Vibration Monitoring

of Rolling Bearings to
Maximise Asset Reliability
Dr. S. J. Lacey, [Link](Hon), PhD, CEng, MIMechE Engineering Manager, Schaeffler UK
Vibration Monitoring of Rolling Bearings to Maximise Asset Reliability

Vibration Monitoring of Rolling degrees of imperfection and generate vibration as the surfaces

Bearings to Maximise Asset Reliability interact through a combination of rolling and sliding contact.
Although the amplitudes of surface imperfections are now
in the order of nanometres, significant vibrations can still be
Failure to do this will mean that
Dr. S. J. Lacey, [Link](Hon), PhD, CEng, MIMechE Engineering Manager, Schaeffler UK produced in the entire audible frequency range (20Hz - 20kHz).
the full benefits of a predictive maintenance
strategy may not be realised. The level of the vibration will depend upon many factors
Rolling bearings are critical components used extensively in many types of plant and equipment and if they
including the energy of the impact, the point at which the
fail unexpectedly, this can result in catastrophic failure with associated high repair and replacement costs. Vibration monitoring forms a key part of many predictive
vibration is measured and the construction of the bearing.
Consequently, vibration based condition monitoring has been used for many years to detect and diagnose machine maintenance strategies. Vibration is measured by mounting a
sensor, usually on the housing or end cap, as close to the 2.1 Variable Compliance
faults and form the basis of a Predictive Maintenance strategy. This means that the early signs of deterioration can
bearing as possible and ideally close to the load zone.
be identified during operation enabling maintenance to be scheduled and operational costs reduced. This paper This occurs under radial or misaligned loads, is an inherent
In most situations, however, bearing vibration cannot be
explores some of the fundamental concepts of vibration monitoring and presents case studies of how vibration measured directly and the bearing vibration signature is feature of rolling bearings and is completely independent of
monitoring can be used to detect and diagnose a deterioration in the condition of key assets. modified by the machine structure, a situation that is further quality. Radial or misaligned loads are supported by a few
complicated by vibration from other equipment on the rolling elements confined to a narrow region and the radial
machine i.e. electric motors, gears, belts, hydraulics, structural position of the inner ring with respect to the outer ring
Almost every type of rotating equipment uses rolling contact important and both the reliability in operation and
resonances etc. This often makes the interpretation of depends on the elastic deflections at the rolling
bearings to locate and allow accurate rotation of the shaft. environmental factors must be taken into account.
vibration data difficult and can in some situations lead to a element/raceway contacts, Figure 1. The outer ring of the
During operation, equipment reliability is very dependent on
Unfortunately, many bearings fail prematurely in service misdiagnosis resulting in unnecessary machine downtime and bearing is usually supported by a flexible housing which
the type of bearing selected as well as the precision of all
because of contamination, poor lubrication, temperature costs. Simply investing in condition monitoring equipment is generally has asymmetric stiffness properties described by
associated components i.e. shaft, housing, spacers, nuts etc.
extremes, poor handling and installation, incorrect fits, not enough and it is essential that time and resource are linear springs of varying stiffness.
Bearing engineers generally use fatigue as the normal failure
mode on the assumption that the bearings are properly unbalance and misalignment. All these factors lead to an allocated in order to ensure a successful implementation.
installed, operated and maintained. Due to improvements in increase in bearing vibration and condition monitoring has Alternatively, the monitoring service should be outsourced to
manufacturing technology and materials, bearing fatigue life, been used for many years to detect degrading bearings a specialist service provider.
which is related to subsurface stresses, is not generally the before they catastrophically fail with the associated costs of
downtime or significant damage to other parts of the In this article the sources of bearing vibration are discussed
limiting factor and probably accounts for less than 3% of
machine. along with the characteristic vibration frequencies that are
failures in service.
likely to be generated. A number of case studies are also
All rolling element bearings produce vibration, which is an Vibration monitoring has now become a well accepted part of presented showing how vibration based monitoring can be
inherent feature of their design and operation, but the level of many predictive maintenance regimes and relies on the well used to identify the early onset of faults and prevent untimely
vibration, and more importantly whether it is likely to cause a known characteristic vibration signatures which rolling and costly failures in service.
problem, is dependent on many factors, including the bearing bearings exhibit as the rolling surfaces degrade. However,
many of these strategies fail to deliver their full potential 2.0 Sources of Vibration
type. These include whether the bearing is required to
operate in a noise sensitive environment e.g. household because of the lack of investment in time, resource and Rolling contact bearings represents a complex vibration
appliances, electric motors, or a very high running accuracy is training. Simply investing in condition monitoring equipment system whose components i.e. rolling elements, inner raceway,
required, for example in the case of machine tool spindles. is not enough, this must be supported by investing in outer raceway and cage interact to generate complex vibration
Excessive vibration can also put stress on other components suitability qualified personnel and allowing them time to carry signatures. Although rolling bearings are manufactured using
within a system and lead to a shortened life or premature out the condition monitoring tasks, including the data high precision machine tools and under strict cleanliness and
failure. Bearing vibration is therefore becoming increasingly analysis and appropriate training. quality controls, like any other manufactured part they will have Figure 1. Simple model of a bearing under radial load

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Vibration Monitoring of Rolling Bearings to Maximise Asset Reliability

As the bearing rotates, the individual ball loads and hence the 2.2.2 Waviness However, in practice this is rarely the case and due to a
elastic deflections change to produce a relative movement number of factors the rolling elements undergo a combination
between the inner and outer rings. The movement takes the For longer wavelength surface features, peak curvatures are of rolling and sliding. As a consequence the actual
form of a locus which is two dimensional and contained in a low compared with that of the Hertzian contacts and rolling characteristic defect frequencies may differ slightly from those
radial plane under radial load, while it is three dimensional motion is continuous with the rolling elements following the predicted, but this is highly dependent on the type of bearing,
under misalignment. The movement is also periodic, with a surface contours. The relationship between surface geometry operating conditions and fits. Generally the bearing
base frequency equal to the rate at which the rolling elements and vibration level is complex, being dependent upon the characteristic frequencies will not be integer multiples of the
pass through the load zone. Frequency analysis of the bearing and contact geometry as well as conditions of load inner ring rotational frequency, which helps to distinguish
movement yields the base frequency and a series of and speed. Waviness can produce vibration at frequencies up them from other sources of vibration.
harmonics. Even a geometrically perfect bearing will therefore to approximately 300 times rotational speed but is usually
produce vibration because of the relative periodic movement predominant at frequencies below 60 times rotational speed. Since most vibration frequencies are proportional to speed, it
(b). Signal from a damaged bearing
between the inner and outer rings due to raceway elastic The upper limit is attributed to the finite area of the rolling is important when comparing vibration signatures that data is
deflections. For a single row radial ball bearing with an inner element raceway contacts which average out the shorter Figure 2. Vibration measured directly on the outer ring of a bearing. obtained at identical speeds. Speed changes will cause shifts
ring speed of 1800rpm a typical ball pass rate is 100Hz and wavelength features. in the frequency spectrum causing inaccuracies in both the
significant harmonics to more than 500Hz can be generated. Where a large number of defects occur, individual peaks are amplitude and frequency measurement. In variable speed
Even with modern precision machining technology waviness not so clearly defined but the RMS vibration level is several equipment spectral orders are sometimes used where all the
Variable compliance vibration is heavily dependent on the cannot be eliminated completely and an element of waviness times greater than that normally associated with a bearing in frequencies are normalised relative to the fundamental
number of rolling elements supporting the externally applied will always exist albeit at relatively low levels. Not only the good condition. rotational speed. This is generally called “order normalisation”
loads; the greater the number of loaded rolling elements, the bearing itself but also the quality of the associated where the fundamental frequency of rotation is called the first
less pronounced the vibration. For radially loaded or components can also affect bearing vibration and any 3.0 Bearing Characteristic Frequencies order.
misaligned bearings, “running clearance” determines the geometrical errors on the outside diameter of the shaft or
Although the fundamental frequencies generated by rolling
extent of the load region, hence variable compliance generally bore of the housing can be reflected on the bearing raceways Ball pass frequencies can be generated as a result of elastic
bearings are related to relatively simple formulas they cover a
increases with radial internal clearance. A distinction is made with the associated increase in vibration. Therefore, careful properties of the raceway materials due to variable
wide frequency range and can interact to give very complex
between “running clearance” and radial internal clearance attention is required to the form and precision of all compliance or as the rolling elements pass over a defect on
signals. This is often further complicated by the presence of
(RIC). When fitted to a machine, the former is normally smaller associated bearing components. the raceways. The frequency generated at the outer and inner
other sources of mechanical, structural or electromechanical
than the RIC due to differential thermal expansion and ring raceway can be estimated roughly as 40% (0.4) and 60%
2.2.3 Discrete Defects vibration on the equipment.
interference fit of the rings. In high speed applications, the (0.6) of the inner ring speed times the number of rolling
effect of centrifugal force should also be considered. Whereas surface roughness and waviness result directly from For a stationary outer ring and rotating inner ring, from the elements respectively.
the bearing component manufacturing processes, discrete bearing geometry the fundamental frequencies are derived
Variable compliance vibration levels can be higher than those Unfortunately bearing vibration signals are rarely straight
defects refers to damage of the rolling surfaces due to as follows:
produced by roughness and waviness of the rolling surfaces. forward and are further complicated by the interaction of the
assembly, contamination, operation, mounting, poor
In applications where vibration is critical, however, it can be fc/o = fr /2 [1 – d/D Cos α ] various component parts but this can be often used
maintenance etc. These defects can be extremely small and
reduced to a negligible level by using ball bearings with the beneficially in order to detect a deterioration or damage to
difficult to detect and yet can have a significant impact on
correct level of axial preload. fc/i = fr /2 [1 + d/D Cos α ] the rolling surfaces.
vibration critical equipment or can result in reduced bearing
life. This type of defect can take a variety of forms: fb/o = Z fc/o Imperfections on the surface of raceways and rolling
2.2 Geometrical Imperfections
indentations, scratches along and across the rolling surfaces, elements, as a result of the manufacturing process, interact
Because of the very nature of the manufacturing processes pits, debris and particles in the lubricant. fb/i = Z fc/i to produce other discrete frequencies and sidebands which
used to produce bearing components geometrical are summarised in Table 1.
imperfections will always be present to varying degrees Bearing manufacturers have adopted simple vibration fb = D/2d fr [1 – (d/D Cos α )2 ]
depending on the accuracy class of the bearing. For axially measurements on the finished product to detect such defects
but these tend to be limited by the type and size of bearing. fr = inner ring rotational frequency Surface Defect
loaded ball bearings operating under moderate speeds the Frequency
form and surface finish of the critical rolling surfaces are An example of this type of measurement is shown in Figure 2, Component Imperfection
where, in contrast to a good bearing, the discrete damage on fc/o = fundamental train (cage) frequency relative
generally the largest source of noise and vibration. to outer ring (FTF)
a bearing outer ring raceway has produced a characteristically Inner Eccentricity fr
Controlling component waviness and surface finish during Raceway
the manufacturing process is therefore critical since it may impulsive vibration which has a high peak/RMS ratio. Waviness
fc/i = fundamental train frequency relative to inner ring nZfc/i ±fr
not only have a significant effect on vibration but also may
fb/o = ball pass frequency of outer ring (BPFO) Discrete nZfc/i ±fr
affect bearing life.
Defect
2.2.1 Surface Roughness fb/i = ball pass frequency of inner ring (BPFI)
Outer Waviness nZfc/o
Raceway
Surface roughness is a significant source of vibration when its fb = rolling element spin frequency (BSF)
Discrete nZfc/o±fr;
level is high compared with the lubricant film thickness
D = pitch circle diameter Defect nZfc/o±fc/o
generated between the rolling element-raceway contacts.
Under this condition surface asperities can break through the Rolling Diameter Variation Zfc/o
d = diameter of roller elements
lubricant film and interact with the opposing surface, resulting Element
in metal-to-metal contact. The resulting vibration consists of a Waviness 2nfb ±fc/o
Z = number of rolling elements
random sequence of small impulses which excite all the Discrete 2nfb ±fc/o
natural modes of the bearing and supporting structure. α = contact angle Defect
Surface roughness produces vibration predominantly at
frequencies above 60 times the rotational speed of the The bearing equations assume that no sliding contact occurs
bearing, thus the high frequency part of the spectrum usually and that the rolling elements roll over the raceway surfaces. Table 1. Frequencies related to surface imperfections
appears as a series of resonances. (a). Signal from a good bearing

