sea. When compared to traditional La -Nia years, there is a

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 112

reduction in the size of low level convergence over the Ba y of Bengal, which
suppresses the creation of violent cyclonic storms. Our findings are limited to a certain
time span (1979–2010) and cannot be applied to other situations.

In India, there is a drought.

During the 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries, drought in India killed tens of millions of
people. India's agriculture is strongly reliant on its climate: a good monsoon is essential
for securing water for irrigating the country's crops. The failure of the monsoons causes
water shortages in portions of India, resulting in low yields. [1] This is especially true
in the drought-prone states of Maharashtra, northern Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh,
Odisha, Gujarat, Telangana, and Rajasthan.
Droughts have caused catastrophic Indian famines in the past, including the Beng al
famine of 1770, which killed up to one -third of the population in impacted areas; the
1876–1877 famine, which killed over five million people; and the 1899 famine, which
killed over 4.5 million people. 2.5 crore people were affected by the Maharashtra
drought in 2013. Simply put, drought has wreaked havoc on India on a vast scale.
Between 1870 and 2018, India experienced 18 meteorological and 16 hydrological
droughts. The five worst hydrological droughts happened in 1876, 1899, 1918, 1965,
and 2000, while the five most severe meteorological droughts were in 1876, 1899,
1918, 1965, and 2000. The drought of 1899 was the most severe documented drought in
India's history, and it was both climatic and hydrological in nature.
El Nio's Effect
All severe drought experiences are linked to El Nio-Southern Oscillation (ENSO)
events. Droughts linked to El Nio have also been linked to periodic drops in Indian
agricultural output. Nonetheless, ENSO episodes that have coincided with abnormally
high sea surface temperatures in the Indian Ocean—up to 3 degrees Celsius (5 degrees
Fahrenheit) in one case during 1997 and 1998 —have resulted in enhanced marine
evaporation, resulting in exceptionally rainy weather over India. During a prolonged
warm season that began in the 1990s, such oddities happened. An ENSO-related oceanic
low pressure convergence centre occurs instead of the usual high pressure air mass over
the southern Indian Ocean; it then continuously pulls dry air from Central Asia,
desiccating India during what should have been the wet summer monsoon season.
Droughts in India are caused by this reversal of air flow. The degree of drought is
influenced by the amount to which an ENSO event boosts sea surface temperatures in
the central Pacific Ocean. Drought follows El Ni o events in India in about 43% of the
time.

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 113

India's earthquakes
BIHAR \sMagnitude:8.1 \sDate:January,15,1934 \sToll:Over30,000
This quake is often regarded as one of the worst in Indian history. The earthquake's
epicentre was in Nepal's eastern region. The loss of life and property was enormous.
The earthquake was so powerful that it was felt in Kolkata, which was 650 kilometres
away from the epicentre. The worst-affected areas included Purnea, Munger,
Muzaffarpur, and Champaran.
GUJARAT \sMagnitude:7.7 \sDate:January,26,2001 \sToll:Over-20,000
At 8:40 a.m., an earthquake struck, lasting two minutes. Several towns and villages
were completely devastated as a result of the disaster. Bhuj, along with Anjaar, Vondh,
and Bhachau, was among the worst-affected places due to its proximity to the epicentre.
Several structures were damaged or destroyed as a result of the quake. In the city of
Bhuj, the famed Swaminarayan temple was also partially damaged.
• Magnitude:6.4 \sDate:September,30,1993 \sToll:Over20,000
Killari hamlet in Latur district was the epicentre of the quake. The worst -affected areas
were Osmanabad and Latur. Over 52 villages were entirely devastated as a result of the
devastation.
ASSAM \sMagnitude:8.6 \sDate:August,15,1950 \sToll:Over1,500
Rima, Tibet, was the epicentre of the earthquake. Both Assam and Tibet were
devastated by the earthquake. It was regarded as one of the ten most powerful
earthquakes of the twentieth century.
UTTARKASHI \sMagnitude6.1 \sDate:October,20,1991 \sToll:Over1000
The earthquake in Uttarakhand jolted Uttarkashi, Chamoli, and Tehri, causing
considerable property damage. The quake's tremors were felt all the way up to Delhi.

Tropical Cyclones in India

India is the country in the North Indian Ocean that is most vulnerable to tropical
cyclones in the basin, whether they come from the east or the west. Each year, 2 –3
tropical cyclones make landfall in India, with around one of them becoming a severe
tropical storm.
India is a South Asian country bordered by the Arabian Sea, the Indian Ocean, and the
Bay of Bengal, as well as Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, Myanmar, Nepal, and Pakistan on
land. India shares a marine border with Thailand, Myanmar, and Indonesia, as well as
Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Its Andaman and Nicobar Islands hav e a maritime border
with Thailand, Myanmar, and Indonesia. Every year, India is hit by two to four tropical
cyclones, with the majority of them hitting the east coast states of West Bengal, Odisha,
Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu. The west coast of India is less prone to cyclones,

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 114

with one cyclone every two to four years, with the bulk of them hitting Gujarat,
Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, and Kerala.

In India, there is a westerly disturbance.

Explain the western upheavals.
Western Disturbance is an extratropical cyclone that originates in the Mediterranean
region and provides abrupt winter rain to the Indian subcontinent's northwestern
regions. The westerlies are responsible for this non -monsoonal precipitation pattern.
This can happen at any time of year, not just during the rainy season. Extratropical
storms are a worldwide occurrence. Unlike their tropical cousins, which carry moisture
in the lower layer of the atmosphere, this phenomena normally conveys moisture in the
upper layer of the atmosphere. When a storm system hits the Himalayas or the
Himalayan region, moisture is sometimes shed as rain on the Indian subcontinent.
Western disturbances are forming.
Western Disturbance began as extratropical cyclones in the Mediterranean Sea. The
incursion of cold air from the Polar Regions into an area of relatively warmer air with
significant moisture is caused by a high-pressure area over areas like Ukraine and
neighbouring nations. This shift in pressure from cold to warm air creates favourable
conditions for cyclogenesis in the high atmosphere, which aids in the creation of an
extratropical depression in the sea that moves eastward. Then they make their way
across the Middle East, passing via Iran, Afghanistan, and Pakistan before reaching the
Indian subcontinent.
Western disruptions have had an impact.
The effects of western disturbances on the atmosphere are as follows:
• It is responsible for bringing moderate to heavy rain in low -lying areas and a large
amount of snow to the Indian Subcontinent's mountainous regions. • This disturbance is
characterised by gloomy skies, warmer night temperatures, and unusual rain.
• The excessive precipitation created as a result of this disruption can cause crop
damage, landslides, floods, and avalanches, especially for Rabi c rops.
•
It occasionally brings cold wave temperatures and dense fog to the Indo -Gangetic
plains, however these climatic conditions remain stable until disturbed by another
western disturbance.
When these western disturbances pass across northwest India pri or to the start of the
monsoon, a sequence of brief advances in the monsoon current appear over the
impacted area.

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 115

India's Tsunamis
Tsunamis are triggered by earthquakes or other seismic eruptions on the ocean's ground,
which can result in large tidal waves that slam into land with incredible force, wreaking
havoc. The destruction is typically severe, especially in areas where tsunamis are rare,
because the population is unprepared for them and consequently takes few precautions.
Even little floods can cause significant property damage and financial loss.
India's volcanoes
Volcanoes are one of nature's most powerful forces. They have so much power that they
could wipe out the entire continent in one fell swoop. They can be found on any
continent.
India's landslides
Gravitational movements of mass of rock downward on a slope are referred to as
landslides. Landslides occur in 12.6 percent of India's land area. As a result, having a
thorough understanding of the causes of landslides is critical for taking appro priate
preventative steps and ensuring safety. Continue reading to learn more about the causes,
types, and other important information.

In India, what Causes a Landslide?

Consider the following five causes that cause landslides in India:
Landslides caused by human involvement are one of the main causes of landslides in
India. Deforestation is one of them. The Himalayan region, for example, has become
more vulnerable to landslides as a result of irresponsible tree cutting.
The binding properties of soil and rocks are reduced when trees are removed. As a
result, water can seep into the subsurface, putting the topsoil at risk. Increased
deforestation, according to GSI, is one of the causes of landslides in Western
Maharashtra and the Konkan region.
2. Cultivation Shift
In hilly areas and the Northeast, shifting cultivation is common. Residents burn the
trees every year for agricultural purposes. However, this degrades topsoil quality,
resulting in erosion following heavy rains. As a result, landslides are more likely in
these areas.
3. Earthquakes and Heavy Rainfall
Earthquake-caused landslides threaten more than 40% of the Kumaon Himalayan
region. Landslides are also common when there is a lot of rain. In Maharashtra's Talai
village, for example, severe rain caused landslides in 2021.
4. Quarrying and mining Human activities such as quarrying and mining destroy
vegetation cover and soil gravel. The groundwater retention capacity is lowered as a

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 116

result. Furthermore, it raises the risk of floods. As a result of lo ose debris or excess
waters during an earthquake or severe rainfall, landslides occur.
5. Development of the city
The increasing population pressure in a few Indian districts is concerning.
Dharamshala, for example, is prone to landslides. It is one of the Himalayan region's
fastest growing cities. Intensive urbanisation operations, such as the construction of
commercial housing projects and roads, degrade the vegetation cover in this area. As a
result, landslides are becoming more common in this area.

What Are the Top 5 Landslide Effects in India?

Take note of the following landslide effects in India:
During landslides, mud, debris, and rocks slide down the hill. This limits human
mobility and forms a traffic barrier on highway and railway lines. For examp le, a
landslide in Badhal district recently shut the national highway -5.
• One of the most serious consequences is the loss of human life. A landslide in Kinnaur
district killed roughly 28 persons on August 11, 2021.
It causes damage to homes, highways, and structures. This adds to the costly burden of
rehabilitating the masses by reconstructing infrastructure.
• Debris sliding down slopes completely or partially blocks the river channel. This
makes it difficult for residents to obtain water. Flooding is al so increased by landslides.
It's because the debris adds to the sediment in the river. As a result, rivers with erratic
courses become more common, resulting in floods.
What Are India's Three Landslide Zones?
India's landslide zones are categorised into th e following categories. -
Zones of Moderate-Low Vulnerability to Landslides
• Trans Himalayan region • Himachal Pradesh's Spiti Valley • The Aravalli Mountains •
Deccan Plateau • Chhattisgarh • Jharkhand
• North-eastern area • Eastern Ghats • Konkan Hills • Nilgiris Very Highly Vulnerable
Zones • Odisha Highly Vulnerable Zones
• Western Ghats • Darjeeling • Sikkim • Uttarakhand • Andaman and Nicobar Islands
What Steps Must Be Taken to Prevent Landslides?
To prevent landslides in India, use the actions outli ned below:
• To lower the risk of landslides on community lands, an increase in forest cover is
required.
• Excess water must be stored in catchment areas. • People must limit their animals'
grazing in order to lessen the impact of flash floods and recharg e groundwater levels.

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 117

Reduce urbanisation operations such as dam construction and other commercial
projects.
• It is critical to raise public understanding about the importance of taking preventative
actions during landslides and other disasters.
What Insurance Does India Have to Help With Landslide Damages?
Natural disasters are unpredictable, but can cause enormous physical and economic
harm. To protect yourself from such harm, get the Bharat Griha Insurance Policy. Let's
have a look at what its insurance plan includes:
Bharat Griha Insurance Policy is a type of insurance policy offered by Bharat Griha
The Bharat Griha or Standard Fire and Special Perils policy provides financial
protection against the following natural disasters: • Landslide • Tsunami • F ire •
Tornado • Flood • Hurricane • Earthquake • Rockslide • Forest and brush fires •
Cyclone • Storm
• The policy provides financial assistance to homeowners who have had their homes
damaged by landslides or other natural catastrophes.
• For reconstructing common house contents, financial coverage of up to 20% of the
total is covered. A maximum monetary reward of $10,000 is available. Individuals can
obtain a higher level of insurance coverage for their own belongings. As a result,
provide details about the damaged items.
It also includes the following insurance coverage options:
o Curiosities and jewellery
o Accidents involving an insured and his or her spouse as a result of dangers covered by
this plan; • There is no underinsurance. Assume the insurance a mount is less than the
actual cost of the damage. In that scenario, you will be reimbursed for the cost of
repairing the damage.

In India, landslides are a common natural danger. Approximately 61 landslides occurred

in India during the last eight months of 2021. As a result, it is critical to have a
thorough understanding of the causes of landslides as well as preventative measures.
Human loss can be reduced by monitoring early warning indicators and adopting proper
precautions. To protect your safety during any such event, keep the pointers listed
above in mind.

SELF-TEST 01
1) Which one of the following places receives the highest rainfall in the world?

a) Silchar

b) Mawsynram

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 118

 c) Cherrapunji

d) Guwahati

2) Which one of the following characteristics the cold weather season in India?

a) Warm days and warm nights

b) Warm days and cold nights

c) Cool days and cold nights

d) Cold days and warm nights

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 01
1) What are the main threats of climate change?

2) How is climate change affecting farms and our food ?

3-2 REMOTE SENSING IN ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING: PRINCIPLES

OF REMOTE SENSING , ITS APPLICATIONS IN ENVIRONMENTAL
MONITORING
In environmental planning and management, the depiction of spatial data on maps has
become an increasingly valuable tool. Data analysis approaches have progressed from
descriptive to perspective maps that depict spatial relationships on a visual information
platform presently known as Geographical Information Systems (GIS) (GIS).

Whereas GIS refers to a set of strong tools for converting and displaying real-world
spatial data, remote sensing data received from air and space sources supplies much of
the data needed for mapping, environmental management, and planning.

The science of acquiring information about the Earth using high-flying aeroplanes and
satellites is known as remote sensing. Sensors connected to the aeroplane detect the
energy reflected from the Earth and gather the data.

There are two types of remote sensors: passive and active. Passive sensors record the
natural energy emitted from the Earth's surface in reaction to external stimuli. The most
prevalent source of observed radiation is reflected sunlight. Active sensors are
distinguished by the fact that they collect data using internal stimuli. A laser -beam
remote sensing system, for example, collects data by projecting a laser onto the Earth's
surface and measuring the time it takes for the light to be reflected back to the sensor.

For environmental planning and management, remote sensing offers a wide range of
uses. Coastal applications, ocean applications, hazard assessments, and natural resource
management are just a few of the broad categories that encompass a wide range of

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 119

analyses such as monitoring shoreline changes, measuring ocean temperatures, tracking
natural disaster impacts, and charting wildlife habitats, to name a few. All of these sorts
of assessments aid in the efficient planning and control of land, water, and resource
management.

NASA's Soil Moisture Active Passive (SMAP) Mission is an important area of remote
sensing research that is now underway. Every 2 -3 days, Earth observation satellites
recover data measuring soil moisture in the top 5 cm of soil over the Earth's surface.
Because of its widespread usage in agriculture and as a foundation fo r vegetation
growth, it is critical that we improve our understanding of the Earth's topsoil layer. Soil
moisture also helps us comprehend the water cycle and forecast weather and natural
disasters, which is useful for environmental management.

Soil moisture data has traditionally been derived from space using two different ways.
Active sensors, such as Radarsat-2 (a commercial radar satellite) that uses an Ultra -Fine
beam to illuminate its target in order to detect and recognise objects as well as measure
backscatter (the reflection of particles or waves back to the direction of the satellite).
This approach has a low accuracy but returns data with a high spatial resolution.
Passive sensors, such as the SMOS (Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity) Mission
satellite, record observations of sea surface salinity and soil moisture by measuring
naturally released microwave radiation. Because of the significant dielectric differential
between water and dry soil, the sensors extract soil moisture data from brightness
temperature readings, where the soil emissivity 'epsilon' provides a specific microwave
frequency based on the moisture content it observes.

SMAP is a NASA mission that aims to combine the benefits of active and passive
sensors by determining soil moisture content with two instruments: a radar (active) and
a radiometer (passive). Multiple fields of environmental management will benefit from
the data collected by SMAP. The SMAP gives essential information on moisture deficits
for identifying agricultural drought and tracking its severity by monitoring soil
moisture. With their projections, these metrics can enable planning and management
authorities in formulating and implementing steps to reduce drought susceptibility,
promoting risk management rather than crisis management. The better resolution of
SMAP's direct soil moisture measurements can help with flood management by
measuring soil moisture before a downpour, as well as weather forecasting by giving
meteorologists with measurements on the quantity of wate r available to evaporate from
land surfaces.

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 120

Landsat imaging is another type of satellite data that is frequently used in
environmental management. Since 1972, Landsat satellites have provided a constant
stream of data about the Earth, with Landsat 9 set t o launch in December 2020. '...
constitutes the world's longest continuously gathered collection of space -based
moderate-resolution land remote sensing data,' according to the Landsat project. The
Operational Land Imager (OLI) and the Thermal Infrared Sens or are two sensors carried
by the current Landsat 8 satellite (TIRS). The satellite orbits the Earth every 89.9
minutes, covering the entire surface every 16 days. The OLI sensor gets information in
the form of nine spectral bands with resolutions ranging from 15 to 30 metres, whereas
the TIRS retrieves 100 metre spectral bad data in Bands 10 and 11.

Landsat data is used for a variety of purposes, including resource management and
monitoring for environmental and economic quality, as well as public health a nd
national security. Agriculture and forest management, water resources, infrastructure,
natural disasters, land cover change, and climatic change are all examples of
applications. The NDVI is the most commonly utilised index by remote sensing analysts
(Normalized Difference Vegetation Index). The difference between near -infrared (NIR –
Band 4 OLI sensor data) and red light (R – Band 3 OLI sensor data) is used to quantify
vegetation regions. Red light is absorbed by vegetation, but NIR is highly reflected by
it. When determined, NDVI values can range from 0 to 1, indicating that there is no
vegetation present (-1) to dense vegetation (+1). This information is often utilised in
agricultural and forest management to calculate leaf area indexes and deforestati on.

Remote sensing's qualities make it a great tool for providing decision -makers with
large-area maps of target features in a timely and consistent manner. Environmental
practitioners interested in using remote sensing techniques have access to a wealth o f
data, methods, and instruments.

Environmental monitoring refers to a variety of operations that are carried out to gain
knowledge and track the status of natural resources in a systematic manner. It's utilised
to assist protect the resources being monitored, reduce their effects, and ensure their
long-term use.

This article discusses the productive activities that are associated to environmental
monitoring, the main types of monitoring and their benefits, new breakthroughs and
trends in the field, and studies on remote sensing for environmental monitoring.

What are the benefits of monitoring the environment from space?

Environmental monitoring solutions are required for a wide range of human and
productive activities. This is owing to legislative requireme nts relating to project

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 121

environmental licencing processes or environmental compliance difficulties when
seeking access to specific markets, finance, or investment.

Mining and manufacturing, civil construction projects (highways, railroads, and

electrical transmission lines), utility services, agricultural activities, and those
involving the extraction and use of natural resources are all examples of activities that
frequently require environmental monitoring solutions (silviculture, forest
exploitation).

Environmental monitoring projects are often carried out in one of two ways: (1)
primarily by field data collecting, with subsequent analyses carried out in a laboratory
or office; or (2) through remote sensing.

While data collecting in the field is becoming more frequent among corporations and
projects, it requires a significant amount of people and financial resources and has
limitations. The following difficulties may arise depending on the monitoring objective:
1. In most cases, low spatial and temporal representation; 2. Data collection in an
intrusive manner, requiring interaction with the monitored environment; and 3. Difficult
access, which can prevent data collection in locations of interest.

Remote sensing is an optional approach that is already widel y utilised and has a lot of
potential for environmental monitoring applications. It is carried out with the use of
data and photos collected by satellite sensors.

Remote sensing is used to monitor the environment.

