ATME COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

13th KM Stone, Bannur Road, Mysore - 570 028

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS

ENGINEERING

NOTES

Course: Power System Operation & Control

Course Code:18EE81

SEMESTER: VIII
AY 2022-23
 INSTITUTIONAL VISION AND MISSION

VISION:
 Development of academically excellent, culturally vibrant, socially responsible and
globally competent human resources.

MISSION:
 To keep pace with advancements in knowledge and make the students competitive
and capable at the global level.
 To create an environment for the students to acquire the right physical, intellectual,
emotional and moral foundations and shine as torchbearers of tomorrow's society.
 To strive to attain ever-higher benchmarks of educational excellence.

Department Vision and Mission

Vision:

To produce Electrical & Electronics Engineers through greatest quality of technical

education, technical skill training and intellectual capacity building of individuals.

Mission:

 To provide knowledge to students that builds a strong foundation in the basic

principles of electrical engineering, problem solving abilities, analytical skills, soft
skills and communication skills for their overall development.
 To offer outcome based technical education.
 To encourage faculty in training & development and to offer consultancy through
research & industry interaction.
 Program Educational Objectives (PEOs)
PEO1:
To produce competent and ethical Electrical & Electronics Engineers who will exhibit the
necessary technical and managerial skills to perform their duties in society.
PEO2:
To make students continuously acquire and enhance their technical and socio-economic
skills.
PEO3:
To aspire students on Research and Consultancy activities leading to offering solutions and
excel in various career paths.
PEO4:
To produce quality engineers who have the capability to work in teams and contribute to real
time projects.

Program Outcomes (POs)

Engineering Graduates will be able to:

PO1: Engineering Knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science,

engineering fundamentals and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex
engineering problems.
PO2: Problem Analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze
complex engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of
mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
PO3: Design / Development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering
problems and design system components or processes that meet the specified needs with
appropriate consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and
environmental considerations.
PO4: Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and
research methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and
synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions.
PO5: Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and
modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex
engineering activities with an understanding of the limitations.
PO6: The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge
to assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent
responsibilities relevant to the professional engineering practice.
PO7: Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional
engineering solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the
knowledge of, and need for sustainable development.
PO8: Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and
responsibilities and norms of the engineering practice.
PO9: Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual and as a member
or leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
PO10: Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with
the engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend
and write effective reports and design documentation, make effective presentations, and
give and receive clear instructions.
PO11: Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of
the engineering management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member
and leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.
PO12: Life-long learning: Recognize the need for and have the preparation and ability to
engage in independent and lifelong learning in the broadest context of technological
change.

Program Specific Outcomes (PSOs)

The students will develop an ability to produce the following engineering traits:

PSO1:Apply the concepts of Electrical & Electronics Engineering to evaluate the

performance of Power systems and also to control industrial drives using power electronics.

PSO2: Demonstrate the concepts of process control for Industrial Automation, design
models forenvironmental and social concerns and also exhibit continuous self- learning..
 Power System Operation and Control Notes:18EE81 2022_23

MODULE 1: Introduction
Structure

1.1: Operating States of Power System,

1.2 Objectives of Control

1.3 Key Concepts of Reliable Operation, Preventive and Emergency Controls

1.4 Energy Management Centres.

1.5Supervisory Control and Data acquisition (SCADA): Introduction to SCADA and its

Components, Standard SCADA Configurations,

1.6 Users of Power Systems SCADA, Remote Terminal Unit for Power System SCADA

1.7 Common Communication Channels for SCADA in Power Systems

1.8 Challenges for Implementation of SCADA

1.9 Unit Commitment: Introduction

1.10 Simple Enumeration Constraints

1.11 Priority List Method

1.12 Dynamic Programming Method for Unit Commitment

Objectives

1. To describe various levels of controls in power systems and the vulnerability of the system.
2. To explain components, architecture and configuration of SCADA.
3. To define unit commitment and explain various constraints in unit commitment and the solution
methods.

