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Petrophysical and durability tests on sandstones for the evaluation of their

quality as building stones using Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP)

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JGeope 4 (1), 2014, PP. 25-43

Petrophysical and durability tests on sandstones for the evaluation of

their quality as building stones using Analytical Hierarchy Process
(AHP)
Mohammad Hosein Ghobadi*, Reza Babazadeh, Saeed Khodabakhsh
Deparment of Geology, Bu-Ali Sina University, Hamedan, Iran
*Corresponding author, e-mail: amirghobadi@[Link]
(received: 30/12/2013 ; accepted: 06/07/2014)

Abstract
Due to their widespread availability, sandstones are commonly used as a natural stone for buildings, monuments and sculptures. In the
current study, nine sandstone samples from the Upper Red Formation (specified by the letters A, B, C, CG, S, S1, Sh, Tr and Min)
were studied from a petrophysical point of view and their durability was evaluated. Then, their suitability as building stones was
assessed using an AHP model. Laboratory tests, including polarizing optical microscopy, hydric tests, ultrasound, uniaxial compressive
strength, salt crystallization cycles, freeze–thaw cycles and slake durability index tests, were performed. Accelerated ageing tests
caused some changes in the dry weight, P-wave velocity, slake durability index and uniaxial compressive strength, especially during
salt crystallization cycles. The results from our laboratory investigations show that sandstones from the same stratigraphic layer can
show major differences in their petrophysical and weathering properties. These differences result from their different diagenesis
(causing varying pore space, water balance and strength properties) and also from the mineralogical composition. In the next stage of
this study, an AHP model was developed to classify the qualities of sandstones according to their physical and mechanical properties,
and also their resistance against weathering processes. Seven primary-level criteria, including uniaxial compressive strength, strength
reduction factor (R), Initial porosity, weight loss (%) in salt crystallization test, Id 15 under salt crystallization test, main grain contact
type and main mineralogical composition, and 23 secondary level criteria were selected as input parameters. Results showed that the
AHP model can considerably predict the suitability of building stones. Of the analysed sandstones, samples B and C are very suitable
for construction purposes because of their good strength properties (high compressive and tensile strength, low softening degree) as
well as their low porosity. Furthermore, samples Tr, S and S1 are very unsuitable sandstones for use in construction due to their high
number of lithoclasts, high porosity and low compressive and tensile strength.

Keywords: sandstone, Upper Red Formation, building stone, ageing test, AHP.

Introduction environmental conditions is mainly controlled by

Sedimentary rocks such as sandstones have been their characteristics and also the weathering
part of many architectural heritages and their look environment (Doehne, 2002). The deterioration
and characteristics depend on their source material, phenomenon may be relatively rapid in cases in
transport processes and mineralogical composition, which stones contain one or more minerals with
as well as the depositional environment and high susceptibility to weathering, or have high
diagenesis to which the sediments were subjected permeability or a large number of micro-fissures
(Cultrone et al., 2012). Therefore, it is necessary to (Dragovich & Egan, 2011). The increasing
acquire detailed information on sedimentological, emission of pollutants is one of the most important
petrographical and petrophysical parameters of deterioration agents of building stones in industrial
sedimentary stones to predict their properties society (Siegesmund & Snethlage, 2011). In such
during construction (Morales Demarco et al., 2007; conditions, the acid-forming sulphur compounds
Rudrich et al., 2010). Sandstones’ weathering penetrate into the microstructure of the stones and
phenomena were extensively investigated by then become precipitated as sulphate-rich salts
different researchers and their physical, mechanical (especially gypsum enrichment) and are responsible
and mineralogical properties were studied in detail. for the many observable damages. Also, it has been
Based on these studies, it was found that the pore shown that pollution levels (especially sulphur
space, such as porosity, permeability and pore dioxide) are different in urban and rural
geometry, are very important for the weathering atmospheres and that these differences cause
behaviour of porous sandstones (e.g., Putnis et al., different weathering rates. The destructive effects
1995; Putnis & Mauthe, 2000; Rudrich et al., of different salt solutions were investigated and
2010). The response of natural building stones to compared with each other by different researchers
26 Ghobadi et al. JGeope, 4 (1), 2014