Remote sensing is a method of environmental monitoring that uses data and images
collected by sensors on satellites and other platforms to extract information about
targets on the earth's surface or processes of interest over time.

It's vital to note that remote sensing monitoring isn't appropriat e for all situations or all
of the requirements of extremely complicated monitoring operations. The methodology
is sometimes used to supplement traditional monitoring methods. In other cases, it can
completely eliminate the requirement for field visits and expenditures on laboratory or
office analyses.

The following are the main advantages of this approach over traditional monitoring: •
Greater spatial representation of the monitored area; • Data obtained with greater
frequency; • Coverage of large areas; • Data collection in a non-intrusive and
systematic manner; • Ability to obtain information in difficult -to-access areas; • Ability
to reduce monitoring programme costs; • Greater speed in providing information to
decision makers.

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 122

Water-quality monitoring in reservoirs and other water bodies, vegetation monitoring in
areas of direct and indirect project impact (mining areas, highways, and energy
transmission lines), and environmental compliance monitoring on agricultural
properties are just a few of the applications for satellite images collected for
environmental monitoring.

Advantages of Remote Sensing for Environmental Monitoring

The fact that there are presently several active satellite missions that publicly or
commercially give data and images with diverse characteristics and spatial, spectral,
and temporal resolutions is a very beneficial element in regard to environmental
monitoring using remote sensing. Landsat of NASA, Sentinel of the European Space
Agency (ESA), and CBERS of a Brazil-China partnership are among the missions that
publicly provide historic series of photographs acquired in the form of standardised
products in georeferenced archives, ready to be consumed by the ultimate user.

Another key factor is the rising availability of sensors with various features, which
allows for the collection of a wide range of data and images, boosting the possibilities
for environmental monitoring applications. The chart below shows the most common
types of sensors used for environmental monitoring, as well a s their properties and
applications:

• The kind of sensor Characteristics

• Hyperspectral and multi-optical.

• RADAR (Radio Detection and Ranging) • LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging)
(Light Detection and Ranging)

Information is collected in the visible and near-infrared spectral ranges, as well as in

short waves. The sun is the primary source of energy for this sort of imaging, which can
only capture photos during daylight hours. In some weather circumstances, the
procedure suffers, and it is unable to capture photographs in cloudy conditions.

It registers the energy emitted by objects on the earth's surface and may collect data at
any time of day or night.

This is classified as an active sensor because it has its own energy sources and can
gather data at night. It detects energy in the microwave band and can collect data
regardless of weather conditions.

This is termed an active sensor because it has its own sources of energy and can thus
gather data at night. It is capable of gathering data regardless of weather conditions.

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 123

Applicability Examples

• Monitoring of quantitative (suppression and regeneration) and qualitative (detection

of species of interest) aspects of vegetation; – monitoring of water quality; –
monitoring of erosive processes

• Fire monitoring; – Heat island monitoring; – Thermal pollution sources in aquatic

bodies monitoring

• Monitoring of biomass and forest carbon; – Monitoring of quantitative and qualitative

features of vegetation; – Monitoring of mass movement; • Monitoring of biomass a nd
forest carbon; – Monitoring of quantitative and qualitative aspects of vegetation; •
Monitoring of biomass and forest carbon;

Environmental monitoring sensor types, properties, and applications.

Trends in technology

We can note the advent and increased use of nanosatellites in terms of technological
advancements in data collecting with remote sensing. These are small satellites that can
be used in constellations to broaden the form of imaging of the Earth's surface in ways
that have never been seen before. Planet, a California-based corporation that runs more
than 150 nanosatellites organised in various constellations and provides data and goods
in a unique mix of high spatial resolution and imaging frequency, is one successful
example.

Remote sensing principles in environmental monitoring

Detecting and recording radiant energy reflected or emitted by objects or surface

material is what detection and discriminating of objects or surface features entails.
Varying things incident on the electromagnetic spect rum return different amounts of
energy in different bands. This is determined by material properties (structural,
chemical, and physical), surface roughness, angle of incidence, radiant energy intensity,
and wavelength.

Remote sensing is a multidisciplinary science that combines a variety of disciplines

such as optics, spectroscopy, photography, computer, electronics, and
telecommunications, as well as satellite launching. All of these technologies are
combined to form the Remote Sensing System, which is a comprehensive system in and
of itself. A Remote Sensing process is divided into several steps, each of which is
critical to its effectiveness.

Remote sensing as a tool for environmental monitoring:

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 124

Environmental science is a branch of science that studies the earth's processes
(biological, physical, and chemical). The use of remote sensing technology in this
discipline has proven to be an excellent tool for mapping large and remote areas, and it
has a variety of applications in environmental science. The im plementation of this
technique has resulted in an increase in environmental preservation and management,
demonstrating that the technique is helpful.

Applications

The following are some examples of remote sensing applications in environmental

science:

1. Forest surveillance

For monitoring and conserving forested regions, remote sensors are effective tools.
Because on-the-ground surveillance of forested areas is impossible due to wild animals
and dense vegetation, remote sensing gives an alternative approach of monitoring these
areas. The sensors are installed above the targeted area and are used to keep track of
what happens there.

2. Natural resource management

Natural resources are valuable, and as a result, they are vulnerable to theft and
misappropriation; remote sensing is employed to counteract these actions. The satellite
sensor records all of the site's ongoing actions, which considerably aids in reducing
occurrences of misappropriation and theft.

3. Water source and course protection

Various steps were put in place by the government and the community to protect the
water bodies. However, because there is no on-site supervision, these regulations and
safeguards may not be followed, posing a significant difficulty in maintaining water
bodies and their courses. The government can take legal action against the set measures
thanks to remote sensing technology, which allows monitoring of water bodies.

4. Environmental and water quality

Water and air are the most important things in environmental science, and their safety
must be preserved. This is made feasible by the remote sensing approach, which detects
the source of pollution and gives useful data that can be utilised to manage air and
water quality.

5. Protection of the environment

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 125

Remote sensing is frequently utilised to protect and preserve the environment by
providing information that may be used to make environmental decisions.

6. Detecting physical traits

By detecting the reflected and emitted radiation, sensors may identify the physical
features of a region. This aids in the documentation of a certain area's or region's
history since scholars can predict and detect events in that area.

7. Controlling natural calamities

Natural disasters pose a significant threat to the ecosystem, and as a result, t hey must
be minimised and regulated. The remote sensing technology is an effective tool for
controlling and managing fires, droughts, desertification, and other natural disasters.
Remote sensors, such as satellite sensors, are used to restrict the spread o f fire during a
forest fire outbreak because they can map a broader space, allowing rangers to view the
area affected by the fire.

8. Forecasting the weather

Satellite sensors have proven to be useful in forecasting weather conditions and

providing information to weather forecasters that may be utilised to prepare for changes
in the weather. In addition, sensors can track erupting volcanoes, which could aid in the
relocating of people in the vicinity of the victim's mountain.

9. Observing the ocean floor

Without having to go underwater, sensors can be utilised to capture photographs of the

deep ocean. Remote sensing has considerably aided Oceanography by allowing for
further study, discovery, and mapping of the ocean floor's topography (study of the
ocean).

Infrastructure management is number ten.

Infrastructure, such as roads, is also a part of the environment, so it is necessary to

maintain them. It is difficult for traffic cops to detect traffic problems in all regions,
which is where remote sensing comes in. Satellite sensors capture photographs and
record data that can be used to analyse roads and infrastructure.

11. Planning for the city

Proper planning is required to avoid a clogged environment. This can be accomplished,

however, by understanding the current state of the region to be managed. A picture of
the complete area covered by the city is required, and here is where remote sensing
comes in to help with the planning process.

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 126

12. Researching instrument

Methods capable of obtaining the most data are recommended during environmental
science research. When compared to other approaches, remote sensing is superior since
it can cover a larger region at the same time.

13. Exploration of natural resources

Remote sensing is a useful tool in the exploration of natural resources. It's used to find
quarrying locations and update geological maps that are already in place. The method is
also used to locate fuel resources and find new mining sites.

14. Land surveying

Land use mapping is required in environmental sci ence. The remote sensing technique
is used to capture an image of the earth's surface, which is then used to track changes in
land usage and update maps of land and highways. It provides planners and
administrators with the necessary information for the ar ea's development.

15. Research on the environment

Remote sensing is useful in discovering the source of deforestation, volcanoes,

pollution, desertification, landslides, and other natural dangers while studying the
environment and its surroundings. This investigation yielded valuable information that
could be used to avert the development of another natural calamity in the future.

Conservation of habitat is number sixteen.

Some environmental vegetation must be protected from both animals and people. The
use of remote sensing technology may be beneficial in capturing all activities occurring
in the protected area and so ensuring their safety.

17. Information source

Any study involving the environment may find remote sensing technology to be a
valuable source of data. Sensor-captured photos and videos can be used in
environmental analysis since they contain information from a large area.

To summarise, remote sensing is intimately linked to the rise of the environmental

science area and has proven to be an effective instrument.

18. Drought surveillance

Drought has wreaked havoc on human cultures throughout history. It is difficult to

monitor without remote sensing and GIS data since it is caused by a variety of reasons.
The first effect is brought on by a lack of precipitation. Furthermore, hydrological

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 127

drought is caused by a lack of precipitation and an excessive use of water resources.
When there is insufficient irrigation and high transpiration and evaporation, soil
moisture draught can occur. All of these variables are monitored through remote
sensing, which records data in a geographic information system (GIS) that researchers
may access.

19. Monitoring of Desertification

Desertification is the process of the desert becoming encroached upon. It can be a long -
term and even irreparable situation. Deserts take a long time to create because they are
influenced by a variety of variables, including climate change and severe human
activities. Remote sensing measures man's impact as well as meteorological variables to
identify places that are becoming deserts. Because of the bad state of the soil, food and
meat output is declining. Over-cultivation and soil erosion are two other main causes of
desertification. Remote sensing and GIS data can be used to track all of thes e variables.

20. Land management

When it comes to land management, remote sensing is a crucial tool. Because they are
predictable of what role the land will serve, this data can be used by both researchers
and farmers to gather physical features. Aerial i mages acquired by satellites, aircraft,
and drones are used to access the physical properties. These technologies aid in the
creation of resource maps as well as the monitoring of environmental changes. In land
management, remote sensing usually entails the use of digital photographs, which are
processed automatically by computers.

21 Forest management GIS and remote sensing are always used to achieve effective
forest management. Researchers and forest authorities rely on satellite photos. Remote
sensing maps include a wealth of information, such as the various species that can be
found in the forest. It also indicates the areas damaged by forest fires or other natural
disasters such as strong winds and heavy rain. This information is always used by forest
officials and researchers to safeguard the forest from hazardous human activities.

22 Mountain surveillance

When compared to other parts of the planet, mountains are extremely fragile. They've
undergone massive transformations in the last few years. Less sn ow and melting
glaciers, for example, have a continuous impact on the water regime. Landslides,
glacial lake outbursts, and rockfalls are also threatening the existence of some
mountains. Aside from that, mountain and forest agriculture, as well as all -natural
ecosystems, are under threat. As a result, comprehending and tracking diverse changes

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 128

is a critical duty. The most effective methods for monitoring and managing mountains
are GIS and remote sensing.

23 Water management

Water is a vital component of our lives. Nothing can survive on the surface of the earth
without it. Recent satellite photographs of the moon, Saturn, and Mars have revealed
suspected remains of frozen water. Some researchers also contend that there is flowing
water on Mars, but that there is little data to support this claim. Remote sensing data is
the most effective approach to monitor water, particularly large amounts. Water is like a
force that governs the world, and it must be properly controlled. What we refer to as the
earth's driving power can become sour at times. Lakes, rivers, and even oceans have
breached their banks, claiming the lives of innocent people. The use of remote sensing
to monitor such events can save many lives while also aiding in conservation.

24 Soil management

Over the previous few decades, land use has resulted in significant changes to the
earth's surface. Climate change and demographic pressure are likely to keep them
going. As a result, monitoring techniques like remote sensing and GIS are critical in
this setting. It assists with carbon cycles, soil erosion, water resource management, and
excess management monitoring and planning. You can also utilise GIS to retrieve soil
parameters from the last three decades.

25. Landform change is being tracked.

GIS and remote sensing tools are particularly significant in landform change
monitoring. They look at things like crustal deformations and keep track of them.

The precise measurements are saved in a database for future investigation. Data is
crucial, especially in the realm of agriculture. Farmers use this information to identify
places with rich soils. Landform monitoring data can also be used in the construction
and building industries. Engineers, for example, use remote sensing data to locate
places ideal for construction.

26. Research Objectives

In all domains including remote sensing and GIS, research is fairly common. Satellite
photos, for example, are provided to labs and higher education institutions. When this
data arrives at these locations, scientists examine it to fill in the gaps and analyse the
entire phenomenon.

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 129

SELF-TEST
1) Remote sensing techniques make use of the properties of ___________ emitted,
reflected or diffracted by the sensed objects

a) Electric waves

a) Sound waves

b) Electromagnetic waves

c) Wind waves

2) Due to scan geometry of a satellite sensor

a) The off-nadir resolution is degraded

b) The ground distance swept by the senor, IFOV is proportional to sec2θ, where θ
is the angle of scan measured from the nadir

c) The details towards the edge of the scan get compressed

d) All of these

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS

1) What are some applications of remote sensing in the field of environme nt?

2) What are the challenges of remote sensing?

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 130

3.3 CONCEPT OF REMOTE SENSING. EMR & ITS INTERACTION WITH

MATTER, AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY TYPES, CAMERA, ELEMENTS OF

PHOTO INTERPRETATION (AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY IMAGE

RECOGNITION)

Remote sensing concept

The practise of identifying and monitoring an area's physical features by measuring its
reflected and emitted radiation from a distance is known as remote sensing (typically
from satellite or aircraft). Researchers can "feel" facts abou t the Earth by using special
cameras to acquire remotely sensed photos. • Cameras on satellites and planes collect
photographs of broad areas on the Earth's surface, allowing us to view much more than
we can see from the ground.

• Shipboard sonar systems can be utilised to create photographs of the ocean floor
without having to go to the ocean's bottom.

• Images of temperature variations in the oceans can be captured using satellite

cameras.

• Large forest fires can be mapped from space, allowing rangers to see a considerably
broader region than they would be able to see from the ground.

• Tracking clouds to help anticipate the weather or observe erupting volcanoes, as well
as assisting in the detection of dust storms

• Monitoring a city's growth and changes in farms or woods over several years or
decades.

• Exploration and charting of the ocean floor's severe topography (e.g., massive
mountain ranges, deep gorges, and "magnetic striping").

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 131

Remote sensing is the science and technology that allows the features of objects of
interest to be identified, measured, and analysed without having to come into direct
touch with them.

The most common source of remote sensing data is reflected or emitted electromagnetic
radiation from an object. In remote sensing, however, any medium, such as gravity or
magnetic forces, can be used.

A "remote sensor" or "sensor" is a device that detects electro -magnetic radiation

reflected or emitted from an object. Remote sensors include things like cameras and
scanners.

A "platform" is a vehicle that transports the sensor. Platforms include planes and
satellites.

In the 1960s, the phrase "remote sensing" was coined in the United States to
incorporate photogrammetry, photo-interpretation, and photo-geology, among other
things. Remote sensing has grown in popularity since the launch of Landsat -1, the first
earth observation satellite, in 1972.

Using reflected or emitted electro-magnetic radiation, the characteristics of an object

can be determined. That is to say, "If the type of deject or th e environmental situation is
different, each object has a distinct and different characteristic of reflection or
emission. Remote sensing is a technique that uses the uniqueness of a reflection or
emission to identify and understand an object or a situatio n.

The concept of electromagnetic radiation (EMR) and how it interacts with matter

In classical physics, electromagnetic radiation is the flow of energy at the speed of light
across open space or a solid medium in the form of electric and magnetic fields t hat
make up electromagnetic waves like radio waves, visible light, and gamma rays. Time -
varying electric and magnetic fields are mutually coupled at right angles and
perpendicular to the motion direction in such a wave. The intensity and frequency v of
the time fluctuation of the electric and magnetic fields define an electromagnetic wave.

Electromagnetic radiation is defined as the movement of photons (also known as light

quanta) over space, according to contemporary quantum theory. Photons are energy
packets that travel at the speed of light at all times. The sign h stands for Planck's
constant, and the value of is equal to the frequency of an electromagnetic wave in
classical theory. The numerical density of photons with the same energy h is
proportional to the intensity of the radiation. When electromagnetic radiation interacts
with charged particles in atoms, molecules, and bigger objects of matter, it produces a

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 132

variety of effects. The frequency of electromagnetic radiation determines these
occurrences, as well as how it is made and perceived, how it happens in nature, and
how it is used in technology. The frequency spectrum of electromagnetic radiation
ranges from extremely low values in the radio, television, and microwave ranges
through visible light and beyond to much higher values in ultraviolet light, X -rays, and
gamma rays.

This page covers the fundamental physics and behaviour of electromagnetic radiation,
as well as its different forms, including its origins, distinguishing characteristics, and
practical applications. The evolution of both classical and quantum theories of radiation
is also traced in the essay.

Electromagnetic Radiation and Matter Interaction

All matter is made up of atoms, as we all know. However, matter is essentially empty
space at the subatomic level. Consider the hydrogen atom, which is made up of one
proton, one neutron, and one electron. A proton's diameter has been estimated to be
between 10-15 metres. Because the diameter of a single hydrogen atom is 10 -10 metres,
the ratio of the size of a hydrogen atom to the size of a proton is 100,000 to 1. Consider
it in terms of something you can visualise more easily. If the atom's nucleus could be
made the size of a softball (about 10 cm), the electron would be around 10 kilometres
away. As a result, when electromagnetic waves pass through a material, they are largely
travelling through free space, though they may come into contact with the nucleus or an
electron of an atom by chance. Because photons collide with atomparticles by cha nce,
each photon has a finite chance of passing fully through the medium it is travelling
through. The likelihood of a photon passing entirely through a medium is determined by
a variety of parameters, including the photon's energy and the medium's composi tion
and thickness. The more tightly packed the atoms in a material are, the more probable a
photon will collide with an atomic particle. In other words, the higher the Z number of
subatomic particles in a material, the more likely interactions will occur. Similarly, the
more material a photon must pass through, the greater the likelihood of colliding. When
a photon collides with an atomic particle, it gives the particle energy. The energy might
be reflected back in the same direction it came from, scattere d in a different direction,
or transferred into the substance. Consider the interaction of visible light first. The light
waves impart energy to the electrons in the material, causing them to vibrate, resulting
in reflection and transmission of light waves . The vibrations of the electrons are passed
on to surrounding atoms through the bulk of the material and reemitted on the opposite
side of the item if the material is transparent. If the substance is opaque, the electrons'
vibrations do not move from atom to atom through the bulk of the material, but rather

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 133

vibrate for short periods of time before reemitting the energy as a reflected light wave.
The light may be reemitted at a different wavelength from the material's surface,
changing its hue.

X-Rays and Gamma Rays are two types of radiation.

Through random contacts with electrons and atomic nuclei, X -rays and gamma rays also
convey their energy to matter. X-rays and gamma rays, on the other hand, have enough
energy to do more than just shake electrons. Whe n these high-energy beams collide
with an atom, energetic electrons are ejected from the atom, or electrons are excited.
The term "excitation" refers to an interaction in which electrons gain energy from a
passing charged particle while remaining attached to their atom. During the process of
recovering to a lower energy state, excited electrons may emit energy in the form of x -
rays. Thousands of processes involving charged particle interactions allow each of the
excited or released electrons to transmit the ir energy to matter. The energy may be
channelled in a different direction with each encounter. The higher a photon's energy,
the more probable it is to keep going in the same direction. Radiation loses energy as it
flows from point to point in matter due to numerous interactions with the atoms it
encounters. If the radiation is powerful enough, it may be able to pass through the
substance.

