Do all book exercises for these chapters once.

The human eye –

Parts out to in – Cornea – thin transparent bulging membrane – front. Eyeball – nearly spherical, 2.3
cm – diameter. Most refraction – outer cornea surface. Lens – finer adjustment & accommodation. Iris
– dark muscular diaphragm – pupil size – amount of light. Inverted real image. Retina – delicate
membrane, light sensitive cells, illumination – electrical signals – optic nerve. Brain interprets signals.
Any damage/ malfunction – parts – visual impairment.
Accommodation –
Lens – fibrous, jelly-like material. Curvature & thus focal length can change. Muscles relaxed – thin,
focal length more, distant objects. Contracted ciliary muscles – thick, more curvature, less focal
length, nearby objects. Ability of eye to adjust focal length – accommodation. Minimum distance –
objects viewed clearly without strain – least distance of distinct vision/ near point – 25 cm (normal
eye). Farthest point till which eye can see things clearly – far point – infinity (normal eye).
Cataract – Old age – cloudy & milky lens. Partial/complete vision loss. Cataract surgery.
1/16th second – persistence – vision.
Advantages of 2 eyes –
180 degrees – 2 eyes. 150 – one. Better detection – faint objects. Prey animals – opposite sides –
head – wider view. Us – stereopsis – front of head. 1 eye – world looks 2D. 2 eyes – 3D. Slightly
different images, combined in brain, extra info – close/far things are.
Defects of vision – Refractive defects –
Myopia – Near sightedness. Far point < infinity. Clear vision up to few metres. Image in front retina
not at retina. 1) excessive curvature – eye lens 2) Elongation – eye ball. Concave lens (suitable
power), helps to diverge rays.
Hypermetropia – Far sightedness. Near point > 25 cm. Image formed behind retina. 1) focal length –
lens too long 2) eyeball became too small. Convex lens (suitable power), helps to converge rays as
required.
Presbyopia – Power of accommodation reduces – age. Near point recedes away. Problem – near
vision. 1) Gradual weakening – ciliary muscles. 2) Diminishing flexibility – eye lens.
Special Case – Both myopia & hypermetropia. Bi-focal lens. Upper – concave – distant vision. Lower
– convex – near vision.
Today, contact lens & surgeries used as well.
Eye Donation –
35 million people blind. 4.5 million corneally blind – corneal transplant – 60% below 12 years. 1) Eye
donors – any gender. Cataract, spectacles, asthma, diabetes, hypertension, non-communicable
disease can donate. 2) Eyes removed 4-6 hours – death. 3) Removed – home/hospital. No
disfigurement. 4) AIDS, Hepatitis, rabies, tetanus, etc cannot donate. Eye bank collects, evaluates,
distributes. Strict medical standards. Unsuitable eyes – medical research and education. Identities
remain confidential. 1 pair – 4 blind people.
Refraction through prism –
Parallel refracting surfaces – emergent ray || incident ray, displaced laterally. Prism – 2 triangle
bases, 3 rectangle surfaces. Angle between two lateral surfaces – angle of prism. Ray of light after
incident ray and before emergent ray inside the prism is refracted ray. Angle between emergent ray
and direction of incident ray – angle of deviation. Angle of prism + Angle of deviation = Angle I +
Angle e.
Dispersion –
VIBGYOR. Band of constituent colours of a light beam is called spectrum. Colours not separate just
distinct. Splitting of light into constituent colours – dispersion. Different colours – different bending –
respect to incident ray. Red bends least, violet bends most. Isaac Newton – first – get spectrum.
Couldn’t get more colours with second prism. Second prism inverted with respect to first – white light.
Any light – same spectrum – white light.
Rainbow – natural spectrum after rain. Water droplets. Opposite direction to sun. Drops – small
prisms. Refract, disperse, reflect internally & refract light. Can be seen – sunny day, see sky through
water fall/ fountain, sun behind.
Atmospheric refraction –
Air above fire, hotter, lesser refractive index than cool air. Physical conditions vary continuously,
apparent position changes, flickering caused – Atmospheric refraction.
Twinkling of stars – Starlight undergoes refraction – atmosphere. Refractive index gradually
changing. Starlight bent towards normal. Apparent position above actual position. Apparent position
keeps changing, physical conditions not stationary. Stars very distant, point sized sources – light.
Path of rays varies. Apparent position varies. Amount of light entering eye varier – flickering –
twinkling. Planets – extended sources as much closer, collection – large number – point-sized
sources total variation – light entering eye – each point – averages – zero – no twinkling.
Advanced sunrise & delayed sunset –
Sun visible 2 mins before actual sunrise & 2 mins after actual sunset – atmospheric refraction. Actual
sunrise – sun crosses horizon. Apparent flattening – sun disc – sunrise & sunset – same reason.
Scattering of light –
Blue colour of sky, colour – water – deep sea, reddening – sun – sunrise & sunset. Path of light not
visible – true solution. Visible – colloidal solution – particle size larger.
Tyndall effect –
Atmosphere – dust, water droplets, smoke, air molecules – heterogenous mixture. Beam of light
visible – fine particles, reaches us after reflection. Phenomenon of scattering of light by colloidal
particles – Tyndall Effect. Beam of light – smoke filled room. Scattering makes particles visible too.
Sunlight – canopy – dense forest, water droplets scatter light. Colour – scattered light – size –
scattered particles. Very fine scatter blue light, larger – longer wavelengths. If large enough – white.
Blue colour of sky – Air molecules & other particles – size < visible light’s wavelength. Scatter shorter
wavelength – blue than longer wavelength – red. Red 1.8 times greater wavelength than blue. If no
atmosphere, dark sky, no scattering – higher altitudes same effect – less scattering – heights. Danger
signals – red – scattered least – fog/smoke & same colour at distance. Light on first entering
atmosphere – blue light scattered.