(Goudie & Viles, 1997; La Iglesia et al., 1997; uniaxial compressive strength, strength reduction
Rothert et al., 2007; Ruiz-Agudo et al., 2007; Yu & factor (R), initial porosity, weight loss (%) in salt
Oguchi, 2010). These studies showed that sodium crystallization test, Id15 under salt crystallization
sulphate solutions have considerable influence on test, main grain contact type and main
the porous materials compared with other salts. mineralogical composition, and 23 secondary-level
Another relevant process is freeze-thaw action, criteria were selected as input parameters. The
which can deteriorate building stones in cold main goal of this model is to propose a simple and
regions. The mechanisms which lead to ice acceptable method to determine the sandstone’s
formation from solution are well known. This usability as building stone. This method is based on
process consists of stages including nucleation and simple laboratory tests and can be used as an
crystal growth (Chahall & Miller, 1965). When the appropriate tool in practical projects.
stresses resulting ice crystallization within the rock
fabric exceed tensile strength, different types of Materials and methods
deterioration can be identified. Therefore, the exact Representative sandstone blocks were collected
weathering behaviour of a natural stone has to be from different parts of the Upper Red Formation
defined in terms of structural and engineering (Fig. 1).
qualifications before their selection as building More than 300 test samples were prepared from
material (Siegesmund & Snethlage, 2011). The the sandstone blocks in the laboratory to determine
main goal of this study was to study the their material and durability properties. The
petrophysical characteristics and durability of laboratory tests on the physico-mechanical
sandstones collected from the Upper Red properties of the fresh sandstone samples included
Formation (Miocene in age) to evaluate their dry and water-saturated unit weight, effective
durability and to establish a ranking order on the porosity, water absorption by weight, dry and
basis of their quality. This study was performed in water-saturated sonic velocities, dry and water-
three stages, as follows: saturated uniaxial compressive strength (UCS),
1- In the first stage of the study, field observations point load strength index (Is50), indirect (Brazilian)
have been made and representative fresh sandstone tensile strength and slake durability test. In order to
samples have been collected from quarries. Then characterize the petrographical properties, thin
thin sections were provided and mineralogical sections were prepared from fresh sandstones and
compositions and texture characteristics were their mineralogical and textural characteristics were
determined. determined under a microscope. Additionally,
2- In the second stage of the study, accelerated accelerated weathering tests such as Na2SO4 salt
weathering tests such as Na2SO4 salt crystallization crystallization, freezing-thawing test and slake
and freezing–thawing were carried out on the fresh durability index test on samples subjected to salt
sandstone. Changes occurred in physical and crystallization and freeze- thaw were carried out.
mechanical properties, including weight loss (%) Changes that occurred in physico-mechanical
and loss in P-wave velocity (%). Then, changes in properties and slake durability index were
point load strength and Brazilian tensile strength measured during and after each ageing test.
were measured in different cycles and macroscopic
evidences such as deterioration forms were Mineralogical and petrographical
documented. Additionally, durability of the characteristics of the sandstones under study
sandstones under study were assessed using the The assessment of the geological setting of
slake durability indices under wet, freeze-thaw and sandstones is necessary during their selection
salt crystallization actions. process as construction materials. The
3- In the final stage of the study, the analytical petrophysical properties, mineralogical composition
hierarchy process (AHP) and weighted linear and weathering behaviour of natural building stones
combination (WLC), as two techniques of multi- are influenced by geological conditions. In the
criteria evaluation, were used to construct a model current study, thin sections were used to determine
for determining the usability of Upper Red the mineralogy and the petrological features
Formation sandstones as building stones. For this influencing the weatherability of sandstones. Based
purpose, seven primary-level criteria, including on this study, it was found that calcite grains and
Petrophysical and durability tests on sandstones for the evaluation of their… 27

Figure 1: Simplified geological map of the studied area and the location of sampling points

Table 1: Results of petrographic analysis of sandstones under study

Modal composition (%)
Lithic Fragments Cement Sandstones
sandstone Main class Folk
Quartz Feldspar Calcite Iron grain (1986)
metamorphic volcanic plutonic chert carbonate
grains oxide contact
type
A 19.2 4.6 53.2 5.4 12.6 - - 5 - Lo calclithite

B 13.8 4.2 45.1 6.4 27.5 - - 1 2 Co-Co calclithite

C 29 8.5 32 15.5 9.5 - - 5.5 - Co-Co calclithite

CG 5 6 60 11 11 - 4 3 - Lo calclithite

S 15.5 5 10 53 8.5 7 - 1 - Lo pyhllarenite

Lo
S1 19.5 6 6 23.5 8.5 24 8 4.5 - pyhllarenite
Co-Co
Sh 17.5 4 55.5 12 6.5 - - 4.5 - calclithite
Lo
Tr 22 6.5 44.5 19.5 6.5 - - 1 - calclithite
Co-Co
Min 14.5 3 61.5 13 3.5 - - 4.5 - calclithite

rock fragments are major constituents of sandstones The fine-grained, grey sandstones are characterized
(Table 1). by some random lamination. This sandstone
Mineralogical composition and textural consists of minerals such as calcite, quartz,
properties of the sandstones under study are feldspars and lithoclasts (Table 1). Based on thin
discussed in detail as follows: section analysis using a polarization microscope, it
Type A sandstone has been shown that there are different types of
28 Ghobadi et al. JGeope, 4 (1), 2014

contact between grains, including long (Lo), prevalent (Fig. 2). The main cementing material is
concave–convex (Co-Co), sutured (Su) and calcite which is observed in some parts of the thin
tangential (Ta). However the elongated and section under study.
concave- convex type of grain contact is more

Figure 2: Photomicrographs of composition and texture of sandstones on thin-section (Q: quartz, F: feldspar, Lm: metamorphic lithic
fragments, Lv: volcanic lithic fragments, Op: opaque mineral, C: calcite grain, Cf: Ferruginous cement, CC: calcitic cement, Su-c:
sutured contact, Lo: long contact, C0-C0: concave-convex contact)
Petrophysical and durability tests on sandstones for the evaluation of their… 29

Type B sandstone of the thin section under study.