The interaction of photons with matter is crucial.

The energy of X- and Gamma rayphotons is significantly responsible for their

penetrating power, as seen in the previous paragraph. When Einstein proposed that each
photon carries an energy equal to the frequency of the wave times Planck's constant
(E=hf), he related the energy of a photon to its frequency and wavelength. An EM
wave's frequency is equal to the speed of light divided by the wavelength
(f=fracclambda). It is important to note, however, that the wavelength or frequency of
electromagnetic radiation does not determine whether the wave is more or less
penetrating. The key is how it interacts with matter, or more specifically, if the photon's
energy is sufficient to spark a charged particle transition. Microwaves, for example,
easily permeate glass but are substantially absorbed by water. Infrared is highly
absorbed by both glass and water at higher frequencies, but both substances transmit
visible light. Glass absorbs ultraviolet light, whereas water does not.

Cell Damage and Ionization

Photons that contact with atomic particles can transfer their energy to the sub stance and
disrupt chemical bonds in materials, as previously discussed. Ionization is the process
of removing one or more electrons from an atom of a substance. This produces

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 134

electrons, which have a negative charge, and atoms, which have no electrons and have a
positive charge. In most industrial materials, ionisation isn't a major worry. When the
radiation stops, the electrons return to the atoms and no damage is done. Ionization, on
the other hand, can disrupt the atomic structure of some materials to th e point where the
atoms react chemically with one another. When radiographic film is processed, this is
the reaction that occurs in the silver bromide to form a latent picture. Some materials,
such as semiconductors, may undergo undesirable changes as a re sult of ionisation,
rendering them ineffective for their original use.

Living Tissue Ionization (Cell Damage)

Similar reactions occur in living tissue, and ionisation can be exceedingly harmful to
cells. When living tissue is ionised, molecules in the cell s are torn apart. This
interaction has the potential to destroy the cell or cause aberrant cell reproduction.

Radiation damage to a cell can be caused by direct or indirect impact of the radiation.
When radiation interacts directly with a cell's critical c hemicals, it causes cell damage
called direct action (DNA). Radiation energy has the potential to harm cell components
such as cell walls and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). Every cell has DNA, which is
made up of chemicals that determine the function of each cell. When radiation interacts
with a cell's wall or DNA, the cell either dies or transforms into an other type of cell,
perhaps malignant.

When radiation interacts with water molecules, which make up around 80% of a cell's
makeup, cell damage happens as a result of indirect action. Free radicals can arise as a
result of the energy received by the water molecule. Free radicals are extremely
reactive molecules that form when water molecules break due to the presence of
unpaired electrons. Free radicals can react with other molecules to generate chemicals
like hydrogen peroxide, which can cause detrimental chemical reactions within the
cells. Cells may undergo a range of structural changes as a result of these chemical
alterations, leading to altered function or cell death.

The destiny of radiation-damaged cells can take a variety of forms. Damaged cells can:
• heal themselves entirely and correctly using the body's own repair mechanisms; or •
perish while attempting to reproduce. As a result, tissues and orga ns with significant
cell loss may become functionally compromised. Each organ and tissue has a
"threshold" dose above which functional impairment manifests as a clinically evident
adverse result. The level of harm increases as the threshold dose is exceede d.
Deterministic effects occur at high doses and are referred to as such.

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 135

• They fix themselves in a haphazard manner and duplicate this haphazard structure.
External stimuli (e.g., chemicals, nutrition, radiation exposure) have the potential to
change these cells over time.

, personal behaviours, and so forth). They may develop into leukaemia or a solid
tumour after a long period of dormancy (cancer). Stochastic effects are a type of latent
effect (or random).

Non-ionizing Radiation Exposure of Living Tissue

A quick warning concerning non-ionizing radiation is probably also in order here. Non -
ionizing radiation behaves in the same way as ionising radiation, but with a
considerably longer wavelength and thus less energy. Despite the fact that non -ionizing
radiation lacks the energy to produce ion pairs, certain of these waves can inflict
physical injury. Anyone who has ever had a sunburn understands how damaging UV
light can be to skin cells. Lasers, high -intensity UV light sources, microwave
transmitters, and other devices that create high-intensity radio-frequency radiation are
examples of non-ionizing radiation sources.

Types of aerial photography

Aerial photography is a broad word that refers to the practise of shooting images from a
high altitude, usually with the aid of a plane, rocket, hot air balloon, or drone. While
every photograph shot from a height can be termed aerial, there are several varieties of
aerial photographs that are distinguished by specific characteristics such as the camera
axis, image scale, and film type.

Vertical, low oblique, and high oblique aerial photos are examples of camera axis -based
aerial photography. Each type involves tilting the camera to a given degree and covers a
specific amount of area. When these components are combined, the outcome can be
rather impressive.

• Vertical Photographs - in this form of photograph, the camera axis is vertical,

resulting in an image with little or no relief and a tiny area covered. Vertical images are
frequently employed in mapping because they produce a direct, overhead output.

• Low Oblique Photographs — this form of photograph necessitates a three -degree tilt
in the camera axis. The horizon will not be seen in the final image in this situation, and
the image will be warped as a result. Close-up photographs that require additional
information, such as those used in advertising, can benefit from these photos.

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 136

• High Oblique Photographs - in this photograph, the camera axis is tilted to about 60
degrees, allowing for a broader area to be covered and include the horizon in the final
image. This allows you to have a better overall picture of a place, allowing you to spot
geographical features and landmarks.

In general, vertical shots are more valuable for mapping purposes, however taking
vertical photos in inclement weather can be more difficult. Oblique shots, on the other
hand, are easier to take in a wide range of weather situations, which is why most
photographers prefer them. Oblique pictures are better for topography, geographic
surveys, and identifying archaeological features since they produce final images with a
wider view.

Aerial images are further divided into two categories based on scale: large scale and
small scale. The scale varies in sharpness and detail depending on the aircraft 's altitude,
similar to the photo types based on axis. Larger scale images, on the other hand, cover
small regions in greater detail, whilst small scale photos cover big areas in less detail.

• Large-Scale Photographs — These are shot with the aircraft flying at a lower altitude,
resulting in a smaller area caught by the camera but larger-scale objects. This style of
photograph is more suited to charting geographical features or determining the size of
certain things. They'd be more likely to be utilised fo r marketing or to get a closer look
at a property to check for damage or other problems.

• Small Scale Photographs - small scale photographs are taken when the aircraft is
flying at a greater altitude, allowing a wider area to be covered in a single photog raph.
While the area covered is larger, the ratio of the size of any items in the photo to the
ground is smaller, which is why these photos are referred to as tiny scale. This style of
photograph is excellent for analysing broader areas where detailed mapp ing or
measurements of features are not required.

Aerial photography can also be classified based on the type of film used. Panchromatic,
colour, infrared, and thermal are examples of these. The type you use will be
determined by how the images will be used.

• Panchromatic Photographs - these are grayscale images in which colour is

unimportant. They're utilised for reconnaissance and mapping purposes.

• Color Photos — Color aerial photography, like colour photos taken on land, may
display scenes in better depth and help identify distinct items within a broad region.

• Infrared Photographs – these images only capture infrared energy and are commonly
used to study vegetation, bodies of water, and other geographic features.

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 137

• Color-Infrared Photographs – for mapping, geographic studies, and urban
photography, these photographs combine colour and infrared technology.

• Thermal Infrared Photographs – these images capture infrared energy as well as

temperature variations, and can be used for temperature studies or location.

• Radar Imagery - this type of imaging captures radar or microwaves and is commonly
used for meteorology and other scientific purposes.

• Spectra-zonal Images — these images capture certain regions of the electromagnetic

spectrum and are used for mapping.

Individual types can be combined to form more complicated types, such as panoramas,
stereo photography, picometre, and orthophotos, depending on the purpose of the
photos. These vary depending on the exact techniques used to combine the images.

• Panoramas - these are larger images generated by stitching together many photographs
taken from different perspectives from the same location or from different locations at
the same angle.

• Stereo Photography - This is a term that refers to a set of techniques for creating 3D
images by combining many shots of the same region taken from various angles.

• Picometre - this approach employs five tightly mounted cameras to create one vertical
and four low oblique pictures that can be combined.

• Orthophotos - this technique involves mathematically correcting vertical photos by

removing perspective and adjusting for landscape changes. As a result, images that are
more closely matched with "real world" coordinates can be produced, which are often
used for mapping.

Aerial video is, of course, a separate category because it uses moving images that can
be encoded with meta data and synched with video mapping tools, or generated in a
more direct format for use in advertising and marketing campaigns.

The type of aerial photography employed for each work is determined by the client's
individual requirements. The photos used to describe the borders of a plot of land
would be vastly different from those used to promote real estate or a luxury yacht. A
professional aerial photographer will be able to take into account all of the details in
order to provide the highest quality images or movies possible in each situation.

You can trust the experts at JR Resolutions to provide you with the best possible results
every time. We'll use our experience to create aerial photography and video packages
with high-resolution footage and music for a more dynamic appearance and feel. We'll

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 138

make sure you receive the most bang for your buck, regardless of the type of images
you require.

Photo interpretation elements

Aerial Photo Interpretation Fundamentals Aerial photographs differ from "normal"

photographs in at least three ways:

• Objects are photographed from above or from above. The majority of people are
accustomed to observing items from the ground rather than from the air.

• Color-infrared photography is sometimes employed to get photographs from satellites

and high-altitude planes, which most people are not used to viewing. Scientists can use
color-infrared photography to see objects that aren't visible to the naked eye. This gives
scientists a tool to research landforms, pollution, and other impacts of human activity
on the planet's surface. These "fundamental components" "may assist in the
identification of objects in aerial photos:

• Mood (also called Colour or Hue). The relative brightness or colour of elements on a
photograph is referred to as tone. Some items appear to be darker and more defined
than others.

• Dimensions. The scale of an image must be considered while considering the size of
objects. You can use the scale to figure out whether an object is a little pond or a vast
lake. Smaller roads can be distinguished from major highways. Smaller tributaries can
be separated from longer rivers.

• Form. The general outline of items is referred to as shape. Human presence and use
are frequently indicated by regular geometric shapes. Geometric shapes like rectangles
and squares are common in agricultural settings. Streams are linear (line)
characteristics with a lot of bends and curves in them. Curves on roads are less common
than in streams. Some objects can almost entirely be identified by their shapes. Football
fields Cloverleaf highway interchanges The Pentagon Building

• Texture is important. The amount of shift in tone in images gives the sense of
"smoothness" or "roughness" of image components. Grass, pavement, and water all
have a "smooth" appearance, yet a forest canopy might have a "rough" appearance.

• Design (spatial arrangement). Objects in a photograph can be identified b y the

patterns they create. Consider the difference between (1) an unmanaged patch of trees
forming a random pattern and (2) a tree orchard forming evenly spaced rows.

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 139

• The shadow. In aerial pictures, shadows assist translators in measuring the height of
objects. They do, however, obscure objects that are contained within them.

• The location. The term "site" refers to a specific topographic or geographic place.
This feature of images is particularly useful for distinguishing vegetation and
landforms. In central Florida, where the bedrock is limestone, enormous circular
depressions in the earth are easily recognisable as sinkholes. If the site were underlain
by granite, however, this designation would be meaningless.

• Collaboration — Some items are always found in groups with other items. An object's
context might reveal information about what it is. A nuclear power plant, for example,
is unlikely to be found in the heart of single -family housing. A park or a cemetery are
examples of vegetated areas in an urban setting. Wetlands are often found around rivers,
lakes, and estuaries. Commercial areas will most usually be near major highways,
railroads, or waterways.

SELF-TEST
1) Which one of the following statements is correct?
a) π radians equal to 180°
b) The cone subtended by an area on the sphere at the centre, is called the solid
angle
c) The solid angle is equal to the ratio of the area on the sphere and the square of
the radius of the sphere
d) All of these

2) Pick up the correct statement from the following

a) The surface defined by the locus of points having same phase, is called a wave
front
b) The wave whose surface of constant phase are parallel planes, is known as a
plane wave
c) The relative phase difference between the waves is important and not the
absolute phase of a point on the wave
d) All of these

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS

1) What are the concepts of remote sensing?
2) What techniques are currently used in remote sensing?

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 140

3-4 GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM (GIS): CONCEPT OF GIS,
TYPES OF GEOGRAPHICAL DATA, DATA STRUCTURE, VECTOR AND RASTER

DATA, THEIR ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES , INPUT, VERIFICATION ,

STORAGE AND OUTPUT OF GEOGRAPHICAL DATA . IMPORTANCE OF

GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM IN ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

System of geographic information

What is a geographic information system (GIS) and how does it work?

A Geographic Information System (GIS) is a computer programme that analyses and
displays information that is geographically referenced. It makes use of data that is
linked to a certain location.
The majority of the knowledge we have about our planet includes a reference to its
location: Where can I find USGS stream gauges? What location did a rock sample come
from? Where are all of a city's fire hydrants located?
If a rare plant is found in three distinct l ocations, GIS analysis may reveal that the
plants are all found on north-facing slopes above 1,000 feet that receive more than 10
inches of rain per year. Researchers can then use GIS maps to display all areas in the
area that have comparable characteristics, allowing them to find more of the uncommon
plants.
GIS examination of farm sites, stream locations, elevations, and rainfall, combined with
knowledge of the geographic location of farms employing a given fertiliser, will reveal
which streams are likely to carry that fertiliser downstream.
These are only a handful of the many applications of geographic information systems
(GIS) in earth sciences, biology, resource management, and other subjects.

A geographic information system (GIS) is a computer progra mme that captures, stores,
checks, and displays data about locations on the Earth's surface. GIS can help
individuals and organisations better understand geographical patterns and relationships
by connecting seemingly unconnected data.

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 141

The White House defines spatial data infrastructure as "the technology, regulations,
standards, human resources, and related activities essential to gather, process,
distribute, use, maintain, and preserve spatial data." GIS technology is an important
aspect of this infrastructure.
Any information that involves a location can be used by GIS. The location can be
specified in a variety of ways, including latitude and longitude, address, and ZIP code.
GIS allows you to compare and contrast many different sorts of data. Data on pe ople,
such as population, income, and education level, can be included in the system. It may
contain information on the landscape, such as the location of streams, various types of
vegetation, and various types of soil. It could include information regardi ng factory,
agricultural, and school locations, as well as storm drains, highways, and electric power
lines.
People can use GIS technology to compare the positions of various objects to see how
they relate to one another. A single map may, for example, inc lude places that cause
pollution, such as factories, as well as areas that are sensitive to pollution, such as
wetlands and rivers, using GIS. A map like this would aid in determining where water
resources are most vulnerable.
Data Formats for Data Capture
Both hardware and software solutions are used in GIS applications. Cartographic data,
photographic data, digital data, and spreadsheet data are examples of these applications.
Cartographic data is already in map form and can include information like river, road,
hill, and valley locations. Survey data and mapping information are examples of
cartographic data that may be simply loaded into a GIS.
GIS includes a lot of photographic interpretation. Analyzing aerial images and
evaluating the features that emerge is what photo interpretation entails.
GIS can also be used to store digital data. Computer data gathered by satellites that
depict land use—the position of farms, towns, and forests—is an example of this type
of data.
Another technique that can be linked into a GIS is remote sensing. Imagery and other
data from satellites, balloons, and drones are used in remote sensing.
Finally, data in table or spreadsheet format, such as population demographics, can be
included in GIS. Age, income, and ethnicity are o nly a few examples of demographics,
as are recent purchases and internet browsing tendencies.
GIS technology allows all of these distinct types of data to be superimposed on top of
one another on a single map, regardless of their source or original format. To connect
these seemingly unconnected variables, GIS uses location as the key index variable.

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 142

Data capture is the process of entering information into a GIS. Data that is already
digitised, such as most tables and satellite photos, can be put directly in to GIS. Maps,
on the other hand, must be scanned or converted to digital format first.
Raster and vector are the two main forms of GIS file formats. Raster formats are cell or
pixel grids. Raster formats are good for storing GIS data that changes over time , such
elevation or satellite images. Vector formats are polygons made up of nodes (points)
and lines. Vector formats are excellent for storing GIS data with clearly defined
boundaries, such as school districts or streets.
Spatial linkages and linear networks can be seen using GIS technology. Topography,
such as agricultural fields and waterways, can be displayed through spatial
relationships. They may also show land-use patterns, such as where parks and housing
complexes are located.
In a GIS, highways, rivers, and public utility grids are examples of linear networks,
sometimes known as geometric networks. A road or highway may be indicated by a line
on a map. However, using GIS layers, the road may represent the border of a school
district, a public park, or another demographic or land-use sector. The linear network of
a river can be represented on a GIS to show the stream flow of different tributaries
using various data collecting methods.
GIS must align the data from all of the many maps and sources so th at they all fit
together on the same scale. The link between the distance on a map and the actual
distance on Earth is known as a scale.
Because various maps have different projections, GIS frequently has to alter data. A
projection is a technique for transmitting data from the Earth's curving surface to a flat
sheet of paper or a computer screen. Different projections achieve this goal in different
ways, but they all result in some distortion. Stretching some portions and squeezing
others is unavoidable when transferring a curved, three-dimensional structure to a flat
surface.
A globe map can depict either the right size or shape of countries, but not both at the
same time. GIS combines data from maps created with multiple projections so that all
of the information may be displayed using a single projection.
Geographic Information Systems (GIS) Maps
After all of the needed data has been entered into a GIS system, it can be merged to
create a range of different individual maps, depending on which data layers are
included. Comparing natural features with human activities is one of the most common
applications of GIS technology.
GIS maps, for example, can show what man -made features are near natural features,
such as whether residences and businesses are in floo d-prone areas.

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 143

GIS technology also enables users to "dig deep" into a given location and access a
variety of data. Information like average income, book sales, and voting habits can be
linked on maps of a single city or neighbourhood. On the same map, any GIS data layer
can be added or removed.
GIS maps can be used to display information such as population density and numbers.
GIS can, for example, display how many doctors exist in a given area in relation to the
population.
Researchers can also look at change over time using GIS technology. They can
investigate subjects like the advance and retreat of ice cover in polar regions, as well as
how that coverage has evolved over time, using satellite data. A police precinct might
look at changes in crime data to see where officers should be assigned.
One significant application of time-based data is GIS technology entails the creation of
time-lapse photography that depicts processes over enormous areas and over extended
periods of time. Data on the movement of fl uid in ocean or air currents, for example,
aids scientists in better understanding how moisture and heat energy travel throughout
the world.
Users can occasionally use GIS technology to get more information about specific
places on a map. A person can use a digital map to find further information recorded in
the GIS about a certain area by pointing to it. A user might, for example, click on a
school to learn how many pupils are enrolled, how many students per instructor there
are, or what sports facilities the school offers.
Three-dimensional photographs are frequently created using GIS systems. Geologists
studying earthquake faults, for example, will benefit from this.
GIS technology makes updating maps a lot easier than manually updating maps. Data
that has been updated can simply be imported into an existing GIS programme. After
then, a new map can be printed or viewed on a computer screen. This eliminates the
time-consuming and costly procedure of generating a map from the equation.
Geographical data types
It's vital to grasp the core geographic data types used to represent real -world
geographic phenomena in order to comprehend how map databases store information.
Geographic data is recorded in discrete points, lines, and polygons in the vector data
paradigm. In terms of simple x, y coordinates, points, lines, and polygons are zero -,
one-, and two-dimensional static representations of real -world occurrences.
Points
Points are objects that include information about their location and attributes but aren't
large enough to be represented as areas (see Figure 4.6). The level of abstraction and
scale of the map determine whether an object is represented as a point or a polygon. In

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 144

a regional map, cities that would be depicted as points on a country -level map might be
portrayed as polygons. Points of interest (POIs) and parcel centroids, such as postal
codes or addresses, are other types of points. There are no dimensions to points.
Nodes
A node is a specific form of point that represents a line's junction or endpo int. In every
other way, nodes are identical to points. Connectivity between lines, as well as
information about adjacent polygons and enclosed islands, are all provided via nodes.
Arcs and Lines
One-dimensional objects with length but no area are known as lines (see Figure 4.7). A
node must be at the start and end of each line. A line will represent the street centre line
in the case of a road. A road's real width will be a property of the line. Other
characteristics of a road include the street name, addr ess range, speed, and travel
direction. A line is an adequate representation of a road at the country level. A line may
not be sufficient at the regional level, hence a road is represented by a polygon area of
paving. Rivers and railways can also be represented by lines. A multisegmented line is
known as an arc.
Polygons
The most basic definition of a polygon is a closed mathematical object made up of
connected lines (see Figure 4.8). Polygons can be any form or size and have any
number of points. The collection of x, y coordinates that comprise a polygon's boundary
or the area contained by the boundary are two other ways to represent a polygon.
Polygons can contain other polygons, have holes, and be directly adjacent to other
polygons.
Attributes that are linked
Each geographic primitive has a description associated to it. The most significant
properties in mobile location services are those related to the road network, such as
speed, street names, turn limitations, and connectivity.
Geographic Data Structures in Computer Storage
We must explore how this data is stored on a computer now that we have built a
conceptual notion of our map using points, lines, and polygons. The mechanism for
storing this data has a significant impact on the size of the map databa se and the speed
with which data can be fetched and used in a mobile location services application.