1.1 Operating States of Power System

The objective of the control strategy is to generate and distribute power in an

interconnected system as economically and reliably as possible while maintaining the
frequency and voltage within permissible limits. Changes in real power mainly affect
the system frequency.

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The system operation is governed by equality and inequality constraints. Equality constraints
are power balance between generation and load. Inequality constraints set the limits on
different operating parameters such as voltage, generation limits, currents etc.

The system states are classified as:

1. Normal state
2. Alert state
3. Emergency state
4. Extremis state
5. Restorative state
1. Normal state:

A system is said to be in normal if both load and operating constraints are satisfied .It is one in which the total
demand on the system is met by satisfying all the operating constraints.

2. Alert state:

Ø A normal state of the system said to be in alert state if one or more of the postulated contingency states,
consists of the constraint limits violated.
Ø When the system security level falls below a certain level or the probability of disturbance increases,
the system may be in alert state.
Ø All equalities and inequalities are satisfied, but on the event of a disturbance, the system may not have
all the inequality constraints satisfied.
Ø If severe disturbance occurs, the system will push into emergency state. To bring back the system to
secure state, preventive control action is carried out.

3. Emergency state

Ø The system is said to be in emergency state if one or more operating constraints are violated, but the
load constraint is satisfied .
Ø In this state, the equality constraints are unchanged.
Ø The system will return to the normal or alert state by means of corrective actions, disconnection of
faulted section or load sharing.

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[Link] state:

Ø When the system is in emergency, if no proper corrective action is taken in time, then it goes to either
emergency state or extremis state.
Ø In this regard neither the load or nor the operating constraint is satisfied, this result is islanding.
Ø Also the generating units are strained beyond their capacity .
Ø So emergency control action is done to bring back the system state either to the emergency state or
normal state.

5. Restorative state:

Ø From this state, the system may be brought back either to alert state or secure state .The latter is a slow
process.
Ø Hence, in certain cases, first the system is brought back to alert state and then to the secure state .
Ø This is done using restorative control action.

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Fig.1.1: Operating states of a power system

1.2 Objectives of Power system Control

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Fig.1.2: Various Controls in a power system

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1.3 Key Concepts for Reliable Operation, Preventive and Emergency Controls

• Stability : Continued interact operation of a system following a disturbance.

• Security: Power system stability to survive contingencies without interruption to the

consumer.

• Reliability: Probability of s satisfactory operation over a long period.

Key Concepts for reliable operation

• Balance the generation and Load: AGC is used to match the generation with
demand.

• Balance reactive power generation and demand :FACTS devices are used for
reactive power control

• Ensure thermal limits are not exceeded: Heating limits of overhead lines must not
be exceeded

• Maintain system stability: Regain state of equilibrium after subjected to disturbance.

• Meet N-1 reliability criteria: System should remain operational and secure even
after the loss of large generator.

• Plan, Design and maintain to Operate reliably: safe limits planning(short term and
long term)

• Prepare for emergencies: weather fluctuation, operator error, software failure,

equipment failure. Operators must be trained

Preventive and Emergency Controls

• Preventive control : Means maintain system in normal state or bring it back to

normal state.

1. Rescheduling of active power generation, to maintain the changing loads.

2. Start up of generation and maintaining adequate spinning reserve.

3. Change of reference points of FACTS controllers, phase shifting transformers

4. Change in the reference voltage points of generation and voltage control devices.

5. Change in bus bar configuration like bus bar splitting

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• Emergency Controls:

1. Tripping of generators

2. Load shedding

3. Controlled disconnection of interconnected systems

4. Fast HVDC power transfer control

5. Application of braking resistors

6. Controlled islanding to create local generation load balance

1.4 Energy Management Centres.

Electrical energy management systems (EMS) are an important function for the reliable and efficient operation
of power systems. EMS is related to the real time monitoring, operation and control of a power system. The
information from the power system is read through Remote Terminal Units (RTUs), an integral part of SCADA
to an EMS or Energy Control Centre (ECC).