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Vibration Monitoring of Rolling Bearings to Maximise Asset Reliability

Analysis of bearing vibration signals is usually complex and As the defect increases in size more sidebands are generated Twice BSF may also be modulated by cage rotational speed speed ratio will deviate from the normal or predicted values.
the frequencies generated will add and subtract and are and at some point the ball pass frequency may no longer be resulting in sidebands at cage speed in the frequency spectrum. If the bearing speed ratio is below predicted values, this may
almost always present in bearing vibration spectra. This is generated, but instead a series of peaks spaced at the inner If the rolling elements are severally spalled, vibration at BSF indicate insufficient loading, excessive lubrication or
particularly true where multiple defects are present. ring rotational frequency. A discrete fault on the outer raceway may not be present, but overall vibration levels will be high. insufficient bearing radial internal clearance, which could
Depending upon the dynamic range of the equipment, will generate a series of high energy pulses at a rate equal to result in higher operating temperatures and premature failure.
background noise levels and other sources of vibration the ball pass frequency relative to the outer ring (BPFO). 3.3 Cage Defect Conversely, a higher than predicted bearing speed ratio may
bearing frequencies can be difficult to detect in the early As shown already, the cage tends to rotate at typically 0.4 indicate excessive loading, excessive bearing radial internal
stages of a defect. Because the outer ring is stationary the amplitude of the clearance or insufficient lubrication.
times the inner ring speed, generally have a low mass and
pulse will remain theoretically the same and will therefore
therefore, unless there is a defect from the manufacturing
Over the years a number of diagnostic algorithms have been appear as a single discrete peak within the frequency domain. For an experienced analyst, vibration can be used not only to
process, it is generally not visible.
developed to detect bearing faults by measuring the vibration However, an unbalanced rotor will produce a rotating load, so detect deterioration in bearing condition but also to make an
signatures on the bearing housing. These methods usually as with an inner ring defect, the resulting vibration signal can Unlike raceway defects, cage failures do not usually excite initial assessment of whether the equipment is operating
take advantage of both the characteristic frequencies and the be amplitude modulated at inner ring rotational frequency. specific ringing frequencies and this limits the effectiveness of satisfactorily at initial start-up.
“ringing frequencies” (i.e. natural frequencies) of the bearing. the envelope spectrum (see section 4.3). In the case of cage
This is described in more detail in section 4.3. Likewise the ball pass frequency can also be modulated at the In electrical machines, two deep groove radial ball bearings
failure, the signature is likely to have random bursts of
fundamental train frequency. If a rolling element has a defect are commonly used to support the shaft; one is a locating
3.1 Raceway Defect vibration as the balls slide, the cage starts to wear or deform
it will enter and leave the load zone at the fundamental train bearing while the other is a non-locating bearing that can be
and a wide band of frequencies is likely to occur.
frequency causing amplitude modulation and resulting in displaced in the housing to compensate for axial thermal
A discrete defect on the inner raceway will generate a series
sidebands around the ball pass frequency. Amplitude As a cage starts to deteriorate for example as a result of expansion of the shaft. It is not unusual for bearings to fail
of high energy pulses at a rate equal to the ball pass
modulation at the fundamental train frequency can also occur inadequate lubrication, wear can start to occur on the sliding catastrophically due to thermal preloading or cross-location
frequency relative to the inner raceway (BPFI).
if the cage is located radially on the inner or outer ring. surfaces i.e. in the cage pocket or in the case of a ring guided where there is insufficient clearance between the bearing
Because the inner ring is rotating, the defect will enter and cage on the cage guiding surface. This may gives rise to a less outer ring and housing resulting in the non-locating or
Although defects on the inner and outer raceways tend to “floating” bearing failing to move in the housing i.e. the
leave the load zone causing a variation in the rolling element- stable rotation of the cage or a greater excursion of the rolling
behave in the similar manner, for a given size defect the bearings become axially loaded.
raceway contact force, hence deflections. While in the load elements, resulting in increased sideband activity around the
amplitude of the spectrum of an inner raceway defect is
zone the amplitudes of the pulses will be highest but then other bearing fundamental frequencies e.g. ball spin frequency.
generally much smaller. The reasons for this might be that a The effect of this axial load is to increase the operating
reduce as the defect leaves the load zone resulting in a signal
defect on the inner ring raceway only enters the load zone Excessive clearance can cause vibration at the fundamental contact angle, which in turn increases the BPFO. For a ball
which is amplitude modulated at the inner ring rotational
once per revolution and the signal must travel through more train frequency (FTF) as the rolling elements accelerate and bearing, the contact angle can be estimated as follows:
frequency. In the frequency domain this not only gives rise to
structural interfaces before reaching the transducer location. decelerate through the load zone which can result in large
a discrete peak at the carrier frequency (ball pass frequency) α = Cos-1 [1 – RIC / [(2 (ro +ri -D)] ]
The more difficult transmission path for an inner raceway fault impact forces between the rolling elements and cage pockets.
but also a pair of sidebands spaced either side of the carrier α = Contact angle
probably explains why a fault on the outer raceway tends to Outer raceway defects and roller defects can also be
frequency by an amount equal to the modulating frequency RIC = Radial internal clearance
be a little easier to detect. modulated with the FTF fundamental frequency.
(inner ring rotational frequency), Figure 3. As the level of ro = Raceway groove radius of outer ring
amplitude modulation increases, the sidebands will generally Raceway defects can produce a series of high energy pulses ri = Raceway groove radius of inner ring
3.4 Other Sources of Vibration
also increase. which can then excite a natural frequency either of the D = Ball diameter
bearing components or structural elements. This often takes Contamination is a very common source of bearing
the form of amplitude modulation and results in difference deterioration and premature failure and is due to the ingress Since a radial ball bearing is designed to have a radial
frequencies related to either BPFO or BPFI. This can often be of foreign particles, either as a result of poor handling or internal clearance in the unloaded condition, it can also
used beneficially to detect the early onset of a fault using during operation. By its very nature the magnitude of the experience axial play. Under an axial load, this results in the
envelope analysis (see 4.3). vibration caused by contamination will vary and in the early ball/raceway contact having an angle other than zero. As the
stages may be difficult to detect, but this depends very much bearing radial internal clearance and thus the axial play
3.2 Rolling Element Defect on the type and nature of the contaminants. Contamination increases, so does the contact angle. For a correctly
can cause wear and damage to the rolling contact surfaces assembled motor under pure radial load, the contact angle
Defects on the rolling elements can generate vibration at
and generate vibration across a broad frequency range. will be zero and the BPFO will be given by:
rotational frequency and twice rotational frequency. Twice the
In the early stages the crest factor of the time signal will
rolling element spin (rotational) frequency can be generated fb/o = Zfr /2 [1 – d/D ]
increase, but it is unlikely that this will be detected in the
when the defect strikes both raceways, but sometimes the
presence of other sources of vibration. On the other hand, if cross-location occurs (the outer
(a) Amplitude modulated time signal frequency may not be this high because the ball is not always
in the load zone when the defect strikes and energy is lost as ring cannot move in the housing) the bearing radial
With grease lubricated bearings, vibration may be initially
the signal passes through other structural interfaces as it internal clearance will be lost by the relative
high as the bearing “works” and distributes the grease.
strikes the inner raceway. Furthermore, when a defect on a axial movement between the inner and
The vibration will generally be irregular but will disappear with
ball is orientated in the axial direction it will not always outer rings, the bearings become axially
running time and generally does not present a problem for
contact the inner and outer raceway and therefore may not loaded and the BPFO will increase
most applications. For noise critical applications special
generate ball spin frequency (BSF) and be difficult to detect. due to the increase in
greases with low noise characteristics are often used.
If more than one rolling element is defective sums of the ball contact angle.
spin frequency can be generated. If these defects are large 3.5 Bearing Speed Ratio
enough, vibration at the fundamental train frequency can be
generated. The bearing speed ratio (ball pass frequency divided by
the shaft rotational frequency) is a function of the
Defects on rollers normally generate a frequency close to bearing loads and clearances and can therefore give
(b) Spectrum of amplitude modulated signal. twice BSF with groups of spectral lines, the difference some indication of the bearing operating performance.
between the groups being twice BSF. When abnormal or unsatisfactory lubrication conditions
Figure 3. Amplitude modulation (AM) are encountered, or when skidding occurs, the bearing

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Vibration Monitoring of Rolling Bearings to Maximise Asset Reliability