The following are the features of simple spatial entities: points have a (x, y) coordinate,
a simple line with only two nodes has two (x, y) coordinates, a n arc has n number of (x,
y) coordinates, and a polygon can include either n number of lines or n number of
points. For each value in the coordinate pair, a 32 -bit or 64-bit real data type is required

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 145

to attain appropriate precision. Because a byte has 8 b its, a point would require 8 or 16
bytes of storage, a line would require a minimum of 16 bytes, and a polygon would
require a minimum of 24 bytes. It's easy to see how a map database can grow to be very
huge because it can contain many millions of spatial entities, each with its own set of
associated properties.
Geographical information
Geodata, also known as geographic data or geospatial data, is data and information that
has an explicit or implicit link to a location on Earth.
Vector files, which are made up of vertices and paths; raster files, which are made up of
pixels and grid cells; geographic databases, which house vectors and rasters; multi -
temporal data, which adds a time component to information; and Web files are all
examples of geographic data.
Telematics devices, GPS data, geospatial satellite imagery, the Internet of Things, and
geotagging can all be used to gather geographic data. The following are some examples
of geographic themes into which geographic data can be categorised:
Themes in Culture
• Administrative data (city and planning limits) • Socioeconomic data (demographics —
economy and crime)
• Modes of transportation (roads — railways and airport)
Themes Concerning the Physical
• Data on elevation (terrain and relief) • Data on the environment (agriculture — soils
and climate)
• Hydrography information (oceans, lakes, and rivers)
Geodata is retrieved using a geodata service, which allows users to access a
geodatabase via a local area network (LAN) or the Internet via a server. Geodata
services offer distant geodata administration via the geodata cloud, allowing for remote
geodatabase replication operations, geodatabase query execution, and data extraction -
based copy construction. Geodata Explorer, launched by Tech Maven Geospatial in
2019, is a popular and contemporary example of a GIS mapping programme.

Structure of the data

The Data Structures (DS) tutorial covers both fundamental and sophisticated data
structure topics. Our Data Structure course is suitable for both beginners and expe rts.
Data structure is a method of storing and organising data in order to make it more
useful.
Our Data Structure tutorial covers Arrays, Pointers, Structures, Linked Lists, Stacks,
Queues, Graphs, Searching, Sorting, and Programs, among other topics.

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 146

What is the definition of data structure?
The name of the data structure implies that it is used to organise data in memory. As
we've already seen with one of the data structures, the array in C, there are numerous
ways to organise data in memory. A collection of memory components in which data is
stored consecutively, i.e. one after the other, is known as an array. To put it another
way, an array stores elements in a continuous manner. This data organisation is
accomplished through the use of a variety of dat a structures. There are several
additional methods for remembering info. Let's look at the various forms of data
structures.
The data structure is not written in any programming language, such as C, C++, or Java.
It is a set of methods that may be used to structure data in memory in any programming
language.
Data Structures Types
Data structures are divided into two categories:
o Data structure that is primitive
o Data structure that isn't rudimentary
Data structure in its most basic form
Primitive data types are primitive data structures. The primitive data structures that may
hold a single value are the int, char, float, double, and pointer.
Structure of Non-Primitive Data
There are two types of non-primitive data structures:
o Data structure is linear
o Data structure that is non-linear
Data Structure That Is Linear
A linear data structure is a method of arranging data in a sequential order. Arrays,
linked lists, Stacks, and Queues are the data structures used for this. In these data
structures, each element is linearly coupled to only one other element.
A non-linear data structure is one in which one element is related to 'n' number of other
components. Trees and graphs are the finest examples. The elements are placed in a
random order in this scenario.
The aforesaid data structures will be briefly discussed in the following areas. Now we'll
look at some of the most frequent operations that may be applied to these data
structures.
Data structures can also be divided into the following categories:
o Static data structure: A static data structure is one in which the size is determined at
compile time. As a result, the maximum size is set.

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 147

o Dynamic data structure: A dynamic data structure is one in which the size is
determined at runtime. As a result, the maxi mum size is negotiable.
Large-scale operations
The following are some of the most frequent operations that may be done on data
structures:
o Searching: Any element of a data structure can be searched for.
o Sorting: The elements of a data structure can be sorted either ascending or
descending.
o Insertion: The new element can also be inserted into a data structure.
o Update: The element can also be updated, which means it can be replaced with
another element.
o Deletion: To remove an element from the data s tructure, we can use the delete
operation.
Which data structure should I use?
A data structure is a method of arranging data in order to make it more useful. We've
used the word efficiently in this context, which refers to both space and time. A stack,
for example, is an ADT (abstract data type) that is implemented using either arrays or a
linked list data structure. As a result, we infer that some data structure is required to
implement a specific ADT.
An ADT specifies what should be done, while a data str ucture specifies how it should
be done. To put it another way, ADT provides the blueprint, whereas data structure
provides the implementation. The question now is: how can one determine the data
structure to utilise for a specific ADT?
Although several data structures can be expressed in a single ADT, the different
implementations are contrasted in terms of time and space. The Stack ADT, for
example, can be built using both arrays and linked lists. Assume the array provides time
efficiency while the linked list provides space efficiency; hence, the one best suited to
the present user's requirements will be chosen.
Data structures have several advantages.
The following are some of the benefits of using a data structure:
o Efficiency: Proper data structure selection for implementing a specific ADT makes
the programme very efficient in terms of time and space.
o Reusability: The data structure is reusable, which means that it can be used by
multiple client programmes.
o Abstraction: The level of abstraction is determined by the data structure given by an
ADT. Because the client cannot see how the data structure works on the inside, it does

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 148

not need to be concerned about the implementation. Only the interface is visible to the
client.
Data in vector and raster formats
When it comes to displaying geographical data in GIS, from physical assets and
locations to real-world events and trends, we have two options: raster and vector
representations. Both systems present data in their own format, each with its own set of
benefits and drawbacks.
Vector Information
When most people think of geographic data, they think of vector data. Points, lines, and
polygons make up the data in this format. Vector data is made up of discrete points that
are stored as coordinate pairs and indicate a physical location in the world. These points
can be linked together in a certain order to make lines or closed areas to form polygons.
Vector data is ideal for storing and describing data with discrete boundaries, such as
borders or building footprints, roadways and other transportation linkages, and point
locations. This format is used by widely used online mapping portals like Google Maps
and Open Street Maps.
Data on Rasters
Raster data is a representation of the world as a surface divided into a regular grid
array, or cells, with each cell having a value assigned to it. In a different sense, a digital
photograph can be thought of as a raster dataset. Each cell, which is referred to as a
pixel in this case, corresponds to a certain colour value. The cells of a raster grid might
possibly represent various data values in a GIS setup, such as temperature, rainfall, or
elevation. The key distinction between the digital snapshot and the GIS representation
is that the GIS includes data that describes where the cells can be found on a globe and
how big they can be.
Imagery from The Satellite
This image vs. GIS scenario is perfectly illustrated by satellite photography. Satellite
imaging can be thought of as a computerised photograph of the globe's surfac e, with
each cell indicating a different colour. However, if we add a geographical context, we
can now appropriately position this on a globe and do studies on the cell values, which
may be thought of as colour spectrum bands.
Raster datasets can be used to store and display continuous data like weather events and
climate projections, as well as elevation surfaces. Raster representation is more closely
associated with representing physical properties or phenomena found on the globe in
this vein.
Disadvantages and Benefits

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 149

There are distinct advantages and downsides to using the two types of data in
comparison. Vector data is a more traditional way for cartographic representation that
produces a sharp, clean, and scalable representation. It's also more appeal ing from a
design standpoint. Data is saved without loss or generalisation, and precise geolocation
data is kept.
In addition, vector features can store many attributes and data fields. Vector data
processing and storage, on the other hand, can be time con suming. Because vector data
is kept as a series of points, each item must be recorded and listed separately.
Furthermore, each point, or group of points, may contain related data, increasing vector
storage and processing times. In vector data, topology rep resentations can be beneficial,
but they can be time consuming to process. Editing and processing vector data, whether
as a topology or another format, can take a long time depending on the size and
quantity of features. Finally, the more features or point s of data there are, the longer
any modifications can take and the more complicated the procedures and algorithms
become. In vector format, continuous type data is inefficiently presented and stored.
Spot heights, contour lines, and polygon fills can all b e used to represent elevation,
however when shown as a flowing surface, vector data can be mismatched.
GIS's Importance in Environmental Studies
Geographic Information System (GIS) is an acronym for Geographic Information
System. It's a computer system that gathers, analyses, saves, and disseminates
geographic data for use by various entities to make more informed and efficient
decisions. GIS is useful in a variety of sectors, including environmental science. Some
of the benefits of GIS in the environment are listed below.

1. Assessment of the Environmental Impact (EIA)

EIA is a crucial policy initiative aimed at protecting natural resources and the
environment. The construction and operation of motorways, rail roads, pipelines,
airports, nuclear waste disposal, and other human activities all have the potential to
have negative environmental consequences. Environmental impact statements are
typically required to include particular information on the extent and features of the
impact on the environment. The EIA may be completed more efficiently with the use of
GIS, which allows for the assessment of natural features by combining several GIS
layers.

2. Disaster Preparedness
GIS systems are now widely employed to protect the environment. It has evolved into
an integrated, well-developed, and effective disaster management and mitigation tool.

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 150

By displaying which areas are likely to be prone to natural or man -made disasters, GIS
can aid risk management and analysis. Preventive strategies can be established after
such events have been discovered.

3. Landslide Hazard Zoning

The technique of rating distinct parts of an area according to the degrees of actual or
potential landslide threat is known as landslide hazard zonation. The assessment of
landslide risk is a difficult issue. It is now possible to collect, modify, and combine a
range of spatial data for hazard zonation, such as geological, structural, surface cover,
and slope features of an area.

4. Land cover and land use determination

The feature that covers the barren terrain is referred to as land cover. The term "land
use" refers to the portion of the surface that is used for a specific purpose. The role of
GIS technology in land use and land cover applications is that it allows us to determine
changes in land use and land cover in various places. It can also detect and estimate
changes in land use and land cover patterns over time. It allows for the detection of
abrupt changes in land use and cover caused by natural processes or other activities
such as deforestation.

5. Flood damage estimation

When appropriate, GIS can be used by insurance companies to help determine the
monetary value of property losses and to demonstrate the need for federal disaster relief
money. A local authority must map flooding risk regions in order to assess the flood
potential in the area. Damage can be accurately estimated and visualised using digital
maps.

6. Natural Resource Management

Agricultural, water, and forest resources can all be better maintained and managed with
the use of GIS technology. Foresters can readily keep track of the state of the forest.
Crop yield management, crop rotation monitoring, and other tasks are all part of
agricultural land management. One of the most important elements in the ecosystem is
water. The Geographic Information System (GIS) is used to examine the geographic
distribution of water resources. They are linked; for example, forest cover minimises
storm water runoff and the tree canopy stores about 215,000 tonnes of carbon. The
Geographic Information System (GIS) is also utilised in afforestation.

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 151

7. Mapping of the Soil
Soil mapping is a method of gathering information about a certain area's resources. It
aids in determining the appropriateness of soil for various land uses. It is necessary fo r
mitigating environmental degradation caused by land abuse. GIS Aids in the
identification of soil types and the delineation of soil borders in a given area. It's used
to identify and classify different types of soil. Farmers in developed countries use so il
maps extensively to maintain soil nutrients and maximise production.

8. Mapping of Wetlands
Wetlands help to maintain a healthy environment by retaining water during dry periods,
keeping the water table high and stable. They act to minimise flood level s and capture
suspended particles and associated nutrients during flooding. With the use of GIS,
wetland mapping and design projects for wetland conservation can be completed
swiftly. The use of remote sensing data to complete wetland mapping on various sc ales
is beneficial. Using GIS, we may establish a wetland digital data bank with spice data.

9. Irrigation management
The availability of water for irrigation in any place is critical for crop production in
that area. For proper water utilisation, it mus t be properly and efficiently managed.

10. Volcanic Hazard Identification

Hot avalanches, hot particulate gas clouds, lava flows, and flooding are all examples of
volcanic hazards to human life and the environment. The typical historical records of
volcanic events can be used to identify potential volcanic danger zones, which can be
combined with GIS. Thus, a study of the impact of volcanic risks on the economy, as
well as the loss of life and property in heavily populated areas, is conducted.

SELF-TEST
1) GIS uses the information from which of the following sources?
a) Non- spatial information system
b) Spatial information system
c) global information system
d) position information system
2) Among the following ____________ can be expressed as an example of hardware
component

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 152

 a) Keyboard
b) Arc gis
c) Auto cad
d) Digitalization

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 03

1) What are the three main components of a geographic information system?

2) How are geographic information systems used in everyday life?

SUMMARY
Climates are classified by average and typical characteristics, the most frequent of
which are temperature and precipitation. Various variables can cause climate change on
both long and short periods. The Thornthwaite system uses evapotranspiration,
temperature, and precipitation data to inves tigate biological variety. Climate is a
statistical description of important quantities in terms of mean and variability over
timescales ranging from months to millions of years. Surface variables such as
temperature, precipitation, and wind are the most c ommon.

According to the World Meteorological Organization, the classical era is 30 years. The
Köppen classification system is the most widely used system for climatic zone
classification. A biome is made up of a climate type and its plants and animals. Cac tus
species, for example, can be found on different continents but have adapted to harsh
desert environments. A climate is a region's average weather over a lengthy period of
time.

Air temperature and precipitation are commonly used to classify climates. A biome is a
biological community with comparable plants spread across a territory, which might be
a small geographic area or entire planet. India's diverse microclimates make it one of
the world's most climate-diverse countries. India's climate is classifi ed as monsoon-
type. The temperature variation between night and day is the smallest in India's coastal
regions.

As the distance between the people and the sea grows, the sea's impact diminishes, and
the people are subjected to more harsh weather. India's c limate has elements of both
tropical and sub-tropical climates. Monsoons are caused by a difference in temperature
between the land and the water. The northern section of the country has lower pressure
in the summer, and winds from the south are blowing in the direction of the north.
Monsoons are the two most important meteorological events on the Indian subcontinent.

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 153

The annual rainfall is significantly unpredictable from year to year due to the nature of
monsoons. This year's monsoon will be influenced by El Nino, as well as how powerful
or weak it is. Kerala would be adversely impacted if El Nino over the Pacific Ocean
intensifies this year. Anomalous persistence of westerlies and heightened convection
over the south east Arabian Sea are the most notable aspects of early MOK years or
early monsoon years. The impact of El Nio Modoki occurrences on genesis of tropical
cyclones over the north Indian Ocean is the second observation.

India's agriculture is strongly reliant on its climate; a good monsoon is esse ntial for
securing water for irrigating crops. Droughts have caused catastrophic Indian famines
in the past, including the Bengal famine of 1770 and the 1876 –1877 famine. Drought
follows El Nio events in India 43% of the time. The degree of drought is infl uenced by
the amount to which an ENSO event boosts sea surface temperatures in the central
Pacific Ocean. Western Disturbance is an extratropical cyclone that originates in the
Mediterranean region and provides abrupt winter rain to the Indian subcontinent 's
northwestern regions.

The westerlies are responsible for this non-monsoonal precipitation pattern, which can
happen at any time of year. Landslides occur in 12.6 percent of India's land area.
Deforestation is one of the main causes of landslides in Indi a. To prevent landslides in
India, an increase in forest cover is required. Excess water must be stored in catchment
areas and people must limit their animals' grazing.

The Bharat Griha or Standard Fire and Special Perils policy provides financial
protection against the following natural disasters: Landslide, Tsunami, Fire, Flood,
Hurricane, Earthquake and Rockslide. Individuals can obtain a higher level of insurance
coverage for their own belongings.

The science of acquiring information about the Earth usi ng high-flying aeroplanes and
satellites is known as remote sensing. Sensors connected to the aeroplane detect the
energy reflected from the Earth and gather the data. Remote sensing data received from
air and space supplies much of the data needed for map ping, environmental
management, and planning. Soil moisture data has traditionally been derived from space
using two different ways. SMAP combines the benefits of active and passive sensors.

The better resolution of SMAP's direct soil moisture measurements can help with flood
management by measuring soil moisture before a downpour, as well as weather
forecasting. The NDVI is the most commonly utilised index by remote sensing analysts
(Normalized Difference Vegetation Index) This information is often used to calculate
leaf area indexes and deforestation. Remote sensing's qualities make it a great tool for

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 154

providing decision-makers with large-area maps of target features. Remote sensing is an
optional approach that is already widely utilised. It is carried out with the use of data
and photos collected by satellite sensors.

Water-quality monitoring, vegetation monitoring, and environmental compliance

monitoring are just a few of the applications for satellite images collected for
environmental monitoring. A key factor is the rising availability of sensors with various
features, which allows for the collection of a wide range of data and images. The chart
below shows the most common types of sensors used for environmental monitoring, as
well as their properties and applications. It registers the energy emitted by objects on
the earth's surface. Remote sensing is a multidisciplinary science that combines a
variety of disciplines such as optics, spectroscopy, photography, computer, electronics,
and telecommunications.

Remote Sensing System is a comprehensive system in and of itself. Satellites can be

used to monitor and manage natural disasters such as fires, droughts, desertification,
and volcanic eruptions. Infrastructures such as roads and infrastructure are also
managed using remote sensing technology. Conservation of habitat is number sixteen.
Some environmental vegetation must be protected from both animals and people.

Remote sensing technology may be beneficial in capturing all activities occurring in the
protected area. The remote sensing technique is used to capture an image of the earth's
surface. Desertification is the process of the desert becoming encroached upon. Remote
sensing measures man's impact as well as meteorological variables. Aerial images
acquired by satellites, aircraft, and drones are used to access the physical properties.

GIS and remote sensing are always used to achieve effective forest management. Water
is like a force that governs the world, and must be properly controlled. Remote sensing
data is the most effective approach to monitor water, particularly large amounts.
Monitoring techniques like remote sensing and GIS are critical in this setting as well as
in landform change monitoring.

Remote sensing is the practice of monitoring an area by measuring its reflected and
emitted radiation from a distance. Remote sensors include things like cameras and
scanners. Remote sensing has grown in popularity since the launch of Landsat -1, the
first earth observation satellite, in 1972. Electromagneti c radiation is defined as the
movement of photons (also known as light quanta) over space. Photons are energy
packets that travel at the speed of light at all times.

