Chapter 5
VECTOR CALCULUS
5.1 Introduction
Vector Calculus, also known as vector
analysis, deals with the differentiation
and integration of vector field,
especially in the three-dimensional
Euclidean space. Vector fields represent
the distribution of a vector to each point in
the subset of space.
5.2 Differential Length, Area, and Volume
Differential elements in length,
area, and volume are useful in
vector calculus. They are defined
in the Cartesian, cylindrical, and
spherical coordinate systems.
5.3 Cartesian Coordinates
A. Cartesian Coordinates
1. From Figure 5.1, we noticed that the
differential displacement is given by
(5.1)
5.3 Cartesian Coordinates
Figure 5.1 Differential elements in the
right-handed Cartesian coordinate
system
5.3 Cartesian Coordinates
2. Differential normal area is given by
(5.2)
and illustrated in Figure 5.2
5.3 Cartesian Coordinates
Figure 5.2 Differential normal areas in Cartesian coordinates:
5.3 Cartesian Coordinates
3. Differential volume is given by
(5.3)
5.3 Cartesian Coordinates
The way dS is defined important. The
differential surface (or area) element dS may
generally be defined as
(5.4)
where dS is the area of the surface element and
an is a unit vector normal to the surface dS.
5.3 Cylindrical Coordinates
B. Cylindrical Coordinates
Note from Figure 5.3 that in cylindrical
coordinates, differential elements can be found
as follows:
(1) Differential displacement is given by
(5.5)
5.3 Cylindrical Coordinates
Figure 5.3 Differential elements in
cylindrical coordinates.
5.3 Cylindrical Coordinates
(2) Differential normal area is given by and
illustrated in Figure 5.4.
(5.6)
5.3 Cylindrical Coordinates
Figure 5.4 Differential normal areas in cylindrical coordinates.
5.3 Cylindrical Coordinates
(3) The differential volume is given by
(5.7)
5.3 Spherical Coordinates
C. Spherical Coordinates
From Figure 5.5 we notice that
(1) Differential displacement is given by
(5.8)
5.3 Spherical Coordinates
Figure 5.5 Differential elements
in the spherical coordinate
system.
5.3 Spherical Coordinates
(2) The differential normal area is
(5.9)
and illustrated in Figure 5.6
5.3 Spherical Coordinates
(3) The differential volume is
(5.10)
and illustrated in Figure 5.6
5.3 Spherical Coordinates
Figure 5.6 Differential normal areas in
spherical coordinates:
5.3 Examples
Example 5.1 Consider the object shown in Figure 5.7.
Calculate
(a) The distance BC
(b) The distance CD
(c) The surface area ABCD
(d) The surface area ABO
(e) The surface area AOFD
(f) The volume ABDCFO
5.3 Examples
Figure 5.7 For Example 5.1
5.3 Examples
Solution: Although points A, B, C, and D are given in Cartesian
coordinates, it is obvious that the object has cylindrical symmetry.
Hence, we solve the problem in cylindrical coordinates. The points
are transformed from Cartesian to cylindrical coordinates as
follows:
5.3 Examples
5.3 Examples
5.4 Line, Surface, and Volume Integrals
The familiar concept of integration will
now be extended to cases when the
integrand involves a vector. By a line we
mean the path along a curve in space. We
shall use terms such as line, curve, and
contour interchangeably.
5.4 Line, Surface, and Volume Integrals
Line Integral
The line integral is the integral of the
tangential component of A along curve L.
Given a vector field A and a curve L, we define the
integral
(5.11)
as the line integral of A around L (see Figure 5.8)
5.4 Line, Surface, and Volume Integrals
If the path of integration is a closed curve such
as abca in Figure 5.8, the equation becomes a
closed contour integral
(5.12)
which is called the circulation of A around L.
5.4 Line, Surface, and Volume Integrals
Figure 5.8 Path of
integration of vector field A.
5.4 Line, Surface, and Volume Integrals
(5.13)
5.4 Line, Surface, and Volume Integrals
Figure 5.9 The flux of a vector
field A through surface S.
5.4 Line, Surface, and Volume Integrals
For a closed surface (defining a volume) equation 5.13
becomes
(5.14)
which is referred to as the net outward flux of A from S.
Notice that a closed path defines an open surface whereas
a closed surface defines a volume. (see Figures 5.11
and 5.16)
5.4 Line, Surface, and Volume Integrals
(5.15)
5.4 Examples
Example 5.2 Given that
calculate the circulation of F around the (closed) path
shown in Figure 5.10.
Figure 5.10 For example 5.2
5.4 Examples
Solution The circulation of F around path L is given by
where the path is broken into segments numbered 1 to 4
as shown in Figure 5.10.
For segment 1, y = 0 = z
5.4 Examples
5.4 Line, Surface, and Volume Integrals
5.4 Line, Surface, and Volume Integrals
5.5 Del Operator
5.5 Del Operator
The operator is useful in defining
5.5 Del Operator
A. Del Operator in Cartesian coordinate
(5.16)
B. Del Operator in Cylindrical coordinate
(5.17)
C. Del Operator in Spherical coordinate
(5.18)
5.5 Gradient of a Scalar
The gradient of a scalar field V is a
vector that represents both the magnitude
and the direction of the maximum space
rate of increase of V.
5.5 Gradient of a Scalar (V)
A. Cartesian coordinate
(5.19)
B. Cylindrical coordinate
(5.20)
C. Spherical coordinate
(5.21)
5.5 Gradient of a Scalar (V)
The following computation formulas on gradient
should be noted:
(5.22)
(5.23)
(5.24)
(5.25)
where U and V are scalars and n is an integer.
5.5 Gradient of a Scalar (V)
Example 5.3 Find the gradient of the
following scalar fields:
5.5 Gradient of a Scalar (V)
Solution:
5.5 Divergence of a Vector
The divergence of A at a given point P is the
outward flux per unit volume as the volume
shrinks about P.
(5.26)
5.5 Divergence of a Vector
Example 5.4 Determine the divergence of
these vector fields:
5.5 Divergence of a Vector
Solution:
5.5 Divergence of a Vector
5.5 Divergence of a Vector
5.5 Curl of a Vector
The curl of A is an axial (or rotational)
vector whose magnitude is the maximum
circulation of A per unit area as the area
tends to zero and whose direction is the
normal direction of the area when the area is
oriented so as to make the circulation
maximum.
5.5 Curl of a Vector
(5.27)
5.5 Curl of a Vector
A. Cartesian Coordinate
(5.28)
or
(5.29)
5.5 Curl of a Vector
B. Cylindrical Coordinate
(5.30)
or
(5.31)
5.5 Curl of a Vector
C. Spherical Coordinate
(5.32)
or
(5.33)
5.5 Curl of a Vector
Example 5.5 Determine the curl of these
vector fields:
5.5 Curl of a Vector
Solution:
5.5 Curl of a Vector
5.5 Curl of a Vector
5.5 Curl of a Vector
5.5 Laplacian of a Vector
5.5 Laplacian of a Vector
A. Cartesian Coordinate
(5.34)
or
(5.35)
5.5 Laplacian of a Vector
B. Cylindrical Coordinate
(5.30)
C. Spherical Coordinate
(5.31)
5.5 Laplacian of a Vector
Example 5.6 Find the Laplacian of the
following scalar fields:
5.5 Laplacian of a Vector
Solution:
5.5 Laplacian of a Vector
5.5 Laplacian of a Vector
5.5 Laplacian of a Vector
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