The amplitude of BPFO is likely to be small until the bearing Offset running path Figure 6(b), which matches very closely with the predicted In machines where there is little vibration other than from the
becomes distressed and it may not always be possible to BPFO of 228.8Hz. This motor went on to operate successfully. bearings, the spikiness of the vibration signal indicated by the
detect the BPFO, particularly if using a linear amplitude scale. Crest Factor (peak/RMS) may imply incipient defects, whereas
A log or dB amplitude scale may be better, but care should 4.0 Vibration Monitoring the high energy level given by the RMS level may indicate
also be exercised here because there may be other Vibration monitoring is probably the most widely used severe defects.
frequencies that may be close to the BPFO. predictive maintenance technique and, with few exceptions,
This type of measurement generally gives limited information
can be applied to a wide variety of rotating equipment. Since
A good example of how the bearing speed ratio can be used (other than to an experienced operator) but can be useful for
the mass of the rolling elements is generally small compared
to identify a potential problem is given in Figure 4, which trending, where an increasing vibration level is an indicator of
to that of the machine, the velocities generated are generally
shows a vibration acceleration spectrum measured axially at deteriorating machine condition. Trend analysis involves
Figure 5. Photograph of a type 6217 radial ball bearing inner ring showing small and result in even smaller movements of the bearing
the drive end (DE) on the end cap of a 250kW electric motor. plotting the vibration level as a function of time and using this
running path offset from centre of the raceway housing, making it difficult for the vibration sensor to detect.
The measurements were obtained during a “run-up” test prior to predict when the machine must be taken out of service for
to installation in the plant. After a thorough investigation of all the bearing fits, it was Machine vibration comes from many sources such as repair or at least a more in depth survey must be performed.
confirmed that there was insufficient clearance between the bearings, gears, unbalance etc and even small amplitudes
Another way of using the measurement is to compare the
outer ring and the housing of the non locating bearing, resulting can have a severe effect on the overall machine vibration
levels with published vibration criteria for different types of
in cross-location (axial loading) which was consistent with the depending on the transfer function, damping and resonances,
equipment. Although broadband vibration measurement may
vibration measurements taken prior to installation. Figure 7. Each source of vibration will have its own
provide a good starting point for fault detection, it has limited
characteristic frequencies and can manifest itself as a
A number of harmonics and sum and difference frequencies diagnostic capability and, while a fault may be identified, it
discrete frequency or as a sum and/or difference frequency.
relating to the BPFO (233.5Hz), cage rotational frequency may not give a reliable indication of where the fault lies, for
(21Hz) and inner ring rotational frequency are also evident in Figure 7. Simple machine model
example in bearing deterioration/damage, unbalance,
the spectrum, Figure 4. misalignment, gear defects etc. Where an improved diagnostic
capability is required, frequency analysis is normally
Once the motor had been rebuilt with new bearings and the employed which usually gives a much earlier indication of the
correct bearing fits, the “run-up” test was repeated prior to development of a fault and also its source.
installation, Figure 6.
Having detected and diagnosed a fault, it is much more
(a) Base spectrum
difficult to give a prognosis on the remaining useful life and
how and when the machine or equipment will fail. This often
relies on continued monitoring of the fault, to determine a
suitable time when the equipment can be taken out of service,
and/or on experience with similar problems.

At low speeds, less than 60rpm, it is still possible to use

vibration but a greater degree of care and experience is
(a) Base spectrum
required and other techniques such as measuring shaft
displacement or Acoustic Emission (AE) may yield more
(b) Base spectrum with zoomed amplitude and frequency scale meaningful results although the former is not always easy to
apply. Furthermore, AE may detect a change in condition but
Figure 4. Axial vibration acceleration spectrum at the DE on the end cap of a
has limited diagnostic capability. Vibration is used
250kW electric motor
successfully on wind turbines where the main rotor speed is
typically between 5 and 30 rpm. In a wind turbine, there are
For a nominal shaft speed of 3000 rpm (50Hz), the calculated
two main groups of vibration frequencies generated - gear
BPFO of the DE bearing was 228.8Hz, giving a bearing speed In general, rolling bearings produce very little vibration when
mesh and bearing defect frequencies. This can result in
ratio of 4.576. Of particular note is the vibration at around they are free of faults and have distinctive characteristic
complex vibration signals, which can make frequency analysis
233.7Hz, Figure 4(b), which is close to the calculated BPFO frequencies when faults develop. A fault that begins as a
a formidable task. However, techniques such as enveloping
and gives a bearing speed ratio of 4.67 - an increase of 2%. A single defect, such as a spall on a raceway, is normally
(see section 4.3), which has a high sensitivity to faults that
BPFO of 233.7Hz corresponds to a contact angle of 25o and dominated by impulsive events at the raceway pass frequency,
cause impacting, can help reduce the complexity of the
would indicate that the type 6217 bearing was subject to a resulting in a narrow band frequency spectrum. As the damage
analysis. Bearing defects can excite higher frequencies, which
high axial load. If correct, the most probable reason was that increases, there is likely to be an increase in the characteristic
can be used as a basis for detecting incipient damage.
the bearing had been installed too tightly in the housing and (b) Base spectrum with zoomed amplitude and frequency scale defect frequencies and sidebands, followed by a drop in these
could not move axially to compensate for axial thermal Vibration measurement can generally be characterised as amplitudes and an increase in the broadband noise with
expansion of the shaft. Figure 6 . Axial vibration acceleration spectrum at the DE on the end cap of a considerable vibration at shaft rotational frequency. Where
250kW electric motor after fitting with new bearings
falling into one of three categories – detection, diagnosis
and prognosis. Detection generally uses the most basic form machine speeds are very low, the bearings generate low
Shortly after installation, the motor failed catastrophically. energy signals, which may also be difficult to detect.
The base spectrum shows no characteristic bearing frequencies of vibration measurement, where the overall vibration level
A photograph of the inner ring, Figure 5, shows the ball Furthermore, bearings located within a gearbox can be difficult
but, when both the amplitude and frequency scales are is measured on a broadband basis range, for example, of
running path offset from the centre of the raceway towards to monitor because of the high energy at the gear meshing
expanded, a discrete peak at 229Hz becomes evident, 10-1000Hz or 10-10000Hz.
the shoulder, indicating the presence of high axial loads. frequencies, which can mask the bearing defect frequencies.

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Vibration Monitoring of Rolling Bearings to Maximise Asset Reliability

4.1 Overall Vibration Level 4.3 Envelope Spectrum vibration measurements were obtained by attaching an
accelerometer to the traction motor housing and rotating the
This is the simplest way of measuring vibration and usually When a bearing starts to deteriorate, the resulting time signal wheel set at a surface speed of 60m/min. The motor had a
involves measuring the RMS (Root Mean Square) vibration of often exhibits characteristic features that can be used to type 6016 ball bearing at the drive end (DE) and a type NU210
the bearing housing or some other point on the machine with detect a fault. Furthermore, bearing condition can rapidly cylindrical roller bearing at the non-drive end (NDE).
the transducer located as close to the bearing as possible. progress from a very small defect to complete failure in a
The vibration is measured over a wide frequency range, such relatively short period of time, so early detection requires Vibration data obtained from the drive end (DE) of the traction
as 10-1000Hz or 10-10000Hz. The measurements can be sensitivity to very small changes in the vibration signature. motor housing is shown in Figure 8. In this case the Wheel
trended over time and compared with known levels of As already discussed, the vibration signal from the early stage Lathe was operated at 60m/min and although the exact size
vibration, or pre-alarm and alarm levels can be set to indicate of a defective bearing may be masked by machine noise, of the wheel tread (diameter) was not recorded, maintenance
a change in the machine condition. Alternatively, making it difficult to detect the fault by spectrum analysis alone. records showed that it was approximately 800mm. This would
measurements can be compared with general standards. give a wheel speed of 24rpm (0.4Hz) and a traction motor
Although this method represents a quick and low cost method The main advantage of envelope analysis is its ability to speed of 99rpm (1.65Hz).
of vibration monitoring, it is less sensitive to incipient defects extract the periodic impacts from the modulated random
i.e. it is only really suitable for detecting defects in the noise of a deteriorating rolling bearing. This is even possible 5.1 Railway Vehicles
advanced condition and has limited diagnostic capability. It is when the signal from the rolling bearing is relatively low in
also easily influenced by other sources of vibration, such as energy and “buried” within other vibration from the machine. Increasing the reliability of railway rolling stock is becoming
unbalance, misalignment, looseness, electromagnetic increasingly important and the use of remote condition
Like any other structure with mass and stiffness, the bearing monitoring (RCM) is receiving much attention. At present
vibration etc.
inner and outer rings have their own natural frequencies these types of systems are often expensive to install and
In some situations, the Crest Factor (Peak-to-RMS ratio) of the which are often in the kilohertz range. However, it is more interpreting the data can be difficult other than to the trained
vibration is capable of giving an earlier warning of bearing likely that the natural frequency of the outer ring will be specialist. As a result work has been carried out to determine
defects. As a local fault develops, this produces short bursts detected due to the small interference or clearance fit in the whether Depot based vibration measurements can be used to
of high energy, which increase the peak level of the vibration housing. assess the condition of the drive system (traction motor and
signal but have little influence on the overall RMS level. As the reduction gearbox) of passenger trains without the need to
If there is a fault on the outer ring, the natural frequency of remove them from the bogie.
fault progresses, more peaks will be generated until finally the
the ring may be excited as the rolling element hits the fault
Crest Factor decreases but the RMS vibration increases. The (a) Base spectrum
and this will result in a high frequency burst of energy which Traction motors are used to power the wheel set of electrically
main disadvantage of this method is that, in the early stages
decays and is then excited again as the next rolling element operated rail vehicles (EMUs). An EMU requires no separate
of a bearing defect, the vibration is normally low compared
hits the defect. In other words, the resulting time signal will locomotive, as electric traction motors are incorporated within
with other sources of vibration present and is therefore easily
contain a high frequency component amplitude modulated at one or more carriages. Drive to the wheel set is normally
influenced, so any changes in bearing condition are difficult
the ball/roller pass frequency of the outer raceway. In practice achieved through a reduction gearbox.
to detect.
this vibration will be very small and almost impossible to
4.2 Frequency Spectrum detect in a base spectrum, so a method of enhancing the Although remote condition monitoring (RCM) has the
signal is required. potential to offer real time online monitoring, assessing the
Frequency analysis plays an important part in the detection condition of the traction motor and gearbox while the train is
and diagnosis of machine faults. In the time domain, the By removing the low frequency components through a "in service" or without removal from the bogie is very difficult
individual contributions such as unbalance, bearings, gears suitable high pass filter, rectifying the output and then using a and costly. Consequently, it was decided to investigate
etc to the overall machine vibration are difficult to identify. In low pass filter, this leaves the envelope of the signal whose whether a Depot based vibration measurement, using an
the frequency domain, they become much easier to identify frequency corresponds to the repetition rate of the defect. Underfloor Wheel Lathe to rotate the wheel set, could be used
(b) Envelope spectrum
and can therefore be much more easily related to individual This technique is often used to detect early damage in rolling to assess the condition of the traction motor and gearbox.
sources of vibration. element bearings and is also often referred to as the High Underfloor Wheel Lathes are used by Fleet operators to Figure 8. Train A. Vibration acceleration spectra measured radially on the
Frequency Resonance Technique (HFRT) or Envelope maintain the condition of the wheel tread allowing machining of housing at the DE of a 250kW traction motor while positioned over an
It is not always possible to rely on the amplitude of bearing Spectrum. wheel profiles without the need to remove them from the vehicle. Underfloor Wheel Lathe; (60m/min).
discrete frequencies to provide defect severity because each
machine will have different mass, stiffness and damping 5.0 Case Histories Wheel Lathes generally operate between 60-100m/min, Based on the surface speed of 60m/min, the calculated BPFO
properties. Even identical machines can have different system so a wheel diameter of 800mm will have a speed of between of the 6016 bearing is 10.04Hz and the base spectrum, Figure 8(a)
In this section, a number of case histories are given from
properties and this can affect the amplitudes of bearing 24 and 40rpm. So for a typical reduction gearbox ratio of 4:1, shows a peak at 31.17Hz which corresponds to the third harmonic
actual investigations which include traction motors (electric
defects of similar size. It is often the pattern of the bearing the traction motor speed would be between 96rpm and 160rpm of 10.39Hz (31.17/3) which is very close to the calculated
motors) and gearboxes from electrically powered trains known
defect frequencies that is most significant in determining the respectively. The big advantage of this type of measurement is BPFO. The fifth and eleventh harmonic are particularly
as Electrical Multiple Units (EMU). Some examples of Wind
defect severity. The number of bearing related harmonic that it allows the condition of the transmission system to be dominant, with harmonics present up to the fifteenth.
Turbine gearboxes and generators are also given.
frequencies, frequency sidebands and characteristic features easily assessed during routine wheel turning. This makes the
within the time waveform data can be much more reliable Vibration signals from this type of equipment can be very whole process extremely simple and cost effective without the
than amplitude alone as a method of determining when complex as they often contain a number of different bearing need for large capital investment, installation of equipment or
action needs to be taken. types and gears, which can include multi stage planetary extensive training.
systems. At times, this can make the detection and diagnosis
As already discussed, a fault developing in a bearing will 5.1.1 Case History 1 - Traction Motor Train A
of a problem very difficult and often several different
show up as increasing vibration at frequencies related to the
techniques may have to be used to diagnose a problem. In this example, a 250kW traction motor
bearing characteristic frequencies, making detection possible
at a much earlier stage than with overall vibration. provided power to the wheels of a passenger
train (EMU) via a 4.15:1 reduction gearbox.
After positioning the train over a Wheel Lathe,