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 155

Frequency spectrum of electromagnetic radiation ranges from extremely low values in
the radio, television, and microwave ranges through visible light and beyond. matter is
essentially empty space at the subatomic level. When electromagnetic waves pass
through a material, they are largely travelling through free space. The more tightly
packed atoms in a material are, the more probable a photon will collide with an atomic
particle - and the more likely interactions will occur.

Geographic information systems (GIS) capture, store, check, and display data about
locations on the Earth's surface. GIS can help individuals and organisations better
understand geographical patterns and relationships. Data on people, such as population,
income, and education level can be included in the system. Data capture is the process
of entering information into a GIS. Cartographic data, photographic data, digital data,
and spreadsheet data are examples of these applications.

GIS technology allows all this data to be superimposed on top of one another on a
single map. Spatial linkages and linear networks can be seen usin g Geographic
Information Systems (GIS). GIS maps can show what man -made features are near
natural features. Comparing natural features with human activities is one of the most
common applications of GIS technology. GIS maps can be used to display informati on
such as population density and numbers.

GIS technology makes updating maps a lot easier than manually updating maps. Users
can also use GIS to look at change over time, such as the advance and retreat of ice
cover in polar regions. The level of abstract ion and scale of the map determine whether
an object is represented as a point or a polygon. A polygon is a closed mathematical
object made up of connected lines. In a regional map, cities that would be depicted as
points on a country-level map might be portrayed as polygons.

We have built a conceptual notion of our map using points, lines, and polygons. A map
database can contain many millions of spatial entities, each with its own properties. The
mechanism for storing this data has a significant impact on the size of the map
database. The Data Structures (DS) tutorial covers both fundamental and sophisticated
data structure topics. Arrays, Pointers, Structures, Linked Lists, Queues, Graphs,
Searching, Sorting, and Programs are covered.

Geodata Explorer, launched by Tech Maven Geospatial in 2019, is a popular GIS

mapping programme. A non-linear data structure is one in which one element is related
to 'n' other components. The elements are placed in a random order in this scenario.
Data structures can also be divided into the following categories:. An ADT is a
representation of geographical data in GIS.

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 156

The benefits of using a data structure include: efficiency, reusability, and level of
abstraction. Geographic Information System (GIS) is an acronym for Geogra phic
Information System. GIS gathers, analyses, saves, and disseminates geographic data for
use by various entities to make more informed and efficient decisions. Some of the
benefits of GIS in the environment are listed below. The Environmental Impact
Assessment (EIA) is a crucial policy initiative aimed at protecting natural resources.

GIS allows for the assessment of natural features by combining several GIS layers. By
displaying which areas are likely to be prone to natural or man -made disasters, GIS can
aid risk management and analysis. Agricultural, water and forest resources can all be
better managed with the use of GIS technology. Foresters can readily keep track of the
state of the forest. Soil mapping aids in determining the appropriateness of soil for
various land uses. The Geographic Information System (GIS) is also utilised in
afforestation.

REFERENCES
 [Link]
 [Link]
 [Link]
biomes/#:~:text=Jan%206%2C%202018-
,Why%20is%20the%20climate%20important%20to%20a%20biome%3F,what%20plants
%20can%20grow%20there.
 Difference Between Climate and Biome | Difference
Between [Link]
biome/#ixzz7M5bbUec9
 [Link]
 [Link]
 [Link]
 [Link]
2016%20hydrological,1918%2C%201965%2C%20and%202000.
 [Link]
india/[Link]
 [Link]
 [Link]
 [Link]
 [Link] -in-India
 [Link]

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 157

  [Link]
environmental-management/
 [Link]
sensing/#:~:text=Environmental%20monitoring%20by%20remote%20sensing%20is%20
based%20on%20processing%20data,processes%20of%20interest%20over%20time.
 [Link]
 [Link]
environmental-science
 [Link]
science/3.3
 [Link]
used#:~:text=Remote%20sensing%20is%20the%20process,sense%22%20things%20abo
ut%20the%20Earth.
 [Link]
 [Link]
 [Link]
photography
 [Link] 3.4
 [Link]
gis#:~:text=A%20Geographic%20Information%20System%20(GIS)%20is%20a%20com
puter%20system%20that,Where%20are%20USGS%20streamgages%20located%3F
 [Link]
 [Link]
ation+Server/Chapter+4.+Spatial+Analysis/Geographical+Data+Types/
 [Link]
glossary/geodata#:~:text=Common%20types%20of%20geographic%20data,to%20infor
mation%3B%20and%20Web%20files.
 [Link]
tutorial#:~:text=Data%20Structure%20is%20a%20way,%2C%20Sorting%2C%20Progra
ms%2C%20etc.
 [Link]
 [Link]

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 158

 C REDIT 04

CREDIT 04-UNIT 4-1

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After successful completion of this unit, you will be able to

 Basic concepts of computer, hardware, operating systems

 Web browsing software and search engines

 Computer applications in environmental modeling

 Computer-based modeling for population and population studies

4-1 BASIC CONCEPTS OF COMPUTER, HARDWARE, OPERATING SYSTEMS:

WINDOWS, UNIX AND LINUX, USE OF COMMON APPLICATION SOFTWARE IN
BIOLOGY: WORD PROCESSING, SPREADSHEETS, GRAPHICS AND DATA BASE
Basic concept of computer
A computer is an electronic device that accepts data from the user, processes it,
produces results, displays them to the users, and stores the results for future usage.
Data is a collection of unorganized facts & figur es and does not provide any further
information regarding patterns, context, etc. Hence data means "unstructured facts and
figures".
Information is a structured data i.e. organized meaningful and processed data. To
process the data and convert into information, a computer is used.
Functions of Computers
A computer performs the following functions −
Receiving Input
Data is fed into computer through various input devices like keyboard, mouse, digital
pens, etc. Input can also be fed through devices like CD -ROM, pen drive, scanner, etc.
Processing the information
Operations on the input data are carried out based on the instructions provided in the
programs.
Storing the information
After processing, the information gets stored in the primary or secondary storage area.
Producing output
The processed information and other details are communicate d to the outside world
through output devices like monitor, printer, etc.

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 159

A computer system is a combination of hardware and software. The physical and
tangible parts/components of a computer that can be seen and touched are known as
Hardware. When one looks at the computer system, he/she is actually looking at the
computer hardware. The hardware consists of the physical components of a computer
system like input devices (keyboard, mouse, scanner, etc.), output devices (monitor,
printer, speaker, etc.), a processing device (CPU), and the storage device (Compact
disk, hard disk, DVDs, etc.).

Fig. 4.1 Basic Concept of Computer

Source: ([Link]

Software represents the set of programs and instructions that govern the operation of a
computer system. A computer system cannot do anything on its own. It must be
instructed to perform a specific task and therefore, to solve a problem the user has to
specify the sequence of instructions which a c omputer must follow. Such a sequence of
instructions is called the program and is written in a language understood by the
computer.

Features of a Computer System : Introduction to Computer

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 160

 Fig. 4.2 Computer System

Memory Units:
4 bit = 1 nibble
8 bit = 1 byte
1024 B = 1 KB (Kilo Byte)
1024 KB = 1 MB (Mega Byte)
1024 MB = 1 GB (Giga Byte)
1024 GB = 1 TB (Tera Byte)
1024 TB = 1 PB (Peta Byte)
1024 PB = 1 XB (Exa Byte)
1024 XB = 1 ZB (Zeta Byte)
1024 ZB = 1 YB (Yota Byte)

Important Computer Extensions:

1. .doc– Microsoft Word Document.
2. .docx– Microsoft Word Open XML Document.
3. .tex– LaTeX Source Document.
4. .mp3– MP3 Audio File.
5. .wps– Microsoft Works Word Processor Document.
6. .txt– Plain Text File.
7. .odt– Open Document Text Document.
8. .dat– Data File.

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 161

9. .pps– PowerPoint Slide Show.
10. .ppt– PowerPoint Presentation.
11. .pptx– PowerPoint Open XML Presentation.
12. .avi– Audio Video Interleave File.
13. .xml– XML File.
14. .gif– Graphics Interchange Format File.
15. .xls– Excel Spreadsheet.
16. .dbf– Database File.
17. .sql– Structured Query Language Data File.
18. .exe– Windows Executable File.
19. .html– Hypertext Markup Language File.
20. .asp– Active Server Page.
21. .tmp– Temporary File.
22. .bak– Backup File.

Hardware
Computer hardware includes the physical parts of a computer, such as the case,[1]
central processing unit (CPU), monitor, mouse, keyboard, computer data storage,
graphics card, sound card, speakers and motherboard.[2]
By contrast, software is the set of instructions that can be stored and run by hardware.
Hardware is so-termed because it is "hard" or rigid with respect to changes, whereas
software is "soft" because it is easy to change.
Hardware is typically directed by the software to execute any command or instruction.
A combination of hardware and software forms a usable computing system, although
other systems exist with only hardware.

Abbreviated as HW, hardware is best described as any physical component of a

computer system containing a circuit board, ICs, or other electronics. A perfect example
of hardware is the screen on which you are viewing this page. Whether it be a monitor,
tablet, or smartphone, it is hardware.
Without any hardware, your computer would not exist, and software could not be u sed.
The picture is a Logitech webcam, an example of an external hardware peripheral. This
hardware device allows users to take videos or pictures, and transmit them over the
Internet.
External hardware examples
Below is a list of external hardware or hardware found outside a computer.
• Flat-panel, monitor, and LCD

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 162

• Gamepad
• Joystick
• Keyboard
• Microphone
• Mouse
• Printer
• Projector
• Scanner
• Speakers
• USB thumb drive
Internal hardware examples
Below is a list of internal hardware or hardware foun d inside a computer.
• CPU (central processing unit).
• Drive (e.g., Blu-ray, CD-ROM, DVD, floppy drive, hard drive, and SSD).
• Fan (heat sink)
• Modem
• Motherboard
• Network card
• Power supply
• RAM
• Sound card
• Video card
What is the most common hardware included with a computer?
Below is a list of the most common hardware often found in a computer or connected to
a computer today (desktop computer or laptop).
• Processor (CPU)
• One or more fans and heat sink
• Motherboard that most likely has an integrated video card, sound card, and
network card.
• For most desktop computers (especially gaming computers), a separate video
card is used.
• RAM
• Hard drive
• Power supply
• Cables that connect internal components and external peripherals.
• Keyboard
• Mouse or touchpad with a laptop.

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 163

• Flat-panel, monitor, or TV for desktop computers and LCD as part of a laptop.
Operating System
Operating systems are software that controls the execution of a computer programme
that may provide scheduling, debugging, input/output control, accounting, compilation,
storage assignment, data management and related services. In the earlier unit you have
been familiarised with the basic concepts of operating systems. In this unit you will get
a detailed knowledge of the commonly used operating system viz. MS-DOS, MS-
Windows, Unix and Linux. The commands and functions of each system has been dealt
with in details to initiate you in using these operating systems.
Windows
Windows gives life to modern PCs; its what sets new PCs ap art from their dull
typewriter like forebears. Windows gives you a graphical environment, so you can see
what you‘re doing. Windows gives a consistent point and shoot user interface, so that
allocation unit of all software works alike. And Windows gives yo u the ability to run
multiple programs at once, so your computer can keep up with the most valuable
resource around you.
Advantage of Using WINDOWS vs DOS
Windows brings together features available in older style operating systems and adds
to them user friendly features so that you can do more work quicker from your desktop
or portable computer. Some of the main benefits include:
Improved interface
1. Easier file management, including support for networked connections and long
filenames Software 132
2. New Plug and Play feature automatically detects and uses additional devices you
attach to your computer l
3. True 32-bit multitasking enables several programs to run simultaneously so you
can get more work done
4. Improved search facility
5. Better multimedia support
6. Extended communications capability, including E -mail, faxes, bulletin boards,
Internet.
The basic foundation underlying Windows is its ‗windowing‘ capability. A window
(spelt with a lower-case w) is a rectangular area used to display information or to run a
program. Several windows can be opened at the same time to work with multiple
applications, so you should be able to dramatically increase your productivity when
using your computer.
Versions of MS WINDOWS

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 164

Windows 98
Windows 98 was officially released on June 25th 1998. Internet Explorer 4.0 is
integrated as a component of Windows 98 just like Internet Explorer 3.0 to OSR2.
There is also a built-in TV tuner, a better Dial-Up Network and a system shield called
[Link] which prevents crashes ensuring a better and smoother environment.
Although Microsoft makes no guarantees that general system performance will increase
after installing Windows 98, many users have seen an improvement after upgrading
from Windows 95 + IE4.0. 486DX / 66 MHz, 16 MB of memory. Typical installation
requires approximately 195 MB of free hard disk space, but may range between 120 MB
to 295 MB, depending on your system configuration and the options you choose to
install. CD-ROM or DVDROM drive (3.5" high-density disks available for additional
charge). VGA or higher-resolution monitor. Microsoft Mouse or compatible pointing
device. The Windows 98 interface is more like a Web browser. So you can use the same
navigation and viewing techniques whether you‘re search ing your hard disk or the
Internet. Most of these options can be adjusted or switched off to resemble Windows
95.

Windows XP
Windows Whistler is the codename for the first joint business/consumer version of
Windows built on the Windows 2000 OS kernel for stability and reliability. To bring the
reliability of Windows 2000 to consumers as soon as possible and address the feedback
from enterprise customers, Microsoft planned a phased release of Windows XP
beginning with the desktop products and followed by t he server versions. Windows XP
is their first step in the Microsoft. Net vision. Windows XP Professional are available in
24 official localized versions in addition to English. In any version of Windows XP
Professional, you can display, input, edit, and pr int documents in hundreds of
languages. Users or administrators can set regional preferences, fonts, keyboard
layouts, sorting orders, date formats, and so on.
The biggest innovation for multilingual computing is the Windows XP Multilingual
User Interface Pack, which is an add-on to the English version of Windows XP
Professional. It lets users or administrators switch the User Interface (menus, dialogs
and help files) from one language to another. This feature greatly eases Operating
Systems (Dos, Windows, Unix and Linux) 133 desktop administration in multilingual
computing environments, and lowers cost of desktop change and configuration
management considerably. The Multilingual User Interface Pack will be available in 33
languages.

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 165

Windows Millennium Edition
Windows Millennium Edition is the latest release of the Windows 9* operating system.
It is designed solely for the home user.
Not a great deal is new in Windows ―Millennium Edition‖ despite the hype that is sure
to come out around its release date. Here are the basics from the Press Release
Microsoft sent out.
―Digital Media and Entertainment‖ Digital media is becoming increasingly popular, as
illustrated by the exponential growth in areas like music on the Web and digital
photography. The Consumer Windows Division will focus on enabling users to take
advantage of all this new content, making it easy to access, play/view and store as well
as providing an enhanced PC gaming experience.
―Online Experience‖ Providing consumers a premier home online e xperience is a
primary goal for the Consumer Windows Division. This means consumers can easily
connect to the Web, locate desired content and determine which content is right for
their family.
―Home Networking‖ With more than 15 million households now ow ning two computers
and the cost of new PCs continuing to fall, as well as the many intelligent hardware
devices being created, networking at home is becoming a reality for more people. The
Consumer Windows Division will work to simplify the process of conn ecting multiple
computers in the home, enabling them to share information and an Internet connection,
and provide the infrastructure for connecting different intelligent devices to the PC.
―It Just Works‖ The Consumer Windows Division is committed to pro viding consumers
with a solution that ‗just works,‘ from the moment a user starts their PC and throughout
their daily computing experience. This promise will be delivered upon by the
advancement of the PC‘s self-healing functionality, in addition to provid ing a simpler
set-up and a great out-of-the-box experience for new computer users.
Basic Features of WINDOWS
The following are the different features of Windows:
• Desktop
• Start Button
• My computer
• Recycle Bin
• Network Neighbourhood
Unix
After three decades of use, the UNIX computer operating system from Bell Labs is still
regarded as one of the most powerful, versatile, and flexible operating Operating
Systems (Dos, Windows, Unix and Linux) 173 systems (OS) in the computer world. Its

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 166

popularity is due to many factors, including its ability to run a wide variety of
machines, from micros to supercomputers, and its portability – all of which led to its
adoption by many manufacturers.
History of UNIX
Like another legendary creature whose name also en ds in ‗x,‘ UNIX rose from the
ashes of a multi-organizational effort in the early 1960s to develop a dependable
timesharing operating system.
The joint effort was not successful, but a few survivors from Bell Labs tried again, and
what followed was a system that offers its users a work environment that has been
described as ―of unusual simplicity, power, and elegance....‖
The system also fostered a distinctive approach to software design – solving a problem
by interconnecting simpler tools, rather than cr eating large monolithic application
programs.
Its development and evolution led to a new philosophy of computing, and it has been a
never-ending source of both challenges and joy to programmers around the world.
Main Features
Multi-user Capabilities
A multi-user system permits several users to use the same computer simultaneously.
More than one terminal can be connected to one computer, and the users of the terminal
can run allocation unit programs, access files, and print the documents at once. The O/S
manages the requests made to the computer by managing users, sorts them from
interfering with each other, and assigns priorities when two or more users want to
access the same file at the same time. A computer system that can support multiple
users is generally less expensive than the equivalent number of single user machines.
Multitasking Capabilities
Multitasking means that a given user can do more than one task at the same time.
Multitasking with computer lets you simultaneously perform tasks formerly p erformed
sequentially. This helps the set of tasks to be completed quickly. This is achieved by
placing some tasks in the ―background‖ and some of the tasks in the ―foreground‖.
Portability
Portability is the ability of the software that operates on one machine to operate on
another, different machine. Hence, it is easier to modify the UNIX system code for
installation on a new computer. The ability to transport the UNIX system from one
brand of computer to another has been the major reason of acceptance of this system.
The Unix System runs on more brands and types of computers.
Unix Operating System

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 167

The UNIX operating system is made up of three parts; the kernel, the shell and the
programs.
The kernel
The kernel of UNIX is the hub of the operating syst em. It allocates time and memory to
programs and handles the filestore and communications in response to system calls.
As an illustration of the way that the shell and the kernel work together, suppose a user
types rm myfile (which has the effect of removing the file ―myfile‖). The shell searches
the file store for the file containing the program rm, and then requests the kernel,
through system calls, to execute the program rm on myfile. When the process rm myfile
has finished running, the shell then returns the UNIX prompt % to the user, indicating
that it is waiting for further commands.
The shell
The shell acts as an interface between the user and the kernel. When a user logs in, the
login program checks the username and password, and then starts anoth er program
called the shell. The shell is a command line interpreter (CLI). It interprets the
commands the user types in and arranges for them to be carried out. The commands are
themselves programs. When they terminate, the shell gives the user another pr ompt (%
on our systems).
The adept user can customize his/her own shell, and users can use different shells on
the same machine. Staff and students in the school have the tcsh shell by default.
Linux
Technical Features of Linux
The benefits derived from using the UNIX operating system, and hence Linux, stem
from its power and flexibility. These are the result of the many features built into the
system, ready for use as soon as you turn the system on. The various features available
are described below:
Linux is Network-friendly
A team of programmers developed Linux over the Internet, therefore its networking
features are given high priority. Linux is capable of acting as client Software 208
and/or server to any of the popular operating systems in use today, and is quite capable
of being used to run Internet Service Providers. It is also well suited to serving as a
dial-in network station. Information exchanged by users on the same systems is called
internal communication and is accomplished by terminal -toterminal communication, e-
mail and an automatic calendar that serves as a scheduler or Information manager.
Linux provides all this networking capabilities. By using Linux operating system, you
can talk to another user through an e-mail utility or download large files from another
system across the nation. You can also accomplish internal messaging or file transfer

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 168

though a number of Linux commands, such as write, call, mail and mailx. Linux
supports most of the major protocols. Support for Internet, Novell, Windows, and
Appletalk networking have been part of the Linux kernel. Linux support Simple
Network Management Protocol and other services (such as Domain Name Service) and
is also well suited to serving large networks. All these networking options will run
acceptably on minimal hardware configurations.
Linux is Multitasking
Multitasking describes the capability to seemingly execute multiple programs at the
same time without hindering each application from running. Most UNIX variants
provide a type of multitasking called Preemptive multitasking. The name is based on
the fact that each program is guaranteed a chance to run, each program executes until
the operating system preempts it to allow another program to run. This type of
multitasking is exactly what Linux does.
Linux is Multi-user
Linux is an implementation of the UNIX design concept, which means that it is a
multi-user system from the word ―go.‖ UNIX and Windows NT helped in developing
the concept of many user-accessing applications or processing power from a single PC.
The important feature of Linux is that more than one person can work in the same
version of the same application at the same time, from the same or separate terminals,
Linux is capable of managing the traffic.
Linux is Open
Linux is open, that means that for the entire base system, which includes the kernel, the
GNU tools, and all the basic utilities, all the programmers and users have access to the
source code as well as the right to modify it. An important aspect of open software is
the ability to write kernel extensions and drivers as needed. Open system provides a
large number of software authors and beta testers. This makes the software testing and
refinement process faster and better. Linux provide the high quality software, which
means less prone to crash, more efficient.
Linux is ―Free‖
Linux is ―Free‖ in two ways. That is, the Linux consumer is free to modify the system
and do anything he or she wishes with it and also, acquiring Linux does not necessarily
require any cash. One of the greatest advantages of Linux is that it is the freedom to
modify the existing code makes it a very easily extensible platform.