The fine-grained sandstones are characterized by a
specific light brown colour. There is no lamination Type Min sandstone
or other thin layers. The sandstone consists of These fine- to medium-grained, grey sandstones are
about 45 % calcite grains and 30 % rock fragments characterized by weathering surfaces and cross-
(Table 1). The grain contact is concave-convex to bedding. Calcite grains (more than 60%) are
long. Iron oxide cement was observed in some prevalent as the sandstone constituent. The most
areas, which is the main cause of the brown colour common grain contact is the concave-convex type.
at macroscopic scale. The main cementing material is calcite, which is
observed in some parts of the thin section under
Type C sandstone study.
The fine-grained, red coloured sandstone is
macroscopically characterized by thin layers. This Type Tr sandstone
sandstone is composed of 32% calcite grains, 29% The medium-grained, grey sandstones are
quartz grains, 25% lithoclasts, 8.5% feldspar and characterized by mass texture (without any
5% calcitic cement. The prevalent grain contacts observable lamination). Calcite grains (44.5%),
are the concave-convex followed by the long type. metamorphic and volcanic rock fragments (26%),
quartz (22%) and feldspar (6.5%) are the major
Type CG constitutive elements of this sandstone. The most
The grey coloured sandstone is characterized by common grain contacts are the long and concave–
thin layers of coarse-grained sandstone. The stone convex types.
is composed of 60% calcite grains. The grains are
somewhat rounded to sub-angular in shape. The Physical and mechanical properties
grain contact is concave-convex. In order to determine the physical properties of
fresh sandstones, index tests were performed in the
Type S sandstone laboratory. Test results are given in Table 2. The
A light yellow–grey, fine- to medium-grained porosity and density were determined according to
sandstone, which can be easily broken by hand. The the ISRM (1981). The porosities of the investigated
sandstone is mainly composed of rock fragments sandstones vary between 1.06% and 11.56%. These
(more than 65%). The most common grain contact sandstones also have densities between 20.2 and
is the long type; however, concave-convex is 25.4 KN/m3. Among the most important parameters
observable in some parts of the thin sections. controlling the weathering behaviour of stones are
strength properties, such as tensile strength and
Type S1 sandstone compressive strength. This is because the stresses
A light yellow-grey, medium- to coarse-grained induced by mechanical weathering processes have
sandstone, which can be easily broken by hand. to exceed the strength of a material for failure to
This sample is characterized by thin layers of fine- occur. Thus, these parameters can be considered a
grained sandstone which is in contact with coarse- measure for the grain fabric cohesion (Graue et al.,
grained sandstone. Rock fragments are considered 2011). Indirect Brazilian tensile test were
major constituents of sandstone. The long type of performed on disc-shaped specimens (with the
contact between grains is prevalent. diameter-to-height ratio of 0.5-0.75). The tensile
strength varies between 1.21 and 18.25 MPa. The
Type Sh sandstone uniaxial compressive test was performed on
A medium-grained, grey sandstone with no cylindrical samples (height/diameter: 2.5-3) with
macroscopically observable laminations; the stone coplanar end faces (with accuracy of 0.1%) in the
is composed of 55.5% calcite grains, 17.5% quartz, dry and water-saturated state. During the test, the
18.5% metamorphic and volcanic rock fragments load was applied to the end faces of the specimen
and 4% feldspar. The most common grain contact is with a strain rate of 1,000 N/s until failure. The
the concave-convex type. The main cementing compressive strength varied between 11.82 and
material is calcite, which is observed in some parts 170.16 MPa (Table 3).
30 Ghobadi et al. JGeope, 4 (1), 2014

Table 2: Physical properties of the fresh sandstones and standards used for testing
Sandstone samples
test Standard
A B C CG S S1 Sh Min Tr
ISRM
Dry unit weight (KN/m3) 23.94 25.41 25.02 23.54 20.21 20.40 24.92 25.31 22.96
(1981)
Water saturated unit weight ISRM
24.62 25.51 25.31 24.33 21.39 21.48 25.11 25.60 23.74
(KN/m3) (1981)
ISRM
Effective porosity (water) (%) 6.65 1.06 2.54 7.23 11.56 11.13 2.89 3.04 8.28
(1981)
Water absorption by weight- ISRM
2.73 0.41 1 3.01 5.62 5.35 1.14 1.18 3.54
atmospheric pressure (%) (1981)
Ultrasonic P wave velocity (dry) ISRM
3444.19 4621.59 3654.03 2926.05 1342.19 1726.49 3439.71 3504.64 2484.80
(m/s) (1981)
Ultrasonic P wave velocity (wet) ISRM
3490.45 4781.86 4080.01 3173.84 1088.66 1429.55 3901.80 3965.61 2724.86
(m/s) (1981)

Table 3: Mechanical properties of the fresh sandstones and standards used for testing
Sandstone samples
test Standard
A B C CG S S1 Min Tr Sh

Uniaxial compressive strength (dry) (MPa) ISRM (1981) 98.8 169.4 135.8 109 33.75 11.82 170.16 57.66 123.68

Uniaxial compressive strength (sat) (MPa) ISRM (1981) 45.6 146.2 103.5 60.53 13.7 3.6 85.06 24.6 74.45

Point load strength index. Is50 (dry) (MPa) ISRM (1985) 4.15 9.34 7.9 6.2 1.23 0.9 8.72 3.88 7.7