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Vibration Monitoring of Rolling Bearings to Maximise Asset Reliability

Given that the surface speed of the lathe was not accurately high number of harmonics of BPFO indicate a major approximately 920mm, the gearbox ratio of 3.033:1 giving a
measured, but set manually using a rotary dial, the vibration deterioration in the condition of the outer ring raceway and wheel speed of 34.6rpm (0.577Hz) and traction motor
at 10.39Hz corresponds very closely to the calculated BPFO confirm the on-train measurements. The envelope spectrum , rotational speed of 104.92rpm (1.75Hz). The Wheel Lathe drive
and corresponds to a surface speed of 62m/min. The large Figure 9(b), also shows clear evidence of an outer ring wheel diameter was 215mm giving a rotational speed of
number of 1.24Hz sidebands around the sixth harmonic of raceway defect with a dominant peak at BPFO and a number 148.03rpm (2.47Hz.)
BPFO are thought to be related to the Wheel Lathe drive of harmonics.
wheel which makes contact with the wheel tread to provide [Link] Coach #1
rotation of the wheel set. The exact size of the Wheel Lathe Vibration spectra obtained radially from the DE of the traction
drive wheel was not known but was approximately 220mm motor housing are shown in Figure 11.
diameter which would give a rotational speed of 86rpm or
Figure 10 . Train A. Traction Motor DE type 6016 ball bearing outer ring
1.43Hz (fsdw = 0.22 x 3.142/60).
showing a spall in the centre of the raceway and a single spall on one
The envelope spectrum, Figure 8(b) contains a dominant peak of the rolling elements.
at 10.38Hz which corresponds to the BPFO of the type 6016
Damage to the outer ring raceway in the form of a large spall
ball bearing with significant harmonics being present.
is clearly visible in the centre of the raceway with the start of
The presence of BPFO and the high number of harmonics in further damage just to the left of the main spall. Apart from
the spectra suggest that serious damage/deterioration is one rolling element which had a single spall, the remainder
present on the outer ring raceway of the 6016 ball bearing. were in reasonable condition and capable of further running.
The high number of harmonics strongly suggest that damage
There was no evidence of high axial load, which might have
may be present at several positions around the bearing outer
explained the spalling of the rolling element, so the most
ring raceway. With a single area of discrete damage the (a) Base spectrum
probable cause of the damage is electrical erosion. If left
number of significant harmonics is likely to be much lower.
undetected, this level of damage may have resulted in a
Vibration measurements obtained from the Wheel Lathe catastrophic failure of the motor, with possible disruption to
contain vibration from many other sources e.g. gearbox, axle operation in service.
(a) Base spectrum
box, interaction between the lathe drive wheel and wheel
tread etc which can make interpretation of the vibration data
very difficult. It is also possible that damage to the bearings
will occur while they are being removed from the traction
motor during the disassembly process. Therefore, in order to
verify the diagnosis of an outer ring raceway defect(s) and
provide a more accurate assessment of bearing condition,
the motor was removed from the bogie and run on a test bed
at 1500rpm and vibration measurements obtained from the
traction motor housing.

Figure 9 shows vibration measurements obtained from the DE

(b) Envelope spectrum
of the traction motor housing and the base spectrum, Figure
9(a), is dominated by vibration at 151.24Hz and a significant
Figure 9. Train A. Vibration acceleration spectra measured radially on the
number of harmonics. This corresponds very closely with the
housing at the DE of a 250kW traction motor while operating at 1500rpm on
calculated BPFO of 151.96Hz for the 6016 ball bearing. The
a test bed.
fifth harmonic of BPFO is very dominant which was the case
for the on-train measurement (Figure 8 (a)). Sidebands at After removal from the motor, the bearings were examined for
shaft speed (fs = 25Hz) are clearly evident. Once again, the (b) Envelope spectrum
signs of deterioration and damage and a photograph of the
outer ring raceway and rolling elements is shown in Figure 10. Figure 11. Train B Coach #1. Vibration acceleration spectra measured radially
on the housing at the DE of a 510kW traction motor while positioned over an
5.1.2 Case History 2 Underfloor Wheel Lathe, 100m/min.
- Traction Motor on High Speed Train B
The calculated BPFO of the 6016 ball bearing is 10.64Hz and
In this case study vibration measurements were obtained from the base spectrum, Figure 11(a), exhibits a significant number
the traction motors of a high speed passenger train (8MW) to of discrete frequencies which correspond to the BPFO.
prevent premature failures and improve the reliability in Harmonics of BPFO are present with the seventh (74.94Hz)
service. and fifteenth (160.56Hz) harmonic being particularly
dominant. This gives a measured BPFO of 10.70Hz compared
In this example, a 510kW traction motor was used to power to the calculated value of 10.64Hz. It is important to note the
the wheel set via a 3.033:1 reduction gearbox. The traction absence of any of the lower harmonics of BPFO and why at
motor had a type 6016 ball bearing at the drive end and a least the first five, preferably the first ten, harmonics of the
type NU210 cylindrical roller at the non-drive end (NDE). bearing characteristic frequencies should always be
Vibration measurements were obtained from the traction considered in any analysis.
motor housing by rotating the wheel set on a Wheel Lathe at
a wheel surface speed of 100m/min. The wheel diameter was

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Vibration Monitoring of Rolling Bearings to Maximise Asset Reliability

Significant harmonics of BPFO are also present in the Figure 12. Train B Coach #1. Vibration acceleration spectra measured
envelope spectrum, Figure 11(b). The magnitude and radially on the housing at the DE of a 520kW traction motor while operating
distribution of the defect frequency and its harmonics at 3000rpm on a test bed.
indicate that some major deterioration of the bearing outer
ring raceway has occurred and some immediate action is The base spectrum, Figure 12(a), is dominated by vibration at
required in order to mitigate the risk of a failure in service. 910.96Hz which corresponds with the third harmonic of BPFO
of the 6016 ball bearing. A large number of harmonics of
In order to confirm the suspected bearing damage, after BPFO are also present with sidebands at motor rotational
removing the traction motor from the train, it was run at speed (50Hz), although the amplitudes are relatively small.
3000rpm on a test bed, Figure 12.
Likewise the envelope spectrum is rich in harmonics of BPFO
of the 6016 bearing with the sixth (1821.92Hz) and ninth
harmonic (2732.87Hz) being dominant.

Motor vibration measurements on the test bed correlate well

with measurements obtained from the Wheel Lathe and
confirms that serious damage is present on the outer ring
raceway of the type 6016 ball bearing. (a) Base spectrum

Figure 13 shows a photograph of the bearing outer ring

raceway where multiple areas of damage are present in the
centre of the raceway. Electrical erosion is thought to be a
0-1 kHz
major factor in the damage, although one of the rolling
elements had a circumferential groove on the surface which Asel Dsel Acl Dcl
may have been caused by either high axial load or
Before replacing
contamination trapped between the rolling element and cage bearings
54.99 7.36 0.284 0.161
pocket.
After replacing
(a) Base spectrum 9.53 1.72 0.065 0.042
bearings

% Change -83 -77 -77 -74

Table 2. Train B, Coach #1. Characteristic values in mg before and after

replacing both the DE and NDE bearings.

(b) Envelope spectrum [Link] Coach # 2

Figure 14. Train B, Coach #1. New bearings fitted. Vibration acceleration Another example of vibrations measurements obtained from
spectra measured radially on the housing at the DE of a 510kW traction the traction motor of a high speed train (Train B) is shown in
motor while positioned over an Underfloor Wheel Lathe, 100m/min. Figure 15.

Also, note that the four characteristic values, (*) Asel, Dsel,
Figure 13. Train B, Coach #1. Traction motor DE type 6016 ball bearing outer
Acl and Dcl have decreased significantly on the motor post
ring showing a number of areas of damage to be present on the raceway.
overhaul compared to pre overhaul (Figures 11 and 14).
After the bearings were replaced the motor was reinstalled on
(b) Envelope spectrum (*) Note: The characteristic values Asel and Dsel relate to the RMS of the raw
the bogie and the vibration measurements repeated on the
and demodulated signal and Acl and Dcl to the average value of the raw and
Wheel Lathe. Figure 14 shows the vibration spectra for the
demodulated spectrum.
overhauled motor where there is no significant vibration
related to the bearing defect frequencies. For example, Asel and Dsel prior to overhaul were 50.26mg
and 6.12mg respectively which decreased to 7.61mg and
1.63mg respectively post overhaul. This represents reductions
of greater than 80% in the characteristic values.