1. EMS consists of both hardware and software. Hardware part of EMS consists of RTU, Intelligent
Electronic Device (IED), Protection, Computer networking, .etc. Software part of EMS consists of
Application programs for network analysis of power systems.
2. In EMS, application programs are run in a real time as well as extended real time environment to keep
the power system in a secure operating state.
3. EMS is an integral part of any power system. It is used as a part of Substation Automation System
(SAS), Demand Side Management (DSM), Protection, and Distribution Management Systems (DMS)
for renewable energy and so-on.
4. An energy management system (EMS) is a system of computer-aided tools used by operators of
electric utility grids to monitor, control, and optimize the performance of the generation and/or
transmission system. The monitor and control functions are known as Supervisory Control and Data
Acquisition (SCADA), followed by several on-line application functions.
5. [Link] Objectives: Security and Stability of the system
[Link] Objectives: Economic Operation and Control
[Link] Objectives: Optimization, Operational Planning and Maintenance Scheduling

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1.4.1 Primary Objectives:

1. Maintaining the power system in a secure and stable operating state by continuously monitoring the power
flowing in the lines and voltage magnitudes at the buses.

2. Maintaining the frequency within allowable limits.

3. Maintaining the tie-line power close to the scheduled values.

1.4.2 Secondary Objectives:

1. Economic Operation of the power systems through real time dispatch and Control.

2. Optimal control of the power system using both preventive and corrective control actions.

3. Real time Economic Dispatch through real power and reactive power control

1.4.3 Tertiary Objectives:

1. Optimization of the power system for normal and abnormal operating scenarios.

2. Optimal control of the power system by appropriate using both preventive and corrective control actions

3. Maintenance scheduling of generation and transmission systems.

1.5 Supervisory Control and Data acquisition (SCADA): Introduction to SCADA and
its Components, Standard SCADA Configurations

1.5.1 Introduction

SCADA is an acronym that stands for Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition. SCADA refers to a
system that collects data from various sensors at a factory, plant or in other remote locations and then sends this
data to a central computer which then manages and controls the data. SCADA systems are used not only in
industrial processes: e.g. steel making, power generation (conventional and nuclear) and distribution, chemistry,
but also in some experimental facilities such as nuclear fusion.

The size of such plants range from a few 1000 to several 10 thousands input/output (I/O) channels.

Definition of SCADA: A collection of equipment that will provide an operator at remote location with enough
information to determine the status of a particular piece of a equipment or entire substation and cause actions to
take place regarding the equipment or network.

• What is SCADA? How : By collecting Information from plant / Load centre bend reducing it to the
EMS
• Where : Control Centre. Both at Plant and Load

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• Why : To gather Information as here (voltage, current, frequency, power, circuit breaker status) and To
perform online actions

Fig.1.3: Functional Units

The figure shown above is a simple SCADA system with a single computer, which represents the simplest
configuration of SCADA with a single computer. The computer receives data from remote terminal units
through the communication interface. One or more CRT terminals for display is controlled by operators. With
this system, it is possible to execute supervisory control commands and request the display of data in
alphanumerical formats.

The I/O SCADA programming is used to change the supervisory software. In the basic SCADA system, all the
data and programs are stored in the main memory. The more complicated version of SCADA has additional
secondary memories in the form of magnetic disc units.

1.6 Users of Power Systems SCADA, Remote Terminal Unit for Power System SCADA

1.6.1 Users of Power Systems SCADA

SCADA can be used to manage any kind of equipment. Typically, SCADA systems are used to automate
complex industrial processes where human control is difficult. For example in systems where there are more
control factors unable to be managed by operators in a control centre. SCADA systems are widely used for
control in the following domains

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1. Electric power generation, transmission and distribution: Electric utilities use SCADA systems to
detect current flow and line voltage, to monitor the operation of circuit breakers, and to take sections of the
power grid online or offline.

2. Water and sewage: State and municipal water utilities use SCADA to monitor and regulate water
flow, reservoir levels, pipe pressure and other factors.

3. Buildings, facilities and environments: Facility managers use SCADA to control HVAC,
refrigeration units, lighting and entry systems.