Point load strength index. Is50 (sat) (MPa) ISRM (1985) 2.8 7.96 6.16 3.17 0.7 0.48 5.89 1.21 4.25

Indirect tensile strength (Brazilian test) (dry) (MPa) ISRM (1981) 6.44 18.25 13.33 7.98 1.89 1.21 16.02 6.3 13.54

Indirect tensile strength (Brazilian test) (sat) (MPa) ISRM (1981) 4.06 13.8 10.62 3.1 0.91 0.63 9.32 1.89 7.33

Strength reduction factor; R=UCSwet/UCSdry Jeng et al., 2004 0.46 0.86 0.76 0.56 0.41 0.30 0.51 0.43 0.60

Laboratory weathering tests documented. This experiment was repeated for 20

There are different types of weathering mechanisms cycles, and the physical and mechanical properties
which control the actual state of the building of the sandstones, including weight loss (%), loss in
stones. Generally, these mechanisms can be divided P-wave velocity, changes in point load strength and
into chemical, physical and biological processes. Brazilian tensile strength, were recorded in cycles
However, these processes overlap each other and of five, 10 and 20. It should be noted that most
lead to deterioration in stone. In order to determine samples (except B and C) deteriorated until cycle
the resistance of sandstones to weathering agents, 10. The changes in sandstone properties are shown
freezing-thawing and salt crystallization were in Fig. 3. Most samples showed a slight increase in
simulated and accomplished in the laboratory. their dry mass in the initial test cycles, which led to
These tests were performed on the NX-sized weight loss (%) of less than zero (Fig. 3a). This is
cylindrical core samples obtained from the fresh because in this stage of the test, crystallization of
sandstone blocks. These tests are discussed in detail salt within the pore spaces did not cause any
in the following. damaging effects. On the other hand, weight loss
resulting from deterioration cannot exceed weight
Salt attack test increase because of salt precipitation. For the
In order to determine the resistance of the following cycles, a considerable loss in sample
investigated sandstone to the crystallization of salt weights is observable. The salt crystallization test
within the pore space, salt attack tests were had a considerable effect on the stability of the
performed. For this purpose, sandstone samples sandstone samples and caused different types of
were saturated with a solution of 14% Na2SO4. deterioration and development of cracks.
After 12 h of saturation the samples were placed
into an oven (with temperature controlled at 103°C) Freeze-thaw test (F-T)
for 12 h. Then, samples were taken out of the oven It is assumed that alternating freezing and thawing
and changes in their dry mass were measured. cycles are the major factors responsible for most
Macroscopic damages were also photographically deterioration damages in natural building stones
Petrophysical and durability tests on sandstones for the evaluation of their… 31

during winter (Ruedrich et al., 2011). In order to a

check the frost resistance of building materials such
as stone breaks, etc., freeze-thaw test can be used.
In the current study, freezing-thawing tests were
performed using domestic water to assess the
durability of sandstones by determining their
physical and mechanical properties during the test.
For this purpose, saturated sandstone specimens
were placed into a freezer and were conditioned at
a temperature of -20°C for 12 h. Then, they were
taken out of the freezer and placed into a water bath
at 20°C for 6 h to be thawed. Every cycle takes 18 h b
to become complete. Changes in physical and
mechanical characteristics of samples (including
weight loss (%), changes in wave velocity,
Brazilian tensile strength and point load strength)
were checked in cycles 15, 30 and 60 and the
presence of any macroscopic changes was recorded.
The changes in these parameters are shown in
Figure 4.

Slake durability index test under accelerated

conditions
The ability of rock to resist against weathering
agents and to retain its original size, shape, strength c
and appearance over an extensive period of time is
described by the slake durability index (Id), which
is calculated through the slake durability test in two
cycles (Bell, 1993). This test was performed by
different researchers in acidic, basic and salt
solutions (Ghobadi & Mousavi, 2012; Singh et al.,
2005; Gupta & Ahmed, 2007; Ghobadi & Momeni,
2011). The results of such experiment, taken
together, have indicated that not only mineral
composition (texture, strength, etc.), but also the
characteristics of solution (or environmental
effects) can considerably influence the slake
d
durability index of rocks. Dhakal et al. (2002)
investigated the effect of aqueous solutions with
dissolved electrolytes of NaCl and CaCl2 on the
slake durability of pyroclastic rocks, tuffaceous
sandstone and mudstone, and concluded that the
type of dissolved electrolyte and its concentration
in the aqueous solution can considerably affect the
measure of the slake durability index. In the current
study, in order to investigate the effect of
weathering processes on the slake durability index
of sandstones, prepared samples were subjected to Figure 3. Changes in physical and mechanical properties of
freeze-thaw and salt crystallization tests and sandstones during salt crystallization phenomenon; a) weight
loss (%), b) loss in P-wave velocity; c) changes in point load
changes in Id were recorded in 15 cycles. strength; d) changes in Brazilian tensile strength
32 Ghobadi et al. JGeope, 4 (1), 2014

a After completing every freezing-thawing process

(cycle), the slake durability test was performed on
the samples for 15 cycles and the Id was calculated.
To simulate the effects of salt weathering on Id,
Na2SO4 solutions were also used with concentration
values of 14% by weight and the effects on Id were
recorded for 15 cycles. The effects of freeze-thaw
and salt crystallization on Id are shown in Figure 5.

Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP)

In this study the analytic hierarchy process (AHP)
proposed by Saaty (1980) was used to establish a
b judgement model, and the sandstones’ qualities as
building stones were also divided into different
classes. The analytic hierarchy process (AHP) is a
method which enables people to make the most
appropriate choice among many criteria. Therefore,
this analysis is used for diverse fields such as earth
sciences, medical sciences, biology, social sciences
and others (Luria & Aspinall, 2003; Javaheri et al.,
2006; Kallas et al., 2007; Levy et al., 2007). This
method can be used to analyse criteria which have
multiple and even competing objectives (Guiqin et
al., 2009; Cay & Uyan, 2013). A literature review
c
shows that this method has been commonly used as
a powerful tool along with GIS analysis for landfill
site selections and landslide risk analysis (Ghobadi
et al., 2013, Sener et al., 2010; Donevska et al.,
2012, Korucu & Erdagi, 2012, Gorsevski et al.,
2012, Eskandari et al., 2012).

Modelling theory
In order to perform a pairwise comparison process,
a matrix is generated and criteria weights are
reached as a result of these calculations. When
comparing the importance of criterion with one
another, judgements were expressed verbally by a
d
degree of preference: equally preferred = 1,
moderately preferred = 3, strongly preferred = 5,
very strongly preferred = 7 and extremely preferred
= 9. The numbers 2, 4, 6 and 8 are used to
distinguish similar alternatives (Saaty, 1980) (Table
4). The AHP method is composed of the following
processes to determine the relative weights of
criteria (in this process, n is the number of criteria)
(Chakraborty & Banik, 2006; Cayand Uyan, 2013;
Uyan 2013).
Figure 4: Changes in physical and mechanical properties of a. At the first step, a pairwise comparison matrix
sandstones during freeze- thaw action; a) weight loss (%), b)
(A= n × n) must be defined for n objectives
loss in P-wave velocity; c) changes in point load strength; d)
changes in Brazilian tensile strength assumed for the problem (Eq. 1).
Petrophysical and durability tests on sandstones for the evaluation of their… 33

a Slake Durability Index (%)

100.00

80.00

60.00

40.00

20.00

0.00
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14

Number of cycles

A B C CG S S1 Min Tr Sh

Figure 5: Slake durability index tests: a) standard state (wet state) test; b) salt crystallization test; c) freeze- thaw test
34 Ghobadi et al. JGeope, 4 (1), 2014

Table 4: The comparison scale in AHP (Saaty, 1980)

Intensity of
Definition Remarks
importance
1 Equal importance Two activities contribute equally to the objective

Experience and judgment slightly favor one activity over

3 Weak importance of one over another
another
Experience and judgment strongly favor one activity
5 Essential or strong importance over
another
An activity is strongly favored and its dominance is
7 Demonstrated importance
demonstrated in practice
The evidence favoring one activity over another is of the
9 Absolute importance
highest possible order of affirmation
Intermediate values between the two adjacent
2, 4,6,8 When compromise is needed
judgments
If activity i has one of the above nonzero numbers
Reciprocals of above assigned to it when compared with activity j, then
nonzero j
has the reciprocal value when compared with i

average of the values in row i of Aw and its values

 a11 a12 ... a1n  show the relative degree of importance (weight) of
a the ith objective.
 21 a22 ... a2 n 
A=
 . . 
(1) C1   a11 a12 a1 n 
 . .  . 
 a in 
  i1   ai 2
a
     ... 
.  n n n 
 . .  C =  =  ... ... ... ...  (3)
an1 an 2 ... ann     . . 
   
 . .... ... . 
During calculation processes, it should be noted  
   . . 
that for all i and j, it is necessary that aii = 1 and aij  a an2 a nn 
   n1

= 1/aji. In the comparison process, there are nine C 
 n   a i1  ai 2  a in 
possible conditions which are shown in Table 4.  n   ... 
n n 
d. At the end of AHP modelling, it is necessary to
b. After defining matrix A and comparing the
know whether the pairwise comparison has been
objectives with each other, each value in column j
consistent. This is to accept the results of the
must be divided by the total of the values in the
process. For this purpose, the parameter called the
same column. The total of the values in each
consistency ratio (CR) is used. This parameter is a
column of the new Aw matrix must be 1. This
measure of how much variation is allowed and
matrix is called the normalized pairwise
must be less than 10 % (Lane & Verdini, 1989;
comparison matrix.
Saaty, 1999). In order to determine the CR values,
the consistency vector (the calculation of A×C
 a11 a12 a1n 
 a ... matrix) must first be determined. Then, xi, which is
  i1  ai 2  ain  a second and a better approximation to the
 ... ... ... ...  eigenvector, can be obtained.
Aw =  . .  (2)
 . .... ... .   a11 a12 ... a1n   C1   x1 
a    

 . . 

 21 a22 ... a2 n  C2   x2 
 an1 an 2 ann  . .     
 ...  A×C=    (4)
  ai1  ai 2  ain   . .  .  . 
     