Sometimes even simple based vibration parameters, such as

RMS Raw and RMS Envelope (RMS of demodulated signal) can
be used to successfully indicate a developing fault and give
advanced warning before a catastrophic failure occurs.
Table 2 shows the characteristic values measured over the
Figure 15. Train B, Coach #2. Vibration acceleration spectrum measured
frequency range 0-1kHz and as with the frequency range
radially on the housing at the DE of a 510kW traction motor while positioned
0-200Hz (Figures 11 and 14) show a significant reduction of
over an Underfloor Wheel Lathe, 100m/min.
around 80% after replacing the bearings.

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Vibration Monitoring of Rolling Bearings to Maximise Asset Reliability

In this case the wheel rotational speed was 108rpm giving rolling surfaces, in particular that either the rolling elements The wheel diameter was approximately 740mm, the gearbox Removing the bearings from the motor without incurring
a calculated BPFO of 10.94Hz for the 6016 ball bearing. and/or cage have been damaged/deteriorated. ratio 5.667:1 resulting in a wheel speed of 43rpm (0.72Hz) and damage and thus potentially masking some of the evidence is
Significant harmonics of BPFO are present in the spectrum traction motor rotational speed of 243rpm (4.05Hz). The difficult. In order to provide a more accurate assessment of
which is dominated by vibration at the fourteenth harmonic Further confirmation of this can be seen in the envelope diameter of the Wheel Lathe drive wheel was 255mm giving a bearing condition, after removal from the train the motor was
(14fb/o = 154.25Hz). This suggests some serious deterioration spectrum, Figure 16(b) where a number of harmonics of cage rotational speed of 124.81rpm (2.08Hz). run on a test bed at 1500rpm and the vibration spectra are
has occurred in the condition of the bearing outer ring speed (fc = 21.63Hz) are clearly evident, the second harmonic shown in Figure 19.
raceway with multiple areas of damage. being particularly dominant with the third and fourth The vibration spectrum obtained from the non commutator
harmonics also present. The envelope spectrum also shows (fan end) of the traction motor housing while positioned over
After removal from the train, the traction motor was run at a large discrete peak at 49.94Hz, which is shaft rotational the Wheel Lathe is shown in Figure 18.
3000rpm on a test bed at the Motor Rewinder, Figure 16. speed (fs = 49.94Hz) and indicates that the vibration signal is
modulated at shaft rotational speed.

When present, vibration at cage speed is normally associated

with serious bearing damage/deterioration to either the
rolling elements or cage which often means that immediate
action is required to replace the bearings otherwise
catastrophic failure may occur.

On inspection of the bearing, Figure 17, the outer ring raceway

had a number of areas of damage and a number of the rolling
elements were badly spalled.

Figure 17. Train B, Coach #2. Traction motor DE type 6016 ball bearing outer
ring showing areas of damage and a number of badly spalled rolling elements.
Figure 18. Train C, Coach #1. Vibration acceleration spectrum measured (a) Base spectrum 0-200Hz
radially on the housing at the DE of a DC traction motor while positioned
over an Underfloor Wheel Lathe, 100m/min.

The calculated defect frequencies for the NU217 bearing are

(a) Base spectrum shown in Figure 18 for a rotational speed of 243rpm. The
calculated inner raceway defect frequency (BPFI) of the NU217
bearing is 39.7Hz and the spectrum shows a dominant
discrete frequency at 80Hz and 160Hz which correspond to
the second and fourth harmonics of BPFI respectively.
Vibration at BPFO is also present with the sixth harmonic
(176.12Hz) being particularly noticeable. Sidebands at 2.08Hz
show the signal to be modulated at the Wheel Lathe drive
wheel speed (fdw). The gear mesh frequency of 36.69Hz is also
present but there are no significant harmonics or sidebands
indicating that no serious damage or deterioration of the
gears has taken place.
(b) Base spectrum 0-1kHz
The presence of high amplitude harmonics of both BPFO and
BPFI indicate some deterioration of both the bearing inner Figure 19. Train C, Coach #1 Vibration acceleration spectra measured radially
and outer ring raceways has occurred and so it was decided to on the housing at the non commutator end (fan end) of a DC traction motor
remove the motor for inspection. while operating at 1500rpm on a test bed.

The main reason for this failure is thought to be excessive A large dominant vibration is present at shaft speed (25.2Hz)
(b) Envelope spectrum
axial load which caused the rolling elements to "ride over" the along with vibration at 10.7, 21.4, 32.1 and 42.8Hz,
Figure 16. Train B, Coach #2. Vibration acceleration spectra measured shoulder of the outer ring raceway. It is also thought that corresponding to the first, second, third and fourth harmonic
radially on the housing at the DE of a 520kW traction motor while operating electrical erosion may be partly to blame. of cage rotational speed respectively, Figure 19(a). When cage
at 3000rpm on a test bed. rotational speed is present in the spectrum, it is normally
5.1.3 Case History 3 - Traction Motor Train C
indicative of damage to the cage, the rolling elements or both.
The calculated BPFO of the 6016 bearing is 303.92Hz and the [Link] Coach #1 This type of damage is potentially very serious, as the
base spectrum, Figure 16(a), shows a number of harmonics damaged rolling elements may not only produce high
with a dominant vibration at the second (607.83Hz) and the In this example the train was a light railway vehicle with a vibration and put stress on other components within the
third (912.52Hz) harmonic with significant harmonics present DC traction motor. The traction motor had a type NUP217 transmission system, but will continue to damage the rest of
up to the eleventh. One of the most significant characteristics cylindrical roller bearing at the DE and a type NU217 the bearing rolling surfaces.
of this spectrum is the presence of sidebands at cage speed cylindrical roller bearing at the NDE.
(fc = 21.7Hz) around the fifth and seventh harmonic of BPFO. In the 0-1kHz frequency range, a number of harmonics related
High amplitude vibration at 1542.22Hz and 2150.05Hz The traction motor provided power to the wheel set via a to shaft rotational speed (25Hz) can be clearly seen, Figure
correspond with the fifth and seventh harmonic of BPFO plus 5.667:1 reduction gearbox. The train was positioned over a 19(b), with a noticeable peak at the twenty seventh harmonic.
cage rotational speed. This is unusual and normally a sign Wheel Lathe and vibration measurements obtained at a wheel
that some serious deterioration has occurred to the bearing surface speed of 100m/min.

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Vibration Monitoring of Rolling Bearings to Maximise Asset Reliability

There is also a peak at 14.06Hz which also appears as a Figure 20. Train C, Coach #1. Traction motor non commutator end NU217 After removal from the motor the bearings were inspected and
sideband at 167.8Hz to the BPFO (fb/o = 181.86Hz) of the cylindrical roller bearing showing some deterioration of the rolling surfaces. the condition of the bearing rolling surfaces were generally
NU 217 cylindrical roller bearing. There is no obvious source found to be poor with serious degradation of the grease due
of vibration for the 14.06Hz frequency, but this appears to [Link] Coach #2 to operation at high temperatures, Figure 24.
be related to the cage speed relative to the inner ring Wheel Lathe vibration measurements obtained from a second
(fc/i = 14.4Hz) which is unexpected as the cage is roller coach of Train C are shown in Figure 21. The vibration
located. This may indicate that some severe cage wear has spectrum is from the commutator end of the traction motor
occurred enabling the bore of the cage to make contact with housing. The rotational speed was 243rpm (4.05Hz) and the
the inner ring outer diameter. The bearings were removed spectrum clearly shows defect frequencies related to BPFO
from the motor and inspected where it was found that the and BPFI of the NU217 cylindrical roller bearing. The
condition of the bearing rolling surfaces had deteriorated as a calculated BPFO and BPFI for the NU217 bearing is 29.2Hz and
result of poor lubrication with both circumferential and axial 39.7Hz respectively and the spectrum exhibits frequency
marks on both raceways, Figure 20. On closer inspection of components which closely match these frequencies. Twice the
the bearing, the cage was found to have wear in the pockets. inner raceway ball pass frequency (78.63Hz) is present with a
This bearing was not manufactured by a premium brand sideband at 74.94Hz spaced at shaft rotational speed
supplier and as a result the overall quality was poor. The cage (4.05Hz). Both the first and third harmonic of BPFI are just (b) Base spectrum 0-1kHz
was a riveted design and generally of poor quality both in visible. Also present is the third (87.19Hz) and sixth (174.06Hz)
terms of geometry and surface finish. harmonic of BPFO the former having a sideband (81.06Hz) Figure 22. Train C, Coach #2. Vibration acceleration spectra measured
Figure 24. Train C, Coach #2. Traction motor non commutator end type
spaced at shaft rotational speed. radially on the housing at the commutator end of a DC traction motor while
NU217 cylindrical roller bearing showing the poor condition of the rollers
operating at 1500rpm on a test bed.
and grease.
In the 0-200Hz base spectrum, a number of harmonics of
A close inspection of the cage showed it to be of poor quality
cage rotational speed (fc = 10.6) are present, with a large
manufacture with fretting wear clearly evident between the
dominant peak at 21.2Hz, twice cage speed, and a large
two cage halves (machining marks no longer visible) with
peak at 63.6Hz which corresponds to six times cage speed
poor positional control of the rivet holes, Figure 25. There was
(6fc = 63.6Hz). Also present is vibration at BPFO of the NU217
also evidence of manual deburring within the cage pockets.
cylindrical roller bearing and a significant number of
harmonics related to rotor speed (25Hz).
(a) Photograph showing
condition of rollers with
Overall the vibration measurements from this motor
some discolouration due
suggested that some serious deterioration of the bearing
to lubricant staining and
rolling surfaces had occurred with potentially some damage to
signs of wear. Figure 21. Train C Coach #2. Vibration acceleration spectrum measured the rotor/commutator.
radially at on the housing at the commutator end of a DC traction motor
Of a highly impulsive nature, the time signal from the Wheel
while positioned over an Underfloor Wheel Lathe, 100m/min.
Lathe, Figure 23, showed the spacing of the impulses were
related to rotor speed (~4.03Hz) and tended to suggest a
After removing the motor from the train it was run on a test possible problem with the condition of the commutator, which
bed at 1500rpm and vibration measurements were obtained on removal was found to be 450μm out-of-round and in need
from the traction motor housing, Figure 22. of regrinding to bring it back within specification.

Figure 25. Train C, Coach #2. Traction motor non commutator type NU214
cylindrical roller bearing showing poor quality and geometry of cage halves.

The bearings used in these motors were not from a premium

brand supplier and the effect on motor vibration can be
(b) Photograph showing condition of the inner ring raceway with
clearly seen in Figure 26 which shows vibration
circumferential and axial marking.
measurements carried out on two different motors after
replacing both bearings and prior to installing on the train.
One motor was fitted with premium brand bearings, Figure
26(a) and the other motor with non premium brand bearings,
Figure 26(b). The motors were run at 1500rpm on a test bed.