Linux is Reliable
Linux is one of the more stable operating systems because programmers who were
writing for other programmers and not for the corporate system wrote the large part of

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 169

the Linux. The only people who made the decisions on what went Operating Systems
(Dos, Windows, Unix and Linux) 209 into the system were programmers. Another
factor, which touches on reliability, is that there are currently two mature program
packaging standards in the Linux world. Debian and Red Hat each have their own
packaging systems, both will check dependencies and both can upgrade an entire
running system without a reboot. This makes it easy to upgrade parts or all of a system,
as well as add new software, or remove unwanted software.
Components of a Linux System
The Linux system is composed of three main bodies of code, in line with most
traditional UNIX implementations:
1) Kernel: the kernel is responsible for maintaining all the important abstractions of
the operating system, including such things as virtual memory and processes.
2) System Libraries: the system libraries define a standard set of functions through
which applications can interact with the kernel and that implementation much of the
operating system functionally that does not need the full privileges of the kernel code.
3) System utilities: the system utilities are programs that perform individual,
specialized management tasks. Some system utilities may be invoked just once to
initialize and configure some aspect of the system, others known as deamons in UNIX
terminology may run permanently, handling tasks such as responding to incoming
network connections, accepting logon requests from terminals or updating log files.

Use of common application software in biology

Computers in Life Science
There are many ways computers are used in life science; usually through either the use
of sensors and other hardware that only a computer can understand, or computers'
incredible capacity for doing complex analyses quickly. A piece of analysis that would
take a human 20 years to complete could be done by computer in days. The examples of
computers in life science we will discuss in this lesson are medical imaging, genomics,
drug design and discovery, assistive technology, and simulation.
Medical imaging is the process of creating a picture of the inside of a human (or
animal) body. An MRI scanner is a great example of this: it uses a gig antic magnet and
our understanding of quantum mechanical physics to create an image of the inside of
the body, including the brain. Computers can be used with MRI scanners, not only to
create the image itself through the scanner's sensors, but also to anal yze the image. A
computer can classify the tissues shown in the image, guide neurosurgery, identify
potential problems, measure the thickness of certain tissues, or even decode mental

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 170

states. A computer can figure out the noun that a human being was thinki ng of through
an MRI scan with high accuracy.
Genomics is a part of biology that focuses on understanding genomes, including their
structure, function, evolution, and mapping. Genomes are the genetic material of an
organism, including the rules that explain how to build the various cells in the body.
Computer programs are vital to genomics these days. They can figure out the most
likely evolutionary relationships between organisms by analyzing their genetics and can
be used for gene and protein sequencing.
Drug design and discovery is about finding drugs that will help humans with particular
diseases and problems. Computers can be used to figure out candidates far more quickly
than any human could. This probably isn't surprising when you consider that humans
contain 500,000 proteins, only a small percentage of which are well studied.
Lab Organization
Electronic Lab Notebook
Are your lab members trying to convince you to join the electronic lab notebook age?
Are your disheveled lab notebook pages trying to enc ourage you to be more organized?
SciNote, eLabFTW, and LabGuru all have user-friendly electronic lab notebook
software for academic and industry scientists. Not only are electronic notebooks great
for the environment, but they really help out your fellow l abmates with understanding
how exactly you got that amazing data in your last experiment (reproducibility for the
win!).
Lab Management Software
Quartzy is the free lab management software you need! This software helps lab
managers consolidate lab supply ordering, and keep better track of costs and inventory,
with access to over one thousand life science suppliers on one website.
Antibodies and Reagents
With all of the possible antibodies and reagents to choose from, it can be difficult to
locate the one that best suits your experiment. Enter Antibody Registry. If you are
looking for a new antibody for an experiment, you can search with ease on this website.
If your antibody of choice is not available, and you must instead collaborate or make it
yourself, you can then add your new antibody onto the Antibody Registry, for future
collaborations with others interested in the same antibody.
If you are searching for reagents in addition to antibodies, try using LabX. With
hundreds of suppliers, you can quickly locate the reagents, antibodies, and equipment
you need.
Protocol Software

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 171

Sharing protocols between labmates, and even with labs down the hall, is a standard
event in the life of scientist. But what if the people around you don‘t have the protocol
you‘re looking for? Expand your community, of course! Between Protocol Exchange
(run by the Nature Publishing Group), Bio -Protocol (an online peer-reviewed journal of
scientific protocols), and Protocol Online (another platform of well -organized scientific
protocols) you are bound to find the protocol of your dreams .

SELF-TEST
1) Who is the father of Computers?

a) James Gosling

b) Charles Babbage

c) Dennis Ritchie

d) Bjarne Stroustrup

2) Which of the following is the correct abbreviation of COMPUTER? ___________

a) Commonly Occupied Machines Used in Technical and Educational Research

energy

b) Commonly Operated Machines Used in Technical and Environmental Research

energy

c) Commonly Oriented Machines Used in Technical and Educational Research

d) Commonly Operated Machines Used in Technical and Educational Research

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS

1) What are the skills require to handle computer ?

2) Why do people use computers?

4-2 INTRODUCTION TO WEB BROWSING SOFTWARE AND SEARCH

ENGINES WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO ONLINE ENVIRONMENTAL

RESOURCES
An overview of web browser software
A web browser (sometimes known as an Internet browser or simply a browser) is
software that allows you to visit the Internet or a local website. When a user requests a
web page from a certain website, the web browser requests the material from a web
server and displays it on the user's device.
A web browser is not the same as a search engine, despite the fact that the two are
sometimes confused. A search engine is a web page that contains links to other online

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 172

pages. A user must, however, have a web browser installed in order to connect to a
website's server and view its web pages.
Web browsers are used on PCs, laptops, tablets, and smartphones, among other devices.
A browser was used by 4.9 billion people in 2020, according to estimates. With a 65
percent global market share across all devices, Google Chrome is the most popular
browser, followed by Safari with 18 percent.
Function
A web browser's job is to retrieve content from the Internet or a local storage device
and display it on the user's device.
The user starts the procedure by typing a Uniform Resource Locator (URL) into the
browser, such as [Link] Almost all URLs on the Internet begin with
either http: or https:, indicating that the browser will us e the Hypertext Transfer
Protocol to get them (HTTP). The communication between the browser and the web
server is encrypted in secure mode (HTTPS) for security and privacy reasons.
The browser's rendering engine shows a web page on the user's device once it has been
retrieved. This includes picture and video formats that the browser supports.
Links to other pages and resources are common on web pages. Each link has a URL,
which the browser uses to travel to the new resource when it is clicked or touched. As a
result, the process of delivering content to the user begins all over again.
To optimise loading times for subsequent visits to the same page, most browsers use an
internal cache of web page resources. Many objects, such as huge photos, can be stored
in the cache and do not need to be downloaded again from the server. Cached items are
typically only kept for the amount of time specified by the web server in its HTTP
response messages.

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 173

 Fig. 4.3 Most Famous Internet Browser
(Source: [Link] -most-popular-mobile-browsers)
Features
A lot of features are shared by the most popular browsers. They can be used in a non -
logging private mode or automatically log browsing history. They also allow users to
manage user passwords, set bookmarks, and modify the browser using extensions. [10]
Some offer a synchronisation service as well as web accessibility features.
In a traditional browser, the user interface (UI) is shown above the page content.
The following user interface (UI) features are found in most browsers:
• Allow the user to open several pages in distinct browser windows or tabs within the
same window at the same time.
• Back and forward buttons to return to the previous page or move on to the next.
• A refresh or reload button, as well as a stop button to reload and cancel the current
page's loading. (In most browsers, the stop and reload buttons are combined.)
• A home button that takes the user back to their home page.
• An address bar that allows you to type in a page's URL and have it displayed.
• A search bar that allows you to type in terms into a search engine. (In certain
browsers, the search bar and the address bar are combined.)
While mobile browsers have similar UI functionality to desktop browsers, touchscreen
restrictions necessitate mobile UIs being simpler.
For users who are accustomed to using keyboard shortcuts, the difference is significant.
Web development tools are included in the most common desktop browsers.
Aside from the widely used graphical browsers, there are also text -based and headless
browsers.
Browsers (internet browsers)
Introduction
A web browser is a piece of software that allows a user to see and interact wi th text,
photos, videos, music, and other content that may be found on a website. Hyperlinks to
other web pages on the same or distinct websites can be found in the text and images on
a web page. By traversing these links, web browsers allow users to swift ly and
conveniently access information provided on numerous web pages at many websites.
Because web browsers prepare HTML data for display, the appearance of a web page
might vary significantly between them.
Standards and Protocols
To fetch online pages, web browsers talked with web servers primarily using HTTP
(hypertext transfer protocol). HTTP allows web browsers to send and receive data from
web servers, as well as retrieve online pages. A URL (uniform resource locator) is used

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 174

to identify pages and is treated like an address, beginning with "[Link] for HTTP
access.
The HTTP protocol specifies the file format for a web page, which is commonly HTML
(hypertext markup language). Most web browsers also accept a range of other image
formats, such as JPEG, PNG, and GIF, and can be expanded to support even more with
the use of plugins. Web page designers can use the HTTP content type and URL
protocol specification to embed images, animations, video, sound, and streaming media
into their pages or make them available through them.
Browsers in Use
Firefox
Firefox is one of the most widely used web browsers. Firefox has the advantage of
being compatible with a wide range of operating systems. Firefox is also open source,
which means it has a vast community of open source developers supporting it. Firefox
is also notable for its large number of plugins and add -ons, which allow users to modify
their browser in a variety of ways. The Mozilla Foundation produces Firefox. Firefox 3
is the most recent version.
Tabbed browsing, a spell checker, incremental discover, live bookmarking, a download
manager, and an integrated search system that uses the user's preferred search engine
are just a few of Firefox's most notable features. One of the best things about Firefox,
as previously said, is the enormous number of plugins and add -ons available. NoScript
(script blocker), FoxyTunes (music player control), Adblock Plus (ad blocker),
StumbleUpon (website discovery), DownThemAll! (download functionality), and Web
Developer are among the most popular (web tools).
Internet Explorer is a web browser that allows you to
Microsoft's Internet Explorer (IE) is a popular web browser for the Windows operating
system. The most widely used web browser is Internet Explorer. All Windows ma chines
come with it pre-installed. IE7 is the most recent version, with IE8 in beta. IE was
created to read a wide variety of web sites as well as give specific functionality within
the operating system.
HTML 4.01, CSS Level 1, XML 1.0, and DOM Level 1 ar e virtually entirely supported
by Internet Explorer. Many of the standards have been extended with proprietary
extensions. As a result, a lot of web pages can only be seen properly with Internet
Explorer. It, like Windows, has been prone to a variety of se curity flaws. Exploitable
defects and flaws in IE's security architecture enable a lot of malware, adware, and
viruses to spread over the Internet. Drive-by downloads come into play in these
situations.

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 175

Others
Safari (developed by Apple) is the most widel y used web browser on Apple systems.
Safari is also the iPhone and iPod touch's default browser. Safari is available for
Windows, although it hasn't attracted a large number of users. Safari had 6.25 percent
of the marketshare among all web browsers in May 2008.
Another popular web browser is Opera (developed by the Opera Software Group). It
takes care of the most typical Internet-related chores. Tabbed browsing, page zooming,
mouse movements, and an integrated download manager are all included in Opera.
Phishing and virus protection, robust encryption when viewing safe online sites, and the
option to instantly wipe private data such as cookies and browser history are among its
security features. Opera is available for Windows, Mac OS X, and Linux.
With a special focus on online environmental resources, search engines
We humans have a tendency to be creatures of habit, going through the motions without
pausing to consider whether there is a better approach.
A good illustration is how one views the internet .
The internet necessitates energy-intensive data centres, which are expected to account
for up to 14% of carbon emissions by 2040. Because of this, many web hosts now
specialise in providing environmentally friendly and carbon -neutral hosting.
Remember how Google's motto used to be "Don't be evil"? In 2015, it was updated to
"Do the Right Thing."
The "don't be evil" creed has a new home in Google's code of conduct's last line.
Many feel that this shift perfectly exemplifies Google's evolution over time, with their
once-guiding concept now relegated to the bottom of the page.
It takes the same amount of energy to conduct a Google search as it does to turn on a
60-watt light bulb for 17 seconds.
That may not seem like much, but when you're searching at 79, 009 searches every
second, it adds up.
That's only for search, not to mention additional resource -intensive features like maps
or videos.
I'm sure you never considered that your search engine selection could have an
environmental impact.
Did you know that there are a number of search engines dedicated solely to social
good?
Prepare to change your homepage, and keep reading to learn about seven search engines
that provide more than "don't be evil." They assert that they will make the world a
better place.
1. Provide Water

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 176

Give Water is a self-described "social impact search engine" that promises to make a
good difference in the world by allowing users to address the problem of poor water
quality and inefficient sanitation in underdeveloped countries.
It was formed when the CEO of the company met Scott Harrison, the creator of Charity:
Water, and was inspired to try to make a difference with his own work.
The affiliate business model is used by all of the social good engines.
The site earns money when a user searches and then clicks on a paid search ad. Bing is
in charge of the search results.
Give Water splits its revenues with charitable partners, who then utilise the money to
help those in need get improved water and sanitation.
Give Water, to their credit, cautions consumers against clicking every ad they encounter
in an attempt to "help out." They are not just protecting advertisers, but also
themselves, by doing so.
A widespread case of click fraud could lead to the termination of an affiliate
arrangement, thus putting them out of business.
Business-Tier-Freelancers
Everything you need to know about using Fiverr Business to identify and collaborate
with freelancers.
Give Water is not a 501(c)(3) organisation. It's one of a new breed of for -profit
businesses that aims to make a profit while also improving the world.
2. Ekoru.
Ekoru is fighting climate change by contributing 60% of its monthly earnings to one of
numerous partner charities, ranging from reforestation and climate action to animal
welfare and conservation. Every month, they hope to choose a different philanthropic
organisation.
Ekoru, on the other hand, puts its money where its mouth is, using renewable energy
sources for its data centres and standing up for civil rights by refusi ng to store any user
or search-related data on its servers.
The disadvantage is that they are now only available in the United States, Canada,
Germany, France, the United Kingdom, Australia, and Additional Zealand, with new
regions being added on a regular basis.
3. Ecosia
Ecosia is a search engine located in Germany that uses income to plant trees, with over
75 million trees planted as of this writing.

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 177

Ecosia, which was founded ten years ago, quickly established a reputation as a search
engine with a conscience, and within a few years had received a number of prizes for its
concept.
Ecosia, like Ekoru, relies on renewable energy to fuel its searches.
However, perhaps more intriguingly, the company developed its own solar energy plant
rather than relying on third-party providers.
The company has invested over $10 million in tree planting and has been able to reduce
expenses to just 22 cents per tree by planting trees at scale.
4. Each and every click
UK-based Everyclick takes affiliate marketing to t he next level.
It began as a charity fundraising tool in 2005, but has now expanded to include a Bing -
based search engine and a tool called Give As You Live, which was launched in 2010.
This tool lists affiliate commission-paying retailers.
There are other websites that allow customers to earn a small percentage of their
purchases back, but Everyclick takes a unique approach by donating the money to
charity.

Everyclick, like many of the other search engines on this list, provides a browser plugin
to help with the process.

Their Give As You Live initiative works with over 4,400 online retailers.

You can even raise funds for a good cause at no expense to yourself.

Elliot for Water is number five.

Elliot for Water is similar to GiveWater in that it aims to increase clean water access.

It accomplishes so by collecting ad money and allocating it to various social causes,

similar to the other search engines on our list.

The company donates 60% of its revenues to charity (the same as Ekoru) and hopes to
reduce the 6,000 deaths per day caused by contaminated water.

Elliot for Water's mission statement further states that they will do it in a courteous
manner, giving clean water and better sanitation to as many people as possible while
also respecting the demands of the local culture and environment.

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 178

They support a solar technology known as Solwa, which harnesses solar energy and
uses it for desalination, irrigation, and other critical processes.

Furthermore, they go out of their way to provide whatever ass istance they can to the
villages where the technology is being deployed.

To put it another way, they don't just export a lot of Solwa stuff and leave it at that.

Instead, they provide ongoing assistance to the people while also attempting to resolve
any other issues that arise.
Givero is number six.
In contrast to the other search engines on this list, Givero allows users to pick and
choose the causes they want to support.
Givero is similarly concerned with privacy, drawing cues from competitors such a s
DuckDuckGo.
There is no need for users to create a profile, no history of their searches is kept, and no
third-party analytical tools are connected to the site.
Although it's a new addition to the marketplace, the good news for users is that they're
still on the lookout for new charity to join.
Users can make pledges to support animal, environmental, and children's charities, with
the company donating 50% of its proceeds to its nonprofit partners.
Lilo & Stitch
Lilo currently has over half a million users who have performed over 40 million
searches, raising over $2.5 million for charity.
It also does an excellent job of safeguarding its users and preventing ad tracking and
other privacy issues.
The waterdrop system, though, is perhaps the most intri guing feature.
Every search delivers a waterdrop to its users, and each waterdrop can be assigned to a
charity of your choice to help fund it.

CONCLUSION
It's now up to you to use the seven search engines dedicated to social good that you've
learned about.
If Bing is your default search engine, switch to one of these options for your homepage
and default search engine. You'll get the same search results while also helping to
improve the world.

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 179

SELF-TEST
1) Documents in Microsoft One Drive can be edited u sing ____

a) Online version of Microsoft office tools using browser

b) Installed version of Microsoft office tools

c) Both a & b

d) None of them

2) Which document view given an appearance as in web browser?

a) Draft view

b) Outline view

c) Web layout view

d) Full screen reading

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS

1) What are the 3 types of search engines?

2) What is the main purpose of search engines?