 . .  .  . 
c. In the next step of the AHP process, the ci is an1 an 2 ... ann  Cn   xn 
determined by finding the principal eigenvector of
the matrix A. The ci can be calculated as the
Petrophysical and durability tests on sandstones for the evaluation of their… 35

Now it is possible to estimate the max be checked for the appropriate value of n by CR
(Zou & Li, 2008):
(eigenvalue of the pairwise comparison) using the
following formula: CI
CR  (7)
1 n x RI
max   i (5) In this equation, RI is the random consistency
n i 1 ci index and its values for different numbers of n are
Then, an approximation of the consistency index shown in Table 5. If CR  0.10, the degree of
(CI) is calculated as follows: consistency is satisfactory. When CR>0.10, it
max  n shows that there are serious inconsistencies. In this
CI  (6) case, the AHP may not yield meaningful results
n 1
(Chakraborty & Banik, 2006).
Finally, to ensure the consistency of the pairwise
comparison matrix, the consistency judgement must

Table 5: RI values recommended by Saaty (1980)

n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
RI 0.00 0.00 0.58 0.9 1.12 1.24 1.32 1.41 1.45 1.49

Discussion smaller can be observed. Flaking also means the

The experimental investigations indicate that there displacement of loose, small, centimetre-sized
are strong differences between the various rock particles, which peel parallel to the surface.
types in respect to their suitability for construction. Sometimes the displacement occurs in a blister-like
This is because their respective depositional manner or as a bulging. Large-scale displacement
environment and geological history are different, parallel to the surface is defined as scaling (Stuck
which has led to variations in the fabric and their et al., 2011). Furthermore, crustal deformation
petrophysical properties. This study shows that the includes all decay phenomena containing surface
deterioration of the sandstones was mainly accretion of material (this means visually
controlled by physical weathering processes such as recognizable changes in the rock surface, including
salt crystallization and freezing-thawing. biological settling, crusting and efflorescence which
can reach a thickness of up to 5 mm) (Fig. 6).
Visual assessment of damages during Experimental studies show that deterioration
accelerated tests patterns are different in shape and intensity, and are
The arising decay phenomena observed during also specific for each rock and each weathering
accelerated tests were classified into the categories agent. For S, S1 and Tr samples subjected to salt
of delamination, loss of particles and crustal crystallization process, the common decay patterns
formation: are a loss of material, slaking and flaking (Fig. 6b).
a. Delamination: weathering agents acting along Furthermore, delamination or crack formation is
discontinuities such as micro-fractures, lamination, detectable for the A, Min and CG samples (Fig. 6c-
etc., can cause a type of deterioration called d). It should be noted that delamination has
delamination. occurred in both freezing-thawing and salt
b. Loss of particles: this type of deterioration crystallization phenomena. In contrast to freezing-
affects the whole surface of stones. Here, the stone thawing action, sandstone subjected to salt
loss was represented by shapes generated from back crystallization process shows a higher variation in
weathering and relief. Relief is defined for all decay the type of decay. The most common decay types
phenomena, which cause a heterogeneous loss of occurring in sandstones under freeze-thaw action
material parallel to the surface. are delamination and flaking. Sandstones such as B
c. Crustal formation: this includes every change on and C did not show any observable decay during
a rock surface, characterized by the peeling of the freeze-thaw action, while, after reaching the 15th
rock and includes sanding, flaking and scaling. cycle of the salt attack test, the samples exhibit
Sanding is defined as a process in which the slaking and flaking (Fig. 6a).
displacement of millimetre-sized particles or
36 Ghobadi et al. JGeope, 4 (1), 2014

Figure 6: Selected decay phenomena occurred during salt crystallization phenomenon. a) Slaking and flaking (type C sandstone); b)
loss of material, slaking and flaking (Tr type sandstone); c) and d) delamination (type A and CG sandstones)

Classification of sandstones’ usability as of the most important parameters when deciding

building stones using an AHP model their suitability for use under various loads (Eren &
In this section, an AHP model for the assessment of Bahali, 2005; Karaca & Onargan, 2008; Cardani &
sandstone usability as building stones was created. Meda, 1999; Benavente et al., 2006).
This involves building a hierarchy of criteria and Determination of uniaxial compressive strength
then making comparisons between each possible (UCS) is particularly important for load-bearing
pair in each cluster (Saaty, 1999). This gives a masonry units and pavements. Meanwhile, tensile
relative weight for each criterion within a level of strength is an important property for applications
the hierarchy. For this purpose, three levels of such as flooring, cladding and roofing with slabs as
criteria are used here: the goal (determining the it is a measure of the ability of a stone to withstand
quality of sandstones) to be achieved, the primary pressure (Dai et al., 2010; Vasconcelos et al.,
criteria (main factors affecting the sandstones’ 2008). Considering these points, the first criterion
applications), and the secondary criteria (or sub- B1 of the primary level was determined as uniaxial
criteria which describe the primary criteria). compressive strength. Studies on sandstones have
As the criteria used in this process serve as the shown that some of the tertiary sandstones exhibit
performance measures for the application of the wetting softening behaviour. This causes
AHP model, their selection is critical and important sandstones to lose some degree of their initial UCS
for a decision process (Kim et al., 2009). To values in wet conditions. Since the uniaxial
determine the primary and secondary criteria, compressive strength of wet sandstone (UCSwet) is
different factors related to sandstones' physical and often lower than that of dry sandstone (UCSdry), a
mechanical properties including their durability and measure R (strength reduction ratio, indicating the
resistance against weathering agents were reduction of strength due to wetting) is defined as
considered. Determination of the mechanical (Jeng et al., 2004):
strength properties of natural building stones is one
Petrophysical and durability tests on sandstones for the evaluation of their… 37