(a) Base spectrum 0-200Hz Figure 23. Train C Coach #2. Wheel Lathe vibration acceleration time signal
measured radially on the housing at the commutator end of a DC traction
(c) Photograph showing the condition of the outer ring raceway with motor;100m/min
circumferential banding.

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Vibration Monitoring of Rolling Bearings to Maximise Asset Reliability

In order to investigate further, the train was positioned over Highly modulated, the time signal appears to show a Severe false brinelling (surface depressions/wear) was
a Wheel Lathe and the wheel set rotated and vibration resonance at around 2327Hz which is being excited by the present on the outer ring raceway at roller spacing over an arc
measurements obtained from the traction motor housing. BPFO, Figure 28(a). Furthermore, the spectrum in Figure of around 90o. This normally occurs due to microscopic
The vibration spectra shown in Figure 27 were taken from two 28(b), which has a resolution of 3.125Hz, clearly shows a relative motion in the Hertzian contact leading to wear.
different coaches on the same train, Figure 27(a) showing resonant frequency at around 2403Hz with sidebands at BPFO False brinelled surfaces are likely to impair EHD lubrication
measurements from Axle 1 and Figure 27(b) Axle 5, both with i.e. 2403-2350 = 53Hz. Notice the high carpet level between (disrupt the oil film) and be more prone to surface distress
a mileage of around 530k miles. 2000Hz and 2800Hz. and subsequent spalling.

Although some very minor false brinelling was found on the

outer ring raceway of the traction motor bearing from Axle 1 it
had not penetrated the surface and no significant surface
wear was present.

5.1.5 Case History 6 - Reduction Gearbox (Final Drive)

(a) Motor #1. Non premium brand bearings
[Link] Gearbox Type A
An assessment was made of a reduction gearbox from an
electrically operated train by installing and running it on a test
stand. The gearbox (Type A) consisted of an input shaft
supported by a cylindrical roller bearing at one end and a
cylindrical roller bearing together with a four point contact
bearing at the other end. The output shaft was supported by
(a) Train D, Axle 5 (~530k miles) (a) Acceleration time signal two tapered roller bearings and the overall gear ratio was
3.63:1. The gearbox was rotated at 2000rpm and vibration
measurements obtained on both the input and output
sections. Table 3 shows the bearing defect frequencies.

Speed Speed FTF BPFO BPFI BSF

Bearing
rpm fs fc fb/o fb/i fb

NU214E 2000 33.33 14.13 240.19 326.48 106.91

(b) Motor #2. Premium brand bearings QJ214 2000 33.33 14.23 213.33 286.67 91.07

Figure 26. Newly built traction motor vibration acceleration spectra Z-573160 551 9.18 4.32 167.31 190.82 68.14
obtained vertically from the non commutator end of traction motor housing;
1500rpm. Gear mesh frequency: 633.33Hz
(b) Train D, Axle 1 (~530k miles) (b) Vibration acceleration spectrum Test bed support roll speed: 950.7rpm (15.85Hz)
The difference between the two motors is significant, the
motor fitted with non premium brand bearings showing Figure 27. Train D. Wheel Lathe vibration acceleration spectra obtained Figure 28. Train D, Axle 5. Wheel Lathe vibration acceleration obtained Table 3. Gearbox Type A #1. Bearing defect frequencies in Hz for input
significantly higher levels of vibration, particularly in the from the NDE of traction motor housing; 100m/min. from the NDE of traction motor housing; 100m/min speed of 2000rpm.
frequency range 2k-12kHz which relates directly to the poor
quality of the bearing rolling surfaces. The wheel diameter was 715mm and rotated at nominally From this, it was concluded that some major damage was Vibration obtained from the output side of the gearbox is
100m/min, giving a wheel rotational speed of 44.5rpm present on the outer ring raceway and after removing the shown in Figure 30.
While supplying non premium brands bearing may seem (0,74Hz). The overall reduction ratio of the gearbox was motor from the bogie, the bearings were examined for signs
attractive from a purchasing point of view, the performance 6.745:1 achieved via an intermediate shaft giving a motor of deterioration/damage, Figure 29.
and reliability can be seriously compromised and result in a speed of 300rpm (5Hz). The input and output gear mesh
shortened service life, premature failure and significantly frequencies were 125Hz and 52.54Hz respectively.
higher operating costs. Initial selection of bearings is
therefore paramount and the total operational cycle and costs Figure 27(a) shows the vibration spectrum obtained from a
of the equipment need to be considered. bogie identified with an unusual noise. The calculated BPFO
for the motor bearing was 51.20Hz and the spectrum is
5.1.4 Case History 4 - Traction Motor Train D dominated by vibration at harmonics of 52.22Hz.
Particularly dominant are the seventh, eighth and ninth
[Link] Unit #1
harmonic. On other bogies that were identified with a potential
In this example, several complaints were received about an problem due to an unusual noise, at least one of the two axles
unusual noise which appeared to be coming from a particular exhibited a similar pattern of frequencies which corresponded
bogie. The traction motor and gearbox came as a combined with the outer raceway defect frequency. By comparison the
unit i.e. traction motor mounted directly on gearbox casing vibration spectrum from a bogie that was not exhibiting any
and there was a cylindrical roller bearing supporting the unusual noise, Figure 27(b) shows no significant vibration Figure 29. Train D, Axle 5. Traction Motor NDE cylindrical roller bearing Figure 30. Gearbox A, #1. Vibration acceleration spectrum obtained from
NDE of the traction motor. related to the BPFO of the cylindrical roller bearing. showing false brinelling (surface depressions) on the outer ring raceway. the output side of a gearbox from an electrically powered train; input speed
2000rpm.

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Vibration Monitoring of Rolling Bearings to Maximise Asset Reliability

The spectrum shows a small peak at 167.18Hz which is very Although some indentation damage was present, generally A spectrum obtained from the gearbox output is shown in
close to the calculated BPFO of the tapered roller bearings the condition of the bearing was considered to be good and Figure 35, where a number of bearing characteristic
supporting the output shaft. On its own, the presence of would have continued to run satisfactorily for some time. frequencies have been identified.
BPFO would not necessarily indicate a major problem.
However, between 2kHz and 4.5kHz there appears to be a Measurements obtained from a second gearbox (Type A, #2)
number of peaks with constant spacing of around 167Hz which are shown in Figure 33.
correlates with the BPFO of the tapered roller bearings and
may indicate that some damage has occurred to the outer ring
raceway. Also present is a peak at gear mesh frequency
(fgm = 634.17Hz) and a side band at 602.93Hz, the difference
between the two being input shaft speed (fis = 33.33Hz).
Figure 34. Gearbox A, #2. Photograph of the tapered roller bearing outer
The envelope spectrum showed no characteristic frequencies
ring raceway from output shaft showing some deterioration of the raceway
related to the bearings, gears or shaft.
surface.

On removal from the gearbox, the bearings were inspected for [Link] Gearbox Type B
signs of damage and deterioration and a photograph of the
outer ring raceway of the tapered roller bearing is shown in Vibration measurements were obtained from a reduction
Figure 31. gearbox (Type B) while mounted on a test bed during a
"pass off" test. In this case the overall reduction ratio was
2.85 achieved via an intermediate shaft. Details of the
bearings and their characteristic (defect) frequencies are Figure 35. Gearbox B, #1. Vibration acceleration obtained from the output
Figure 33. Gearbox A, #2. Vibration acceleration spectrum obtained from shown in Table 5. of a reduction gearbox; input speed 3169rpm.
the output side of a reduction gearbox; input speed 3650rpm.
Bearing Speed Vibration at the BPFO (fb/o = 367.07Hz) of the tapered roller
In this case the gearbox input speed was 3650rpm (60.83Hz) fs fc fb/o fb/i fr
Designation rpm bearing on the output shaft is just visible with the second
and the bearing defect frequencies are shown in Table 4. (734.14Hz), tenth (3687.88Hz), eleventh (4036.21Hz) and
FAG NU220E MPA 3169 52.82 22.29 356.62 488.45 165.13
twelfth (4403.53Hz) harmonic clearly visible. The higher
FAG QJ220N2 MPA 3169 52.82 22.50 337.26 454.99 142.34 harmonics are particularly dominant and give a strong
Speed Speed FTF BPFO BPFI BSF
Bearing indication that damage is present on the outer ring raceway
rpm fs fc fb/o fb/i fb FAG NJ2314 MPA 2432 40.53 16.25 195.01 291.40 98.24
at several places, or a wide area of damage. Furthermore,
NU214E 3650 60.83 25.79 438.34 595.83 195.10 FAG NU220E MPA 2432 40.53 17.11 273.68 374.85 126.73 the base of the spectrum appears to be generally high and
QJ214 3650 60.83 25.98 389.32 523.18 166.20 FAG QJ220N MPA 2432 40.53 17.27 258.82 349.18 109.24 wide band noise, pointing towards a major deterioration in
gearbox condition.
Z-573160 1005.5 16.76 7.88 305.34 348.24 124.36 FAG Z-530994 111.78 18.53 8.73 366.70 411.56 152.75
A number of harmonics related to the BPFO (fb/o = 195.25Hz)
of the type NJ2314 cylindrical roller bearing on the
Figure 31. Gearbox A, #1. Gear mesh Input: 1742.94Hz Output: 648.54Hz Ratio: 2.8504
Gear mesh frequency: 1156.33Hz intermediate shaft are also present, the first, fifth and seventh
Tapered roller bearing outer ring from the output shaft.
Test bed support roll speed: 1735rpm (29Hz) clearly visible. This suggests that some deterioration of the
Table 5. Gearbox (Type B). Bearing characteristic (defect) frequencies
On first inspection the outer ring raceway looked in in Hz for input speed of 3169rpm. bearing has occurred.
Table 4. Gearbox Type A #2. Bearing defect frequencies in Hz for input
excellent condition, but a more detailed examination speed of 3650rpm.
Where multi stage systems are concerned, careful Figure 36 shows a higher resolution spectrum, where vibration
under magnification showed a few areas of minor damage,
consideration should be given to interpreting the vibration at output shaft speed is present (fos = 18.56Hz), but more
Figure 32, which took the form of indentations due to In the frequency range 1.5kHz to 3.5kHz there is a noticeable
measurements because the characteristic frequencies of the importantly there appears to be vibration at sub harmonic
contamination. The size of the damage was less than 1mm, peak at 1521.4Hz which is thought to be the fifth harmonic of
different bearing types can be very close. Consequently, a multiples of output shaft speed i.e. 4/3, 7/3, 9/3 and 10/3.
Figure 32, yet it was still enough to produce high amplitudes BPFO of the tapered roller bearings supporting the output shaft.
of vibration related to the BPFO. This would give a BPFO for the tapered roller bearing of 304.2Hz number of different frequency ranges at different locations
(1521.4/5) compared to the calculated value of 305.34Hz. Within are often required in order to accurately identify the source
this frequency range there are also a number of dominant of any frequencies.
peaks which appear to be spaced at around 305Hz . Some
deterioration of the outer ring raceway is therefore suspected
and the higher harmonics would indicate that the damage is
in several places or over a wide area. Also present are the first
(348.2Hz) and sixth (2083.71Hz) harmonic of the BPFI.