4-3 COMPUTER APPLICATIONS IN ENVIRONMENTAL MODELING:

COMPUTER-BASED MODELING : LINEAR, REGRESSION, VALIDATION AND

FORECASTING

Environmental Modeling:

There are four main characteristics that characterise environmental systems. I Complex
nonlinear interactions of multiple system components are common in environmental
systems. (ii) Environmental system forcing variables or st ates, such as those linked to
climate, topography, soil types, or population density, are frequently exceedingly
diverse, fluctuating over relatively small temporal and spatial scales. As a result, data

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 180

acquired at higher scales is frequently insufficient to accurately define the system's
unpredictability. (iii) Because the temporal and spatial scales of environmental system
components are frequently incompatible, merging models of diverse system components
is a difficulty. (iv) Many environmental systems a re inaccessible, or their activities are
unobservable; for example, groundwater activity cannot be directly observed; instead, it
must be inferred from sparse measurements. Observations are also frequently
erroneous. This can limit human understanding of e nvironmental processes and make
accurate system models more difficult. Environmental systems are modelled using three
types of models: empirical, conceptual, and process -based models. The complexity of
these models varies, with empirical models being the s implest, used to describe
aggregate processes, and process-based models being the most complicated, comprising
a huge number of spatially dispersed factors. Between these two model kinds,
conceptual models are thought to have the most complexity. With diff erent sorts of
environmental systems, different types of models are more typically utilised. Climate
models, for example, are often complicated process (physics) models with a large
number of parameters and modelling over wide, scattered spatial regions. E mpirical or
stochastic models are more typically employed to model population or biodiversity in
fields such as ecological modelling.

Introduction:

An environmental system is a collection of discrete biological, physical, and chemical

components, as well as social and economic elements, that interact as part of the Earth's
environment. The atmosphere and oceans, as well as plant and animal populations and
catchments, are examples of environmental systems. Environmental systems are
currently experiencing a number of issues. Global warming as a result of
industrialization's effects on the atmosphere, increased salinization of land and water
systems, and the loss of many species are among them. Environmental system models
have been created for a variety of applications and environmental concerns. To begin
discussing the various types of environmental models accessible, it is necessary to first
analyse the various sorts of environmental systems for which models have been created.
Environmental systems are related with various modelling methodologies as well as
various difficulties and problems. Understanding the aims of modelling diverse
environmental systems is also required when considering different types of
environmental models. There are a number of common ch aracteristics of environmental
systems that influence the modelling methodologies utilised and the issues encountered
when modelling them.

Environmental Systems Have the Following Characteristics:

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 181

While the phrase "environmental system" encompasses a wide range of systems and
processes, including land, ocean, and atmospheric -based systems, there are a few
characteristics that are shared by practically all environmental systems, whether
physical, biological, or chemical in origin.

Nonlinear Complex Interactions:

Complex nonlinear interactions between multiple system features are common in

environmental systems. Physical, chemical, biological, social, and economic processes
combine to drive environmental systems. Water quality in a stream, for example, is
influenced by land use and management in a catchment. Land suitability, which is a
result of rainfall, temperature, topography, and soils, as well as the economic, social,
and cultural characteristics of the local watershed, will influence land use decisions.
The interaction of these several processes is complicated and frequently misunderstood.
Because of this complexity, capturing many of the underlying causes and impacts of
environmental events can be challenging. When modelling, it's common to make
simplifying assumptions about how these aspects interact, and crucial system
components like social and economic drivers are frequently overlooked. Models must
frequently reflect rather complex linkages that are only partially understood by
simplified relationships, reducing the accuracy of model findings.

System Features Heterogeneity:

Over a wide range of scales, important properties of environmental systems alter both
geographically and temporally. Characteristic scales of component processes in
environmental systems can range from extremely small, as in some ecological systems
where spatial scales are less than one millimetre and temporal scales are seconds to
hours, to extremely large systems, as in some ocean or groundwater processes where
spatial scales are hundreds or thousands of kilometres and temporal scales are decades
or centuries or longer. In many circumstances, characterising these heterogeneous traits
is difficult, if not impossible.

Because of the scarcity of observational data When data is availabl e, it is frequently

rife with inaccuracies and uncertainties. Furthermore, the sampling frequency is
frequently insufficient to capture the dynamics of the environmental system. This can
make parameterizing models at appropriate scales challenging. This mi ght result in a
high number of parameter values being estimated by calibration against observed data,
causing model identifiability issues, or it can mean that model identifiability is
compromised.

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 182

Because of the heterogeneity of the system process, measur ed data is used to represent
a much greater area than is needed, limiting the physical interpretability of parameters
and raising problems about model accuracy.

Scales that are incompatible:

Most environmental systems have distinct temporal and spatial sca les for different
aspects, making it challenging to build completely generic models of environmental
systems. For example, the reaction of a surface water system, such as a river or stream,
to a rainfall event may take hours or days, whereas the response o f the groundwater
system to identical replenishment event may take weeks or months.

despite the fact that the two systems are intertwined. Because the time scales of these
two systems are so dissimilar, a model combining them will have to find a compromise
between them. The climate process that produced the rainfall event most likely occurred
on a different temporal and spatial scale than each of the hydrological processes,
further complicating the modelling problem.

systems. The sizes at which to model the system components is thus a crucial factor
when modelling environmental systems. This entails deciding which processes in a
system should (and shouldn't) be modelled, as well as which features should be deemed
exogenous to the model. Boundaries must be se t on the many components that are
represented in a model.

System Processes that are inaccessible or unobservable:

Important environmental processes or phenomena are frequently inaccessible or

unobservable. This could be due to the huge or small scale of co mponent processes, as
in many marine systems that encompass thousands of square kilometres, or it could be
due to various challenges in getting measurements or physical observations of system
processes, as in many groundwater systems. These systems' knowle dge is typically
indirect, derived through the measurement of a small number of attributes related to
system processes. Because these properties are inaccessible, human understanding of
these processes is limited, as is the accuracy of models of these envi ronmental systems.
Simplicated empirical representations are commonly used to model processes for which
there is limited understanding.

Environmental System Types:

Individual systems differ in terms of fundamental processes, characteristic sizes, and

other crucial system aspects, all of which have a significant impact on the types of
models that will be required. Different systems are modelled in a variety of ways. The

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 183

modelling issues that occur can vary depending on the type of environmental system,
and they are frequently solved in diverse ways. Environmental systems can be divided
into at least three types: hydrological, ecological, and climatic systems. These systems
are not totally self-contained, and in many cases, they are subsets of one another.
Surface water hydrological systems, for example, are frequently part of much broader
climate systems. However, for modelling reasons, these systems are frequently
addressed individually.

Computers can help in three areas when it comes to environmental manage ment:

•simulation modelling (pollutant movement in the air, surface water, and groundwater,
as well as ecosystem modelling)

•data visualisation and management (GIS, DBMS, experimental data, simulation results,
regulatory requirements)

•assistance with decision-making (regulatory compliance, cost -benefit analysis, and

action suggestions)

Sections 5.1–5.3 go over these topics in further depth. Integrated tools, as described in
Section 5.4, may manage all of these processes within a single framework and are th us
particularly beneficial when executing IEA.

Modeling simulations

There are several types of environmental simulation software:

•Pollutant conveyance Air (for example, ADMS) Surface water Lakes (for example,
OTTER) Rivers (for example, OTTER, PRAIRIE, QUAL2E) Marine Groundwater (e.g.
OTTER)

•Ecology •Physical environment response to perturbation •Soil loss •Ecosystem

modelling (e.g. GEM)

•Another Type of Noise (e.g. INM)

The goal of these models is to forecast the effects (or, in DPSIR terminology, the st atus
and occasionally the impact) of a particular source of environmental harm (pressure).
They try to respond to the question, "What happens if contaminant X is introduced into
environment Y?" "How much is transported where, and what are the health
implications?" This is addressed by creating mathematical models (generally based on
differential equations) and putting them into computer programmes (often written in
Fortran, but increasingly in C/C++).

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 184

This type of inquiry will appear in almost every environ mental assessment, thus these
are essential tools. Many models exist for many of the above categories - there are
literally hundreds of air and groundwater transport models, for example. Many of them
are research tools that are either not accessible for br oad distribution or have very basic
user interfaces (including data input and output and error checking). Others, sometimes
as a business enterprise, have been designed with non -expert users in mind.

Models can also be classified as specialised or general -purpose, with the former
focused on a specific condition (for example, the discharge of a heavy gas or the release
of a gas from a pressure vessel) and the latter comprising a large number of sub -models
to handle a wide range of scenarios.

Most of these models focus on a single environmental medium (air, surface water,
groundwater, and so on). Some models, on the other hand, can effortlessly replicate a
variety of diverse media. They include processes including atmospheric deposition,
sedimentation, volatilization, and erosion that transfer contaminants between mediums
(Zannetti 1995). In integrated evaluations, these are especially useful. OTTER, for
example, can simulate the movement of a pollutant deposited on the ground's surface
through a catchment area (through both surface runoff and subsurface groundwater
flow) and into receiving rivers and lakes; any networks of catchments, lakes, and rivers
can be modelled. MMSOILS and MULTIMED are two more examples.

Environmental Risk Assessment tools are a subset of simulation models with the unique
attribute of running in a probabilistic mode. PRAIRIE is one of these tools, which can
be used to assess chemical spills into rivers.

This article does not attempt to list all of the simulation models that are accessibl e. The
ones stated below are merely examples of the kind of items that are accessible.

Appendix B has additional resources that will help you choose one of these models if it
is the most appropriate for your assessment.

Management of information

Computers are, without a doubt, great information management tools. Here are several
application areas that are relevant to the environment. These tools should be viewed as
supplying the fundamental information required for the assessment process, rather than
serving any particular stage in the evaluation, according to DPSIR.

Visualisation

Users can more easily examine and interpret raw data, such as model findings, thanks to
data visualisation tools. Graphical displays (e.g. graphs, histograms, pie charts, and

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 185

contour plots), statistical analysis, time series analysis, and overlaying geographical
data onto maps are all examples of visualisation functions.

There are standalone visualisation tools that can be used with data imported from other
sources.

Basic data visualisation functions are provided by spreadsheet tools such as Microsoft
Excel, which are quite simple to use and adequate for many uses. PV-Wave, for
example, is a significantly more complex tool developed for comprehensive analysis of
enormous datasets.

Readers like it when data-generating technologies provide their own visualisation

features tailored to the data (which could be as simple as producing a graph of trends
over time).

Databases

Environmental models rely on databases for input information and ca libration,

depending on their level of sophistication. The following are some examples of the
types of data that might be discovered in an environmental database: •substance
properties (physical, chemical, toxicological, etc.)

•economic costs (costs connected with environmental burdens such as reduced

agriculture yields owing to pollution, etc.)

•information on the environment •regulations (quantitative and qualitative)

•prototypes (either the actual executable model code or information on models)

Simulation codes may merely use this data for model calibration; they save the
important information they require (mostly material attributes and occasionally
economic data) and access it as needed without the user's knowledge. In certain
technologies, on the other hand, the database is the system's heart, and a full -fledged
database management system (DBMS) is used. An expert system is frequently used to
manage what information is needed and how it is used, especially when dealing with
more qualitative data; in this situation, the system is referred to as a Decision Support
System — see Section 5.3.1.

Users can usually update databases as needed, for example, to accommodate user -
specific conditions, new information, or regulatory changes.

The so-called Model Base Management System is a unique type of database (MBMS). A
MBMS is a system that assists a user in determining which of the different
environmental computer models available is best for a given task. These make use of

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 186

database approaches, expert systems, and h ypertext to provide information about the
models stored to the user.

Although they do not take advantage of the more advanced features of database
management systems, several of the information sources listed in Appendix B could be
regarded as modelbases.

Geographical Information Systems (GIS) are specialised database management systems

for processing geographical data — that is, data whose primary feature is "location."
These keep track of information about land use, roads, buildings, and habitations,
among other things. The information regarding a road, for example, may include its
traffic capacity, traffic flows, and traffic speeds. GIS can handle and analyse data, as
well as contain visualisation capabilities, in addition to merely storing information. F or
example, it may calculate the acreage of woodland within 50 metres of a road.

Environmental managers certainly benefit from GIS systems. They are self -contained
data management systems. They can also be integrated as part of a bigger system that
can perform additional data modification. A simulation model, for example, may use a
GIS to acquire site-specific input parameters before using the GIS's visualisation
capabilities to make the output relevant.

Decision-making assistance

While any modelling can be considered part of decision support — and the name
Decision Help System refers to a variety of technologies — there are some computer
operations that provide more direct decision support. These are described in this article.

Expert systems are systems that have a lot of knowledge

Expert systems are at the top of the list, and they're generally at the heart of so -called
Decision Support Systems. These are computer programmes that are designed to mimic
human expert guidance. They're utilised to make inferenc es from data when there isn't a
clear, unequivocal response. An expert system is made up of three parts:

•a knowledge base; \s

•an inference engine, which applies built-in rules (typically quite rough rules of thumb)
to the \sknowledge base to derive conclusions; \s

•a user interface, which enables the user to ask questions and interpret the responses.

The knowledge base can contain any type of data stored in a database management
system (DBMS), but it's especially useful for "softer" data like what crops g row well in
what soils or regulatory or best practise requirements — information that requires some

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 187

sort of interpretation to be processed effectively. Expert systems also feature explain
capabilities, which aid with the interpretation of results for the u ser and are great for
recommending remedial techniques or actions.

Expert systems could be used in any or all of the DPSIR stages of an evaluation. In
some cases, an integrated expert system that covers all stages replaces expensive
simulation models with simple models or empirical principles (or even rules of thumb).
Traditional simulation models may not be applicable or available for the I –R–D stages
of the cycle, therefore expert systems may be the best option for modelling problems of
this nature.

Expert system models are especially effective for scoping calculations, which are the
first steps in determining which regions, if any, are problematic and require additional
investigation. Expert systems can be very user-friendly and suited for inexperienced
and non-expert assessors because to their relative simplicity and human -like approach.
With a little care from the developers, expert systems can be very user -friendly and
suitable for inexperienced and non-expert assessors. Indeed, a number of them have
been created particularly as training aids.

Such systems may be focused at specialised fields, such as agriculture (e.g. EMA), or
they may be meant as general-purpose Environmental Impact Assessment tools,
depending on the extent of the information provided in the knowledge base and the
generality of the programme design (e.g. Calyx, EIAxpert).

Tools for assessing the life cycle

Expert systems for EIA work similarly to LCA tools. These technologies combine large,
user-customizable databases of environmental and economic features of various life
cycle elements with an interface that takes the user through the stages of an LCA and an
expert system that understands the assessment and extracts pertinent data from the
database.

Optimisation

When confronted with an environmental issue, there are usually a variety of feasible
solutions. Each mode of action will have different outcomes and will be more or less
effective in resolving the issue. Each method of action will have its own set of costs
and disadvantages. The following types of questions occur in these situations:

•How can we achieve a specific decrease in environmental harm while keeping costs to
a minimum?

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 188

•How should we allocate our limited money in order to accomplish the greatest
decrease in environmental harm?

Optimisation is the process of answering these questions. Trial -and-error scenario

testing is a straightforward way for this, and it works well when there are only a few
options. The simplex approach of linear programming and genetic algorithms are t wo
more advanced methods. Optimisation can be simple and quick or difficult and time -
consuming, depending on the nature of the problem. Because the output of a computer
model needs frequently to be optimised, it makes sense to have a computer perform the
optimization as well. In reality, optimization is more of a feature of a larger programme
than a standalone tool.

Clearly, this encompasses the entire DPSIR cycle and necessitates the use of an
integrated instrument.

Analysis of Uncertainty

When utilising a computer model to make judgments, it's also crucial to understand the
level of uncertainty in the model's outputs, as well as the key sources of this
uncertainty. In a model, there is both parametric (quantitative data used in the model)
and structural uncertainty (the assumptions and simplifications that constitute the model
itself). Parametric uncertainty analysis can be a time -consuming process that
necessitates a significant number of model runs and statistical analysis. For a typical
scenario, this may only be done once for a large model with a large number of
parameters and a long run time. Model framework systems, on the other hand, such as
RAISON, which allow very basic models to be built from standard parts for specific
situations, may contain the ability to perform parametric uncertainty evaluations as
needed.

Structural uncertainty analysis is considerably more difficult, as it necessitates a model

comparison exercise, which necessitates a collection of models that are functionally
equivalent. These are usually one-time exercises in which groups of modellers
anticipate outcomes for a particular scenario and compare their predictions. They
include a lot of effort, such as coordinating model developers, locating an appropriate
scenario with the necessary data, running the models, and analysing and comparing the
outcomes. Code comparison activities, on the other hand, are particularly effective for
identifying model strengths and weaknesses.

While parametric uncertainty analysis is required at all phas es of a DPSIR evaluation in

theory, it is currently only required for simulation models (i.e. the P –S–I stages).
Structural uncertainty analysis is the same way.

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 189

5.4 Modeling tools that are integrated

Philosophy

The preceding sections demonstrated how computer technologies can help in

environmental evaluation.

There are several different types of tools, each with its own set of uses and
responsibilities in aiding assessment performance. However, when doing an IEA, one
must examine the entire DPSIR cycle, which covers a wide range of challenges, and
several or all of these tools may be required in a single piece of work. The ideal
situation would be to have a single application that seamlessly integrates all of these
functionalities while also leading the user through the assessment process step by step.

A lot of people have recognised this ideal, and numerous efforts have been undertaken
to develop such integrated instruments for integrated evaluations. As techniques have
advanced and computer processing power has gotten more affordable, this has been
more practical in recent years, allowing for more user-friendly interfaces and more
sophisticated models to operate on home computers. Because integrated tools attempt to
perform multiple tasks, they typically use relatively simple models as components to
make them manageable; however, they usually have a modular design that allows for a
variety of models of varying levels of sophistication to be selected as needed, or to add
new models.

Having said that, there are always compromises to be made between different
approaches to model and tool creation. •Customized / off -the-shelf •Sophisticated /
simple •Location-specific / location-generic •Reductionist / conceptual •Distributed /
lumped •Data requirements onerous / data largely supplied or readily available •Based
on fundamental theoretical equations / based on empirical equations •Detailed analysis /
screening •Slow to run / fast to run

If used correctly, each of these provides value. One way is to build a modular
framework into which a number of components can be added to satisfy various needs.
This creates a bridge between bespoke customised software and off -the-shelf generic
items. Designing, implementing, supporting, and using such a framework is a time -
consuming and costly process. Two groups have followed this road, which has resulted
in the development of RAISON and the ESS family of products, as mentioned in
Section 5.4.2 below. The "model development environment" tool is a different
technique with a different set of compromises.

Applications

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 190

In the subject of climate change, Integrated Assessment Modelling is the most
advanced. Twenty integrated assessment models have been developed, each taking a
distinct approach to the problem with various emphases. A vari ety of models are used to
study the factors that cause greenhouse gas emissions (economic, demographic, social,
and technological processes), the consequences of emissions on the environment (using
much simpler models than full-fledged Global Circulation Models), and the influence of
state changes.

Climate change modelling is a field with a lot of coherence and structure, as well as a
lot of specialisation. As a result, it is not discussed in depth in this study.

Appendix B is a list of additional resources , including links to model lists.

Acid deposition is another relatively mature subject for integrated modelling. The
International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA) in Austria created the
RAINS model to aid in negotiations over acid -producing emissions in Europe (see
Section 2.7.3), and it was later expanded for use in Southeast Asia.

RAINS simulates the entire DPSIR cycle. For example, it calculates: •energy trends
based on socioeconomic and technical assumptions (drivers); •pollutant emission s for
the given energy scenario (pressure); •consequent acid deposition (state); •whether acid
deposition exceeds the critical load, i.e., whether ecological damage will be caused
(impact); •optimal (cost-minimizing) emission control methods (response).