UCS wet must be performed. Considering these points,

R (8) weight loss (%) and Id under salt crystallization test
UCS dry
were taken as the fourth (B4) and fifth (B5) criteria.
Therefore, the second criterion (B2) of the Fabric parameters determined by thin section
primary level was selected as strength reduction analysis include grain contacts as well as
ratio (R values). As porosity is one of the most mineralogical composition. Laboratory
important physical features controlling the investigations have shown that sandstones
deterioration of building stones, the sandstones containing quartz as a binding material are the
were classified into two groups to observe the effect strongest, followed by calcite and ferrous minerals;
of porosity on their deterioration (Akin & Ozsan, rocks with rock fragments and clayey binding
2011): sandstones with porosity values of less than material are the weakest (Vutukuri et al., 1974).
5% (group A or less porous samples) and Also, it is expected that an increase in concave-
sandstones with porosity values of more than 5% convex and sutured type contacts result in the
(group B or porous samples). Thus, porosity was strength increase of sandstones (Ulusay et al.,
determined as a third criterion B3. Salt attack is 1994). Finally, grain contact type and mineralogical
more aggressive than most other physical composition were determined as the sixth (B6) and
weathering processes such as freeze-thaw, heating- seventh (B7) criteria respectively. The hierarchical
cooling and wetting-drying. Thus, it can be used as model of the influencing factors is shown in Figure
a measure of durability of porous building materials 7.
(Luquer, 1985; Yu & Oguchi, 2010). The judgement matrix of primary- and
Therefore, in order to select appropriate stones secondary-level criteria, their relative weight and
for restoration works as well as for new related CR values are shown in Tables 6 to 14.
constructions, various forms of salt weathering tests

Figure 7: Hierarchical model of the influencing factors

38 Ghobadi et al. JGeope, 4 (1), 2014

Table 6: Judgement matrix of primary level criteria and their relative weight (CR=0.0076)
B1 B2 B3 B4 B5 B6 B7 weight
B1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 0.303
B2 0.5 1 1 2 2 3 3 0.184
B3 0.5 1 1 2 2 3 3 0.184
B4 0.33 0.5 0.5 1 1 2 2 0.104
B5 0.33 0.5 0.5 1 1 2 2 0.104
B6 0.25 0.33 0.33 0.5 0.5 1 1 0.060
B7 0.25 0.33 0.33 0.5 0.5 1 1 0.060

The letters at the decision criteria are) B1: uniaxial compressive strength, B2: Strength reduction factor (R), B3: Initial porosity, B4:
Weight loss (%) in salt crystallization test, B5: Id15 under salt crystallization test, B6: Main grain contact type, B7: Main Mineral
composition

Table 7: The pairwise comparisons matrix and relative weight of the B1 sub-criteria (CR=0.019)
B1 C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 weight
C1 1 0.5 0.33 0.25 0.2 0.17 0.044
C2 2 1 0.5 0.33 0.25 0.2 0.065
C3 3 2 1 0.5 0.33 0.25 0.102
C4 4 3 2 1 0.5 0.33 0.16
C5 5 4 3 2 1 0.5 0.249
C6 6 5 4 3 2 1 0.379
The letters at the decision criteria are) C1: 1-5 MPa, C2: 5-25, C3: 25-50, C4: 50-100, C5: 100-250, C6: >250 MPa

Table 8: The pairwise comparisons matrix and relative weight of the B2 sub-criteria (CR=0.0034)
B2 C7 C8 C9 weight
C7 1 0.5 0.33 0.163
C8 2 1 0.5 0.297
C9 3 2 1 0.539
The letters at the decision criteria are) C7: high softening susceptibility (R<0.5), C8: Moderate softening susceptibility (0.5<R<0.75),
C9: Low softening susceptibility (0.75<R<1)

Table 9: The pairwise comparisons matrix and relative weight of theB3 sub-criteria
B3 C10 C11 weight
C10 1 2 0.66
C11 0.5 1 0.33
The letters at the decision criteria are) C10: less porous materials, C11: porous materials

Table 10: The pairwise comparisons matrix and relative weight of the B4 sub-criteria (CR=0.0034)
B4 C12 C13 C14 weight
C12 1 0.5 0.33 0.163
C13 2 1 0.5 0.297
C14 3 2 1 0.539
The letters at the decision criteria are) C12: lose more than 15 % of their weight after the 5th cycle (Group A), C13: lose less than 15 %
of their weight until 10th cycle (Group B), C14: Less than 5 % material loss until 20 cycles (Group C)