4. Manufacturing: SCADA systems manage parts inventories for just-in-time manufacturing, regulate
industrial automation and robots, and monitor process and quality control.

5. Mass transit: Transit authorities use SCADA to regulate electricity to subways, trams and trolley
buses; to automate traffic signals for rail systems; to track and locate trains and buses; and to control railroad
crossing gates.

6. Traffic signals: SCADA regulates traffic lights, controls traffic flow and detects out-of-order signals.

1.6.2 Remote Terminal Unit for Power System SCADA

A remote terminal unit (RTU) is a microprocessor-controlled electronic device that

interfaces objects in the physical world to a distributed control system or SCADA (supervisory
control and data acquisition) system by transmitting telemetry data to a master system, and by using
messages from the master supervisory system to control connected objects.[1] Other terms that may be
used for RTU are remote telemetry unit and remote telecontrol unit.

[Link] Architecture

An RTU monitors the field digital and analog parameters and transmits data to the Central Monitoring Station. It
contains setup software to connect data input streams to data output streams, define communication protocols,
and troubleshoot installation problems.

An RTU may consist of one complex circuit card consisting of various sections needed to do a custom fitted
function or may consist of many circuit cards including CPU or processing with communications interface(s),
and one or more of the following: (AI) analog input, (DI) digital (status) input, (DO/CO) digital (or control relay)
output, or (AO) analog output card(s).

a) Power supply
A form of power supply will be included for operation from the AC mains for various CPU, status wetting
voltages and other interface cards. This may consist of AC to DC converters where operated from a station
battery system.

RTUs may include a battery and charger circuitry to continue operation in event of AC power failure for critical
applications where a station battery is not available.

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b) Digital (status) inputs

Most RTUs incorporate an input section or input status cards to acquire two state real world information. This is
usually accomplished by using an isolated voltage or current source to sense the position of a remote contact
(open or closed) at the RTU site. This contact position may represent many different devices, including
electrical breakers, liquid valve positions, alarm conditions, and mechanical positions of devices. Counter inputs
are optional.

c) Analog inputs

A RTU can monitor analog inputs of different types including 0-1 mA, 4–20 mA current loop, 0–10 V., ±2.5 V,
±5.0 V etc. Many RTU inputs buffer larger quantities via transducers to convert and isolate real world quantities
from sensitive RTU input levels. An RTU can also receive analog data via a communication system from a
master or IED (intelligent electronic device) sending data values to it.

The RTU or host system translates and scales this raw data into the appropriate units such as quantity of water
left, temperature degrees, or Megawatts, before presenting the data to the user via the human–machine interface.

d) Digital (control relay) outputs

RTUs may drive high current capacity relays to a digital output (or "DO") board to switch power on and off to
devices in the field. The DO board switches voltage to the coil in the relay, which closes the high current
contacts, which completes the power circuit to the device.

RTU outputs may also consist of driving a sensitive logic input on an electronic PLC, or other electronic device
using a sensitive 5 V input.

e) Analog outputs

While not as commonly used, analog outputs may be included to control devices that require varying quantities,
such as graphic recording instruments (strip charts). Summed or processed data quantities may be generated in a
master SCADA system and output for display locally or remotely, wherever needed.

e) Software and logic control

Modern RTUs are usually capable of executing simple programs autonomously without involving the host
computers of the DCS or SCADA system to simplify deployment and to provide redundancy for safety reasons.
An RTU in a modern water management system will typically have code to modify its behavior when physical
override switches on the RTU are toggled during maintenance by maintenance personnel. This is done for safety
reasons; a miscommunication between the system operators and the maintenance personnel could cause system
operators to mistakenly enable power to a water pump when it is being replaced, for example.

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Maintenance personnel should have any equipment they are working on disconnected from power and locked to
prevent damage and/or injury.

f) Communications

A RTU may be interfaced to multiple master stations and IEDs (Intelligent Electronic Device) with different
communication media (usually serial (RS232, RS485, RS422) or Ethernet).