RAISON is another model that was created with the goal of solving the acid rain
problem, but it was built in a modular form with the goal of expanding it to a variety of
other applications. It is now a general -purpose Integrated Environmental Assessment
tool from Environment Canada's National Water Research Institute. It is a general
toolkit that may be used to link numerous computer models and combine data from
various sources. It includes GIS, data analysis, visualisation, simulation models,
optimisation, and expert systems, among other things (to control and advise on the
correct operation).

Environmental Software and Services (ESS), a commercial splinter group of IIASA, has
developed a family of Integrated Environmental Assessment tools, including AirWare
(for air quality problems), WaterWare (for water quality), CityWare (air and water
quality in the context of large cities), and EIAxpert (for assisting with general
Environmental Impact Assessments). The functionality is comparable to that of
RAISON, although it focuses more on modelling and less on data administration. The
ESS tools are developed as modular toolkits once again (customised systems are
available to suit particular problems). Standard simulation models, such as the US

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 191

EPA's ISC and PBM models, are included, as well as data management, such as GIS,
data analysis (e.g. time series analysis of observation data), visualisation, and
optimisation.

There are occasions when no off-the-shelf models are suited for a given application, yet
the cost of writing a new programme in Fortran or C/C++ is prohibitive. Model creation
environments can make it very simple to construct bespoke computer models without
having to worry about adding equation solving, visualisation, and other functions.
Typically, these technologies require the user to simply specify her model using native
mathematical equations or specific graphical symbols or icons that directly represent
the system's behaviour. After that, the tool solves the equations for you and presents the
results.

The types of models that can be utilised may be restricted. The easier it is to enter a
model (for example, through graphical drag-and-drop interfaces), the more limited the
model is. STELLA, for example, assumes that your problem may be represented by
stocks and flows of substances, but it displays the model in an intuitive graphical
format within this representation. Analytica, on the other hand, has a spreadsheet -style
interface that allows for more functions (albeit it is still less flexible than a cust om-
written Fortran or C/C++ programme).

Model development environments may contain facilities for uncertainty analysis,

statistics, and other sorts of data analysis in addition to equation solving and
visualisation tools. They may not be able to handle sop histicated models with rigid sets
of equations since they use general-purpose numerical solution techniques.

LUCAS is an example of an integrated assessment tool built for a specific problem

area, in this case land use. This emphasises the importance of co nsidering both
socioeconomic pressures and natural biological processes when assessing impacts like
habitat fragmentation and spatial dynamics. LUCAS is a D –P–S–I model since it lacks
instruments to directly assist in determining an effective response.

Statistical Validation and Calibration of Computer Models:

According to Xuyuan Liu, 2011 at Georgia Institute of Technology, The usage of

complicated computer models has increased dramatically in modern science and
engineering over the last decade, and computer experiments are increasingly being put
to the test. Weather modelling, chemical and biochemical reactions, particle physics,
cosmology, semiconductor design, aeroplane design, automotive crash simulations, and
many more topics are being addressed by co mputer codes. The scientific community has
been increasingly reliant on these models as computer power has increased. Model

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 192

projections are frequently employed to support high -consequence decisions, and they
are utilised for a number of tasks, including pa rameter research, design, and
forecasting. Computer models are frequently less expensive to execute than real tests,
and in many circumstances, practical trials are not possible at all.

The challenges of statistical analysis of computer models are as follo ws. First, due to
the high cost of running time, we can only see outcomes for a restricted number of
input options. Furthermore, the number of input variables may be so huge that a
thorough examination of all conceivable input combinations of interest may be
impossible. Second, for the real physical process, some of the input variables' values
may be unknown or randomly distributed. To calibrate the unknowns, physical
experiments are frequently carried out. Third, computer models are never 100% exact
approximations of the real-world phenomena they are simulating. In statistical analysis
of computer experiments, model insufficiency or model uncertainty should be taken
into account.

A Framework for Computer Experiment:

Computer experiments are analogous to actual experiments, but they are carried out
using computer models that reflect physical processes. Physical processes are
complicated, and the codes that describe them are complicated as well. Because of the
intricacy of computer codes, they are time consumi ng to perform, resulting in tiny
output data sets. Because you have a limited amount of time and resources, designing a
computer experiment becomes a critical issue.

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 193

 Fig. 4.4: A framework for computer experiment (Oberkampf et al. (2006)

(Source:[Link]

There are roughly five stages that go into developing a computer experiment.
These are as follows:
• Formulation of the problem and identification of inputs to a computer model
• Function implementation with computer codes
• Derivation of inputs levels or the design and its application to the codes to obtain
output
• Calibration and validation of the model with physical data
• Application of the results from the code to meet eng ineering goals
The first two stages usually involve engineers and model designers only

Statistical Analysis Issues in Computer Experiments: Statistical concepts have played

an important role in the research of computer models, particularly in the domains listed
below.
• Computer experiment design - The purpose is to select x1,..., xn, the input values for
the computer model to be tested. Because we're seeking to predict deterministic
computer output with no observational error, traditional design of exper iments
approaches like replication, randomization, and blocking aren't applicable. Latin
hypercube sampling was initially used to create computer experiments by McKay et al.
(1979). The idea is to cover the range of important input values and effectively f ill the
space (Sacks et al. (1989); Bates et al. (1996).

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 194

• Surrogate model and prediction - This is the subject of a specialised discipline in
statistics that began with the landmark publication "Design and Analysis of Computer
Experiments" (Sacks, Welch, Mitchell, and Wynn, 1989).
The objective is to predict the computer model output y M(z), at any untried input z,
conditional on the computer model runs at the design points y M(x1), . . . , yM(xn). The
resulting prediction, together with the associated unc ertainty, is then used as a fast
surrogate to the computer model, often called an emulator. Since prediction may be
many orders of magnitudes faster than running the computer model code itself, the
emulator may eventually replace the computer model. In the following chapter, a
detailed description will be given on this issue.
• Validation - The process of determining in what degree a computer model accurately
represents the real system is referred to as model validation (AIAA G -077-1998) that
generally involves the comparison of outputs computed from a computer model to
observations collected from physical experiments. One approach for validating
computer models is to formulate model validation as a hypothesis testing problem
(Hills and Trucano 1999, Hills and Trucano 2002, Hills 2006). Oberkampf and Barone
(2006) argue that computer model validation should be done quantitatively through the
use of computable measures that compare computer outputs and physical observations
over a range of input variables. Those measures have been referred to as validation
metrics. • Calibration - A simple explanation is to adjust a set of parameters associated
with a computational science and engineering code so that the model agreement is
maximized with respect to a set of experimental data (Trucano et al. (2006)). The most
common example of a calibration method used in practice is linear or nonlinear least -
squares regression. However, those methods assume no uncertainty in the computer
model itself. Recently, Kennedy and O‘Hagan (2001) develop a statistical model to
classify sources of uncertainty arising in the use of computer models. The Bayesian
approach they proposed is the first attempt to calibrate the computer model with
explicit consideration of all the sources of uncertainty .
• Sensitivity and uncertainty analysis - Sensitivity analysis is the study of how variation
in an observed response can be apportioned to different possible sources or factors.
Saltelli et al. (2000) presents the large literature on this proble m. Uncertainty analysis
is the process of estimating the probability distribution of the model output that is
implied by probability distributions associated with model inputs.

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 195

Regression Modeling For Computer Model Validation with Functional Responses :

Functional data has been used in a variety of engineering applications with dynamic
computer models in recent years, including automotive crashworthiness testing (Bayarri
et al. (2005), dynamic stress analysis (Bayarri et al. (2006)), and response histo ry
investigation (Schwer, L.E. (2007). As a result, it's critical to expand the existing
additive bias function technique to include functional responses that aren't just physical
qualities but also functions of time or space. Complexity and high dimension ality are
the most significant obstacles in dealing with functional outputs, making either the
standard frequentist technique or the computation -intensive Bayesian approach
ineffective. Bayarri et al. (2005) looked at a Gaussian process approach that used time
as a model input. However, if there are a high number of time points (e.g., 1000), their
approach becomes infeasible, rendering the algorithm inefficient. For extremely
irregular functional data, Bayarri et al. (2006) proposed an alternate strategy ba sed on
wavelet decomposition. The strategy is difficult to implement, however, due to its
computational complexity. There is a considerable body of research on functional data
analysis based on longitudinal data in biological science applications, where th e data is
characterised by few measurements per individual and large experimental errors. A
simple parametric form is frequently used to represent an individual's progress or curve.
However, because we have more precise and well -controlled measurements for each
individual or unit, using strong parametric assumptions may not be reasonable.
Functional data analysis has recently gained popularity as a result of the availability of
a large number of precise measurements. Faraway (1997) recommended using
functional regression analysis to build ergonomically sound equipment. A similar
approach was used by Nair et al. (2002) to examine certain resilient design studies.
Ramsay et al. (2002) provided an in-depth analysis of functional regression models.
When the input variables are all physical parameters, Oberkampf and Barone (2004)
pointed out that regression functions are widely employed to approximate the bias
function between computer outputs and physical investigations. We present a piecewise
regression approach for computer model validation with functional outputs in this
study. To fit functional data with numerous input variables, the first step is to create a
functional regression model. Second, we'll fit the bias function between physical and
computer outputs with this model. The proposed method should be effective in
producing a smooth functional response with a large number of time points. The
approach can be simply implemented and integrated with validation metrics for
analysing the accuracy of a computer model, as shown in this study. The following is a
breakdown of how this chapter is structured. The development of the functional

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 196

regression model and methods of analysis for validation are a real-world industrial
application. We'll offer a new strategy based on the Gaussian process in Section 4.4 and
demonstrate it using the same application.

(Ref. Xuyuan Liu, 2011, Georgia Institute of Technology)

SELF-TEST
1) Which of the following is a dynamic model that shows how the system interacts
with its environment as it is used?

a) Interaction model Life

b) Environmental model

c) Both system context and interaction

2) Which of the following come under system control ?

a) Reconfigure

b) Shutdown

c) Powersave

d) All of the mentioned

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS

1) What are the applications of environmental modeling?

2) What are the four models used in environmental?

4-4 COMPUTER-BASED MODELING FOR POPULATION AND POPULATION

STUDIES
Population Studies:

Computational modelling is the application of mathematics, physics, and computer

science to simulate and understand complicated systems using computers. A
computational model has a large number of variables that describe the subject under
investigation. Simulating involves altering the variables individually or in combination
and then watching the results. Scientists can use computer modelling to perform
thousands of simulated experiments. Thousands of computer experiments are used to
identify a small number of laboratory experiments that are most likely to answer the
problem under investigation.

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 197

 Fig. 4.5 Computer Modeling

(Source: [Link] -education/science-topics/computational-

modeling)

Computational models of today may investigate a biological system on several levels.

Molecular processes, cell-to-cell interactions, and how such changes influence tissues
and organs are all part of disease models. Multiscale modelling is the study of systems
at various levels (MSM).

The study of processes that change or sustain genotypic frequencies is known as

population genetics. With the use of computers, researchers have recently turned their
focus from conceptual synthesis of basic models to concerns relating to the preservation
of genetic variety in real populations. The fact that man has become the chosen
organism for many forms of population research stems not only from motivations for
human advantage, but also from the reality that man has significantly more detectable
single-gene differences than Drosophila and other classical genetic material. Computers

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 198

have become necessary for data analysis and modelling as a result of this research's
focus on human populations.

Human data is rarely obtained under the well -defined, controlled conditions that a
laboratory geneticist can get. In the study of huge populations with interco nnected
pedigrees and migratory footprints, effective data management is critical. Analyses of
large amounts of data are necessary. Computer-assisted biostatistical research is
focused on improving these methods. Human data is costly to obtain and frequent ly
cannot be duplicated; all available information must be extracted. When applied to the
description of realistic systems, theoretical population models become complex.

The use of computers is required. More efficient modelling methodologies, as well as

more effective displays or interactive approaches to model exploration, must be
developed. For the family clustering of several congenital abnormalities and many of
our more common diseases, such as club foot, pyloric stenosis, and diabetes, models
have been offered as alternatives to single-locus Mendelian models. Only when these
models were developed and coded for the computer were they able to make a significant
contribution. This added complexity allowed for the calculation of genetic risk values
directly. In the not-too-distant future, it will be possible to establish upper and lower
risk boundaries in a wide range of situations, allowing for much more direct genetic
counselling. Using computers to extend existing models and apply them to massive
amounts of data is spurring the development of new methodologies and changes to the
underlying theory.

The challenge of record linkage is another key area for stimulating interaction between
computer technologies and population research. Testing population models typically
necessitates massive data sets that can only be accessed by obtaining several huge files
such as birth, marriage, and death certificates. Important parts of hypothesis testing
may be explored and ongoing theory and model development can be promo ted, with the
establishment of more efficient and accurate management of these files.

SELF-TEST
1) Computational modelling involves

a) Physics

b) Mathematics

c) Computer

d) All of the above

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 199

2) Computation Modelling can be used......

a) To study Environment

b) To study Human Population

c) None of these

d) a) & b)

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 02

1) Write short note on Computation Modelling?

2) Importance of Computer Modelling in Human Population Study

SUMMARY
A computer is an electronic device that accepts data from the user, processes it,
produces results, displays them to the users, and stores the results. A computer system
is a combination of hardware and software. Hardware consists of physical components
like input devices (keyboard, mouse, scanner, etc.) and software of programs and
instructions. Hardware is any physical component of a computer system containing a
circuit board, ICs, or other electronics. A perfect example of hardware is the screen on
which you are viewing this page.

Without any hardware, your computer would not exist, and soft ware could not be used.
Windows 98 was officially released on June 25th 1998. Internet Explorer 4.0 is
integrated as a component of Windows 98 just like Internet Explorer 3.0 to OSR2.
Built-in TV tuner, a better Dial-Up Network and [Link] which prevents crashes.
Windows XP Multilingual User Interface Pack is an add -on to the English version of
Windows XP Professional.

It lets users switch the User Interface (menus, dialogs and help files) from one language
to another. Not a great deal is new in Windows "Millennium Edition". The UNIX
computer operating system from Bell Labs. It is one of the most powerful, versatile,
and flexible Operating Systems (Dos, Windows, Unix and Linux) The system also
fostered a distinctive approach to software design – solving a problem by
interconnecting simpler tools, rather than creating monolithic programs. The UNIX
operating system is made up of three parts; the kernel, the shell and the programs.

The shell acts as an interface between the user and the kernel. Portability i s the ability
of software that operates on one machine to operate on another, different machine.
Using Linux you can talk to another user through an e -mail utility or download large

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 200

files from another system across the nation. You can accomplish internal m essaging or
file transfer through a number of Linux commands. All these networking options will
run acceptably on minimal hardware configurations.

Linux provides the high quality software, which means less prone to crash, more
efficient. Open system provides a large number of software authors and beta testers.
There are two mature program packaging standards in the Linux world. This makes it
easy to upgrade parts or all of a system, as well as add new software. System utilities
are programs that perform individual, specialized management tasks.

Examples of computers in life science include medical imaging, drug design and
discovery, assistive technology, and simulation. A piece of analysis that would take a
human 20 years to complete could be done by compu ter in days. Electronic notebooks
are great for the environment, and help out your fellow labmates with understanding
how you got that amazing data in your last experiment. Free lab management software
helps lab managers consolidate lab supply ordering.

A web browser is software that allows you to visit the Internet or a local website. When
a user requests a web page from a certain website, the browser requests the material
from a web server. Google Chrome is the most popular browser, followed by Safari wit h
18 percent. A web browser is a piece of software that allows a user to see and interact
with text, photos, videos, music, and other content. In a traditional browser, the user
interface (UI) is shown above the page content.

Mobile browsers have similar UI functionality to desktop browsers but touchscreen

restrictions necessitate simpler mobile UIs. URL (uniform resource locator) is used to
identify pages and is treated like an address, beginning with "[Link] for HTTP access.
Web page designers can use the HTTP content type and URL specification to embed
images, animations, video, sound, and streaming media into their pages. IE (developed
by Microsoft) is the most widely used web browser on Mac systems. Apple's Safari is
also the iPhone and iPod touch's default browser.

Many web hosts now specialise in providing environmentally friendly and carbon -
neutral hosting. Google's "Don't be evil" mantra has been updated to "Do the Right
Thing". There are a number of search engines dedicated solely to social good. They
assert that they will make the world a better place. Ecosia is a search engine that uses
income to plant trees.

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 201

The company has invested over $10 million in tree planting and has been able to reduce
expenses to just 22 cents per tree. Everyclick take s affiliate marketing to the next level
by donating the money from your purchases to charity. Givero allows users to pick and
choose the causes they want to support. Users can make pledges to support animal,
environmental, and children's charities. Each search delivers a waterdrop to its users,
and each waterdrop can be assigned to a charity of your choice.

Integrated tools may manage all of these processes within a single framework and are
thus particularly beneficial when executing IEA. There are several types of
environmental simulation software, some of which can be classified as specialised or
general-purpose. Others have been designed with non-expert users in mind. Most of
these models focus on a single environmental medium (air, surface water, groundwater,
and so on) Some models can effortlessly replicate a variety of diverse media.
Environmental Risk Assessment tools are a subset of simulation models with the unique
attribute of running in a probabilistic mode.

The so-called Model Base Management System is a unique type of database (MBMS) A
GIS is specialised database management system for processing geographical data. T hese
keep track of information about land use, roads, buildings, and habitations, among other
things. Expert systems are computer programmes that are designed to mimic human
expert guidance. They're utilised to make inferences from data when there isn't a clear,
unequivocal response. Expert systems also feature explain capabilities, which aid with
the interpretation of results for the user.

Expert system models are especially effective for scoping calculations. They combine
large, user-customizable databases of environmental and economic features of various
life cycle elements. Expert systems can be very user-friendly and suitable for
inexperienced and non-expert assessors. In a model, there is both parametric
(quantitative data used in the model) and struc tural uncertainty (the assumptions and
simplifications that constitute the model itself). Parametric uncertainty analysis can be
a time-consuming process that necessitates a significant number of model runs and
statistical analysis.

Integrated assessment tools attempt to perform multiple tasks at the same time. They
typically use relatively simple models as components to make them manageable.
Modular design allows for a variety of models of varying levels of sophistication to be
selected as needed, or to add new models. ESS tools are developed as modular toolkits,
with customised systems available to suit particular problems. The functionality is

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 202

comparable to that of RAISON, although it focuses more on modelling and less on data
administration.

There are occasions when no off-the-shelf models are suited for a given application.
Model creation environments make it very simple to construct bespoke computer
models. They may contain facilities for uncertainty analysis, statistics, and other sorts
of data analysis in addition to equation solving and other tools.

The study of processes that change or sustain genotypic frequencies is known as

population genetics. Scientists can use computer modelling to perform thousands of
simulated experiments. Computers have beco me necessary for data analysis and
modelling as a result of this research's focus on human populations. Using computers to
extend existing models and apply them to massive amounts of data is spurring the
development of new methodologies and changes to the underlying theory. Testing
population models typically necessitates massive data sets that can only be accessed by
obtaining several huge files such as birth, marriage, and death certificates.

REFERENCES
 [Link]
[Link]
 R. A. Letcher and A. J. Jakeman Centre for Resource and Environmental Studies, The
Australian National University, Australia
 [Link]
 [Link]
 [Link]
 [Link]
 [Link]
 [Link]
 [Link]
 [Link]
 [Link]
 Paolo G. Meozzi. (1998). Computer-Based Models in Integrated Environmental
Assessment, A report produced for the European Environment Agency. Technical report
no 14.
 Xuyuan Liu. (2011). Statistical Validation And Calibration of Computer Models
Georgia Institute of Technology.

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 203

  Newton E. Morton. 1971. Computer Applications in Population Studies by University of
Hawaii Honolulu, Hawaii. A panel session—State of the computer art in biology. Fall
Joint Computer Conference

EVS023: Environmental Geosciences & Computer Applications Page 204