After disassembly of the gearbox the bearings were inspected

for signs of damage and deterioration. A photograph of the
outer ring raceway of the tapered roller bearing is shown in
Figure 34. Some deterioration in the condition of the raceway
surface was evident, particularly in the most heavily loaded
area and probably due to a break down of the lubricant due to
Figure 36. Gearbox B, #1. Vibration acceleration obtained from the output
Figure 32. Gearbox A, #1. Photograph of the tapered roller bearing outer light fretting/vibration resulting in some polishing of the
of a reduction gearbox; input speed 3169rpm.
ring raceway from output shaft showing indentation damage from raceway.
contamination.

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Vibration Monitoring of Rolling Bearings to Maximise Asset Reliability

The presence of subharmonics is normally indicative of Figure 41. Gearbox C, #1. Vibration acceleration obtained from the output
looseness or wear in the shaft assembly and usually means a Circumferential marks due to debris clearly visible in the roller running path of a reduction gearbox; input speed 2114rpm.
serious deterioration in condition has occurred. Once again
the high base levels of the spectrum should be noted. Speed Speed FTF BPFO BPFI BSF
Bearing
rpm fs fc fb/o fb/i fb
On removal from the gearbox the bearings were inspected and
surface damage was found on the outer ring raceway of the NU/NJ211 2114 35.2 14.80 253.41 345.56 111.67
tapered roller bearing, Figure 37.
QJ211 2114 35.2 14.80 224.34 304.16 93.40

46780 (TRB) 326 5.43 2.55 107.48 120.72 45.37

Gear mesh frequency: 739.83Hz

Table 6. Gearbox Type C. Bearing defect frequencies in Hz for input speed

of 2114rpm.

Figure 38. Gearbox B, #1. Photograph of the output shaft location

Figure 40. Gearbox B, #2. Photograph of the type NJ2314 cylindrical roller In this case the gearbox had been newly built and was run on
diameters for the tapered roller bearing inner ring and inner ring spacer
bearing outer ring raceway from intermediate shaft showing evidence of a purpose built test stand to assess condition before
showing evidence of severe galling.
circumferential marks due to debris. installation on the train bogie. The input speed was 2114rpm
When a second gearbox was run, vibration measurements (fis = 35.2Hz), the gearbox ratio of 6.48:1 resulting in an
obtained from the gearbox output side, Figure 39, showed
[Link] Gearbox Type C output speed of 326rpm (fos = 5.43Hz). The calculated gear
harmonics of BPFO of the type NJ2314 cylindrical roller mesh frequency was 739.83Hz which can be clearly seen in
When measuring vibration it is often necessary to analyse a
bearing on the intermediate shaft. The first three harmonics Figure 41(a) along with the first six harmonics. Figure 41(b) shows
number of frequency ranges in order to obtain the necessary
(a) Loaded region of raceway of BPFO (193.4Hz) are evident with the second (387.17Hz) and a lower frequency range but a higher resolution where a large
frequency resolution and arrive at the correct diagnosis.
third (580.59Hz) harmonics being dominant. amplitude vibration at gear mesh frequency is present along
A good example of this is shown in Figure 41 where vibration
with a dominant fifth harmonic (3698.82Hz). Also present are
measurements have been obtained from a reduction gearbox
The fourth (774.03Hz) and fifth (967.75Hz) harmonic are also a large number of sidebands at output shaft speed (5.43Hz).
(Type C).
visible indicating that damage may be present at more than
one place on the outer ring raceway It should be noted that in the frequency range 0-5kHz
(Figure 41(a)) there is not sufficient resolution to identify the
sidebands at output speed. Furthermore, when analysing
gearbox vibration, at least the first five harmonics of gear
mesh may be required in order to identify and accurately
diagnose a problem.

It is also worth noticing how the vibration acceleration time

signal, Figure 42, appears to be modulated at output shaft
speed (1/0.182 = 5.5Hz), hence the presence of sidebands at
shaft speed in the spectrum (Figure 41(b)).

(b) Unloaded region of raceway

Figure 37. Gearbox B, #1. Photograph of the tapered roller bearing outer ring
raceway from output side of gearbox showing evidence of surface deterioration.
Figure 39. Gearbox B, #2. Vibration acceleration obtained from the input of (a) Base spectrum 0-5kHz
Most of the damage was localised to one area of the raceway
a reduction gearbox; input speed 3169rpm.
in the loaded region, Figure 37(a), and was mainly superficial
with no penetration into the surface and probably occurred as A photograph of the outer raceway of the type NJ2314
a result of vibration/false brinelling. In the unloaded region, cylindrical roller bearing is shown in Figure 40, where damage
180 degrees from the loaded zone, some evidence of false in the form of small circumferential marks is present which is
brinelling was also present, Figure 37(b). probably due to contamination.
Before disassembly of the gearbox, the axial clearance of the
output shaft was checked and found to be around 0,55mm,
which was excessively high. On inspection severe fretting
damage was found on the bore of the inner ring and shaft Figure 42. Gearbox C, #1. Vibration acceleration time signal obtained from
outer diameter; the inner ring spacer and shaft were also the output of a reduction gearbox; input speed 2114rpm.
found to have severe galling, indicating turning on the shaft,
Figure 38. It is unusual to find such high harmonics of gear mesh and
the sidebands at 5.43Hz may indicate some problem
associated with the pinion gear.
(b) Base spectrum 0-1kHz

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Vibration Monitoring of Rolling Bearings to Maximise Asset Reliability

Although the first two harmonics of BPFO for the type QJ211 5.2 Wind Turbine Figure 45. Vibration measurements obtained from the output side (high
ball bearing are present these are not considered significant speed shaft) of a newly built 1.2MW Einkchoff gearbox.
and may be as a result of the way the bearing is loaded i.e. a Vibration based condition monitoring systems have become
bearing with perfect rolling surfaces will produce vibration well established for monitoring the mechanical condition of This indicates that some damage may be present on the inner
at the defect frequencies due to variable compliance the drive train (rotor, gearbox and generator). It is a tool ring raceway and the absence of any significant harmonics
(section 2.1). commonly employed for the early detection of faults/failures of BPFI suggests that the damage is fairly localised. This is
in order to minimise downtime and maximise productivity. further supported by the impulsive nature of the time signal,
The pinion gear was visible through an inspection cover in In this section some examples are given of how vibration can Figure 46(a), showing impulses at the output rotational speed
the gearbox casing and a photograph is shown in Figure 43. be used to assess the condition of the drive train components (40ms, 25Hz). Figure 46(b) shows the expanded time signal
prior to installing on the Wind Turbine. where during one revolution of the inner ring the contact of
the roller with the defect is clearly visible (~3.52-3.9ms).
5.3 Case History 7 - Wind Turbine Gearbox
Rolling element bearings are manufactured to high accuracy (a) Base spectrum 0-1kHz
and great care is taken over the geometrical accuracy, form
and surface finish of the rolling surfaces. It is important
therefore, that all associated bearing components i.e. shafts,
housings, spacers, etc are all made to equally high standards.
In addition, assembling the bearings and associated
components in a clean and controlled environment with the
correct tools is also paramount. Failure to do so can seriously
compromise the performance and reliability of the bearing in
service.

Assembling large gearboxes is a skilled task and it is not

uncommon to find that some damage has been introduced to
(a) Time signal showing impulses at inner ring speed
the bearing rolling surfaces during the assembly
b) Expanded time signal showing one revolution of the inner ring
process.
Figure 43. Gearbox C, #1. Photograph of the pinion gear from the gearbox (b) Envelope spectrum 0-1kHz
showing hard white deposits of a sealing compound. While it is easy to introduce damage, detecting it is
almost impossible without conducting some form of
This was a newly built gearbox and was undergoing a "pass operational test. This often takes the form of running
off" test prior to installing on the train. In this case some the gearbox on a purpose built test stand under a range of
sealing compound, used on other areas of the gearbox, was operating conditions. In some cases only operating
present on the gear teeth and resulted in the unusual temperatures may be measured to quality assure the gearbox
vibration. In operation this was unlikely to cause a problem but often this is not sufficient and any damage to the bearing
but was removed as a precautionary measure. rolling surfaces may go undetected. Vibration measurements
obtained from various positions on the gearbox e.g. input
The vibration spectrum from a second gearbox (Type C) is
shaft, intermediate shaft and output shaft are often the best
shown in Figure 44 where the gear mesh frequency is still
approach enabling any damage of the bearings or gears to be
visible but at a lower amplitude, but more importantly there Figure 46. Vibration acceleration time signal obtained from the output side
detected.
are no significant sidebands related to shaft speed. (HSS) of a newly built 1.2MW Einkchoff gearbox; 1500rpm.
An example of such a vibration measurement is shown in
Figure 45. The 1.2MW gearbox was run at 1500rpm on a As a result the gearbox was dismantled and examined and a
purpose built test stand and vibration measurements were localised fault was found on the inner ring raceway of the type
obtained at various positions on the gearbox housing. NU228 cylindrical roller bearing, Figure 47.

The vibration spectrum obtained from the housing close to

the high speed shaft (HSS) is shown in Figure 45. The
calculated BPFI for the type NU228 cylindrical roller bearing
on the HSS was 271.26Hz and present in the spectrum is a
large amplitude vibration at 270.64Hz which matches very
closely with the calculated frequency. Either side of the
vibration at 270.64Hz are a few sidebands at shaft rotational
speed (fs = 25Hz). In the envelope spectrum, Figure 45(b),
the BPFI is also evident at 272.50Hz, along with the third
harmonic (817.52Hz).
Figure 44. Gearbox C, #2. Vibration acceleration obtained from the output
of a reduction gearbox; input speed 2114rpm.
Figure 47. Localised fault on the inner ring raceway of a newly fitted type
NU228 cylindrical roller bearing on the High Speed Shaft (HSS).