1.7 Common Communication Channels for SCADA in Power Systems

• Power line Carrier Communication

1. Used for speech and data transmission

2. Simple technique, easy to maintain.

3. Speed of data transmission is limited

4. Modem used at sending and receiving end to modulate & demodulate power and
data.

Disadvantage: Since conductor acts as a medium, there is attenuation in the transmitted

signal

• Microwave Communication

1. Frequency Range: 1GHz to 1000GHz

2. 10GHz will limit the transmission distance to 5 miles

3. Data carrying capacity is high due to high bandwidth and data are protected
from noise

• Fiber Optic Communication

1. Wide bandwidth and high transmission over long distance

2. No emission outside the cables and is not affected by external radiation.

3. Preferred where security is an issue

4. Immune to EMI, corrosion, noise

• Satellite Communication

1. Reliable alternative to traditional network

2. Benefits: Broadcast networks( Multiple stations can receive a single message), cost
effectiveness, reliable with world wide coverage and easy to integrate with RTUs

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1.8 Challenges for Implementation of SCADA

• Maintaining System Reliability

• Continuos service deliverability
• Maintenance
• Least cost of operation

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Spinning reserve Thermal constraints: -Minimum uptime -Minimum down time -Crew
constraint Other constraint: -Hydro constraint -Must run constraint -Fuel constraint Spinning
Reserve: Spinning Reserve is the total amount of generation available from all units
synchronized on The system minus the present load and losses being supplied Spinning
Reserve= total amount of generation - present load +losses Spinning Reserve must be
established so that the loss of one or more units does not cause drop in the system frequency.
i.e. if one unit is lost, the Spinning Reserve unit has to make up for the loss in a specified
time period.
Spinning Reserve is the reserve generating capacity running at no load. Reserve has To
avoid transmission system limitations or bottling of reserves
1. To allow some parts of the system to run as islands (some area
electricallydisconnected)
Reserve capacity: Capacity in excess of that required to carry peak load

Cold reserves: It is that reserve generating capacity which is available for service but is not
in operation.
Hot reserves: It is that reserve generating capacity which is in operation but is not in service.
Reserve generating capacity: The amount of power that can be produced at a given point in
time by generating units that are kept available in case of special need. The capacity may be
used when unusually high power demand occurs or when other generating units are off-line
for maintenance, repairs or refueling.
Reserve generating capacity include quick-start diesel or gas turbine unit or hydro units
and pumped storage hydro units that can be brought on-line, synchronized and brought upto
full capacity quickly. Automatic generation control system is used to make up for a
generation unit failure and to restore frequency and interchange power through tie-line
quickly in the event of generating unit outage.

Reserve margin: The percentage of installed capacity exceeding the excepted peak demand
during a specified period. Typical rules for spinning reserve set by regional reliability council
Reserve must be given percentage of forecasted peak demand• Reserve must be capable of
making up the loss of the most heavily loaded• unit in a given period of time Calculate
reserve requirements as a function of the probability of not having• sufficient generation to
meet the load.

Thermal unit constraints: A thermal unit can withstand only gradual temperature changes
and is required to take some hours to bring the unit on-line. For thermal plants, one hour is
the smallest time period that should be considered for unit commitment solution as the start-
up and shut-down time for many units is of this order.

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The thermal unit constraints are minimum up time, minimum down time and crew constraints.
Minimum up time: Once the unit is running, it should not be turned off immediately.
Minimum down time: Once the unit is decommited, there is a minimum time before it can be
recommitted. Crew constraints: If a plant consists of two or more units, they cannot both be
turned on at the same time. Since there are not enough crew members to attend both units
while starting up. Start-up cost: It is independent upon the down time of the unit i.e. the time
interval between shut down and restart. Start up cost=0, if unit is stopped and started
immediately.

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1.11 Priority List Method

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1.12 Dynamic Programming Method for Unit Commitment

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Outcomes

At the end of the course the student will be able to:

CO1: Analyze various levels of controls in Power systems, SCADA and Solve unit commitment problems [L4]

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