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Vibration Monitoring of Rolling Bearings to Maximise Asset Reliability

This damage occurred during the assembly process, the most Further confirmation of BPFO can be obtained from the time When the bearing was removed and inspected three small After replacing the bearings, vibration measurements were
likely cause being misalignment between the inner ring and signals shown in Figure 49 which are very impulsive and show false brinelling marks were visible on the outer ring raceway repeated, Figure 52. While the first three harmonics of BPFO
outer ring/rollers as the inner ring-shaft and outer ring- that the impacts occurring at 9.34ms (107.1Hz), correspond to which at first were extremely difficult to detect with the naked are present in the spectrum, Figure 52(a), the overall levels
housing were aligned and assembled together. the BPFO of the type 6332 ball bearing and appear to be eye, Figure 51. They only became noticeable once the rings are significantly reduced compared with the previous
exciting a natural frequency at around 3650Hz (1/0.000274). had been cleaned and the grease film removed. measurements (Figure 48 and 50), but more importantly
During running of the gearbox on the test stand, all the Although its not clear what this frequency is, it may be related sidebands related to shaft speed and cage speed are no
operating temperatures were normal and this damage would to a natural mode of vibration of the rolling bearing longer present. The envelope spectrum, Figure 52(b), shows
otherwise have gone undetected without the vibration components. no sign of any bearing characteristic frequencies, related to
measurements. Such damage would result in a shortened the outer ring raceway or the cage.
service life and premature failure of the gearbox. In this case
the value of a detailed vibration analysis is obvious, in the
long run saving the customer both time, money and reputation.

5.4 Case Study 8 - Wind Turbine Generator

In some instances defects may be present on the bearing
rolling surfaces which may be difficult to detect with the
naked eye but are easily detectable with vibration analysis.

A good example of this is when vibration measurements were

obtained from a newly built 2MW Wind Turbine generator prior
to delivery to the customer. The generator had a type 6332 Figure 51. Photograph of the outer raceway of a type 6332 radial ball
radial ball bearing at the drive end (DE) and a type C2222 bearing from the Drive end of a 2MW Wind Turbine generator. (a) Base spectrum
cylindrical roller bearing at the non drive end (NDE). In order
to verify performance prior to delivery to the customer, the There was no penetration into the raceway surface and it is
generator was run on a purpose built test facility. thought that the false brinelling was a result of floor borne
vibration while the newly built generator waited outside the
Vibration measurements were obtained from both the drive test facility for a period of around 3 weeks before testing.
end and non drive end of the generator by mounting an
accelerometer with a magnetic base on the housing. It is believed that the presence of sidebands at cage speed
Measurements obtained radially from the DE of the housing could be attributed to the "running in" process of the bearing.
are shown in Figure 48. The rotational speed was 1800rpm During initial running of the bearing the grease is not evenly
(30Hz) and a number of harmonics are present. distributed, as a result viscous friction due to the lubricant,
hence drag on the cage, will vary. This can lead to instability
of the cage during the initial running-in process.
This instability can be very intermittent and lead to high b) Envelope spectrum
audible noise levels, in some instances leading to a
misdiagnosis of a bearing problem. As always, great care is Figure 52. Vibration acceleration time signal measured radially at the DE
required in analysing vibration data and the full history of of the housing end cap of a 2MW wind turbine generator after the bearings
the equipment should be taken into account. were replaced.
Figure 49. Vibration acceleration time signal measured radially on the
housing end cap at the drive end (DE) of a 2MW wind turbine generator;
speed 1800rpm.

Further confirmation of an outer ring raceway fault is shown in

the envelope spectrum, Figure 50 which exhibits a dominant
peak at BPFO (107.80Hz) of the DE bearing and there is also a
peak at cage speed (11.87Hz).
Figure 48. Vibration acceleration measured radially at the DE on the
housing end cap of a 2MW Wind Turbine generator; speed 1800rpm.

The dominant amplitude at 295.9Hz appears to be related to

the BPFO of the type 6332 radial ball bearing. Although the
295.9Hz component also corresponds to the BPFI of the
C2222 cylindrical roller bearing it was not very visible when
vibration was measured on the NDE of the generator,
so it was more likely to be related to the 6332 DE bearing.

The first two harmonics of BPFO are relatively low in

amplitude but what is more noticeable is the presence of the
third harmonic of BFPO (325.3Hz) and a dominant peak at
295.9Hz related to three times BPFO minus shaft speed (fs).
Other sidebands are also visible around three times BPFO Figure 50. Envelope spectrum obtained radially at the DE on the housing
related to both shaft (fs) and cage speed (fc). end cap of a 2MW Wind Turbine generator; speed 1800rpm.

Page 28
Vibration Monitoring of Rolling Bearings to Maximise Asset Reliability

When a second generator was run on the test bed, during the Vibration measurements were also obtained when the rattling Vibration monitoring is still probably the most widely used
initial" running in" phase an intermittent rattling noise was noise was not present and vibration at both the cage predictive maintenance technique and, with few exceptions,
present. The generator was fitted with a radial ball bearing rotational frequency and BPFO were not evident in the can be applied to a wide variety of assets including plant,
(type 6332) at the DE and a cylindrical roller bearing at the envelope spectrum, Figure 56. equipment and vehicles. Vibration monitoring allows the
NDE. Both bearings were grease lubricated. The initial condition of machinery to be determined as it operates and
suspicion was that the rattling noise was related to the cage detects those elements which start to show signs of
because it was intermittent and became worse as the deterioration before they actually fail, sometimes
bearings reached operating temperature. catastrophically. With this type of approach, unplanned
downtime is reduced or eliminated, thereby increasing plant
Vibration measurements obtained from the DE of the availability and efficiency and reducing costs.
generator are shown in Figure 53.
Rolling bearings are a critical element in many rotating
machines and generate characteristic vibration frequencies
(b) Base spectrum with zoomed amplitude which can combine to give complex vibration spectra which at
times may be difficult to interpret other than by an
Figure 54. Vibration acceleration measured radially at the DE on the experienced vibration analyst. In the case of rolling bearings,
housing end cap of a 2MW Wind Turbine generator; speed 1800rpm. however, characteristic vibration signatures are often
generated in the form of modulation of the fundamental
While the base spectrum shows some evidence of cage bearing frequencies. This can be used to advantage and
vibration, on closer examination vibration at the cage speed is Figure 56. Envelope spectrum measured radially at the DE on the housing vibration condition monitoring software is often designed to
readily seen in the envelope spectrum, Figure 55, at 10.9Hz end cap of a 2MW generator when the rattling noise wasn't present; speed identify these characteristic features and provide early
along with the BPFO (fb/o = 107.8Hz), which was not evident in 1800rpm. warning of an impending problem. This usually takes the form
the base spectrum. The envelope spectrum was obtained by of signal demodulation and the envelope spectrum which
using a higher sampling frequency giving a frequency Cage noise, which can be loosely described as rattling, is not indicates early deterioration of the rolling/sliding contact
resolution of 1.56Hz and the cage frequency of 10,9Hz is uncommon in ball bearings fitted with pressed steel cages. surfaces.
Figure 53. Vibration acceleration measured radially at the DE on the within the measurement accuracy. This is particularly true under minimal lubrication conditions,
housing end cap at of a 2MW Wind Turbine generator; speed 1800rpm. where the lubricant cannot provide sufficient damping as the While often simple based vibration parameters can be used to
cage interacts with the rolling elements and, in the case of detect a change in condition, diagnosis often requires a more
The acceleration time signal shows what appears to be ring guided cages, with the cage guiding surface as the rolling extensive analysis to determine what has failed and why.
random bursts of high frequency vibration which appeared to elements speed up and slow down when entering and leaving Equally, just relying on frequency based information for the
be related to cage rotational speed. The time signal clearly the load zone. The cage motion is often erratic; the cage may diagnostics may not be enough and all the information
shows that the period between the pulses corresponds to rise and fall in slow running bearings while it may run available should be used including time data.
cage speed ( 84ms; fc/o = 11.9Hz). Also present are pulses eccentrically in high speed bearings due to the effects of
spaced at 9.3ms which correspond to the BPFO (fb/o = 107.9Hz) centrifugal force. The first bending mode of the cage may also The successful implementation of Condition Monitoring relies
of the type 6332 ball bearing. Dividing the time period for one be excited giving rise to a squeal or squeak which may be in heavily, not just on the purchase of the right equipment, but
revolution of the cage, 84ms, by 9.3ms gives the number of the low kilohertz range for a 25mm bore bearing. on having the right personnel in place to fully implement the
rolling elements i.e. 84/9.3 = 9. maintenance strategy. This means investing in people,
In grease lubricated bearings, cage noise can be symptomatic particularly in terms of time to measure and analyse the data
Although vibration at cage speed is evident in the time signal, of the running-in process as the grease is worked or “milled” and training. Failure to recognise this, will seriously limit the
there are no peaks evident in the spectrum at cage speed, and disperses itself within the bearing. This creates benefit that Predictive Maintenance can deliver, in terms of
Figure 54(a). This is because the energy produced by the cage Figure 55. Envelope spectrum measured radially at the DE on the housing additional friction and viscous drag within the bearing which increased asset availability and reduced operational cost.
is very small and evidence of any vibration related to the cage end cap of a 2MW generator when the rattling noise was present; speed can affect the cage stability. Similarly, the presence of
is contained within the overall carpet levels of the spectrum. 1800rpm. vibration at the BPFO does not necessarily indicate a problem
By reducing the amplitude scale, Figure 54(b), some evidence and may be a result of variable compliance (section 2.1). References
of cage vibration starts to appear with discrete peaks
becoming just noticeable at 11.9, 24, 36Hz i.e. the first three 1. Lacey S J. Vibration Monitoring of the Internal Centreless
harmonics of the cage speed. The sixth harmonic (72Hz) and Grinding process Part 2: Experimental Results, Proc Instn
seventh harmonic (84Hz) of the cage speed are also evident. 6.0 Summary
Mech Engrs Vol 24, 1990.
In some industries, maintenance is the second largest or even
2. Lacey S J. Vibration Monitoring of the Internal Centreless
the largest element of operating costs and as such becomes a
Grinding process Part 1: Theoretical Models, Proc Instn Mech
cost control priority. Equipment failure not only affects plant
Engrs Vol 24, 1990.
availability but also safety, the environment and product
quality. It can also impact on customer service in terms of 3. Lacey S J. An Overview of Bearing Vibration Analysis,
missed deadlines and loss of confidence. Schaeffler (UK) Technical Publication.
The complexity and cost of modern day plant and equipment 4. Lacey S J. The Role of Vibration Monitoring in Predictive
means that plant condition monitoring is now becoming a Maintenance, Schaeffler (UK) Technical Publication.
much more cost effective option. Although many industries
have and still do take a reactive approach to maintenance,
since there are no upfront costs, they pay the price in terms of
increased plant downtime or lost production.

(a) Base spectrum

Page 30 Page 31
Schaeffler (UK) Ltd
Forge Lane
Minworth
Sutton Coldfield
West Midlands B76 1AP
Email: [Link]@[Link]
Tel: 0121 313 5885
Web: [Link]

VM February 2015