Table 11:The pairwise comparisons matrix and relative weight of the B5 sub-criteria (CR=0.0034)
B5 C15 C16 C17 weight
C15 1 0.5 0.33 0.163
C16 2 1 0.5 0.297
C17 3 2 1 0.539
The letters at the decision criteria are) C15: Id15 = 0-40 % (Group A), C16: 40-80% (Group B), C17: 80-100% (Group C)
Petrophysical and durability tests on sandstones for the evaluation of their… 39

Table 12: The pairwise comparisons matrix and relative weight of the B6 sub-criteria (CR=0.0034)
B6 C18 C19 C20 weight
C18 1 0.5 0.33 0.163
C19 2 1 0.5 0.297
C20 3 2 1 0.539
The letters at the decision criteria are) C18: point type contact (Group A), C19: long type contact (Group B), C20: concavo–convex and
sutured (Group C)

Table 13: The pairwise comparisons matrix and relative weight of the B7 sub-criteria (CR=0.0034)
B7 C21 C22 C23 weight
C21 1 0.5 0.33 0.163
C22 2 1 0.5 0.297
C23 3 2 1 0.539
The letters at the decision criteria are C21: Rock fragment (Group A), C22: calcite (Group B), C23: Quartz (Group C)

Table 14: Total weights of the sub-criteria

Criteria Criteria weight Subcriteria (SC) Subcriteria weight(SCwi) Total weight (Twi)
(Cwi) C1 0.044 Twi = Cwi
0.013× SCwi
C2 0.065 0.020
C3 0.102 0.031
B1 0.303 C4 0.16 0.048
C5 0.249 0.075
C6 0.379 0.115
total 1 0.303
C7 0.163 0.030
C8 0.297 0.055
B2 0.184
C9 0.539 0.099
total 1 0.184
C10 0.66 0.121
B3 0.184 C11 0.33 0.061
total 1 0.184
C12 0.163 0.017
C13 0.297 0.031
B4 0.104
C14 0.539 0.056
total 1 0.104
C15 0.163 0.017
C16 0.297 0.031
B5 0.104
C17 0.539 0.056
total 1 0.104
C18 0.163 0.010
C19 0.297 0.018
B6 0.060
C20 0.539 0.032
total 1 0.060
C21 0.163 0.010
C22 0.297 0.018
B7 0.060
C23 0.539 0.032
total 1 0.060
7 7
total  Cwi  1
1  (Cwi  SCwi)  1
1

To evaluate the suitability of the sandstones display its potential because of the criteria weights.
under study, the suitability index (SI) should be The advantage of this method is that all criteria
calculated for each type. This suitability index contribute to the solution based on their importance
provides a total evaluation score for the sandstones (Eastman et al., 1995). The weight (W) of each
and it shows the relative suitability of sandstones criterion was calculated as described in the section
for construction purposes. The WLC (weighted ‘‘Modelling theory’’ (Tables 6-14). The CR values
linear combination) allows for each criterion to of all comparisons were lower than 0.10, which
40 Ghobadi et al. JGeope, 4 (1), 2014

shows that the weights were suitable. As a result, where Cwi and SCwi are the criteria weight index
the overall score of alternatives and the suitability and the sub-criteria weight index, respectively.
of the sandstones as building stones were Tables 15 and 16 show the suitability index (SI)
determined by calculating the suitability index (SI): ranges and its values obtained using Eq. 9 for each
SI  ( B1 Cwi  B1 SCwi )  ( B 2 Cwi  B 2 SCwi )  .....  ( B 7 Cwi  B 7 SCwi ) sandstone type, respectively. As illustrated in the
following tables, the suitability of studied
(9) sandstones is divided into five groups, from very
low to very high.

Table 15: Suitability index obtained using AHP model

Suitability index (sk) Usability as building stone
0.16 -0.23 Very low
0.23 -0.30 Low
0.30 -0.37 Medium
0.37 -0.44 high
0.44 -0.51 Very high

Table 16: Classification of sandstones based on their usability as building stone

samples B1SCwi B2 SCwi B3SCwi B4SCwi B5 SCwi B6 SCwi B7 SCwi SK Usability as building
stone
A 0.16 0.163 0.33 0.297 0.539 0.297 0.297 0.26 Low
B 0.249 0.539 0.66 0.539 0.539 0.539 0.297 0.46 Very high
C 0.249 0.539 0.66 0.539 0.539 0.539 0.297 0.46 Very high
CG 0.249 0.297 0.33 0.297 0.297 0.297 0.297 0.29 Low
S 0.102 0.163 0.33 0.163 0.297 0.297 0.163 0.19 Very low
S1 0.065 0.163 0.33 0.163 0.163 0.297 0.163 0.17 Very low
Sh 0.249 0.297 0.66 0.297 0.539 0.539 0.297 0.39 High
Tr 0.16 0.163 0.33 0.163 0.163 0.297 0.297 0.21 Very low
Min 0.249 0.297 0.66 0.297 0.297 0.539 0.297 0.37 high

Conclusion factors such as the porosity, the grain contact and

Laboratory test results carried out on fresh the mineralogical composition. Sandstones such as
sandstone samples obtained from the Upper Red B and C, with low porosity and concave-convex to
Formation (western Iran) have shown that these sutured grain contacts, exhibit a high tensile and
materials have large variations in porosity, strength compressive strength, as well as high resistance to
and resistance to weathering agents. Thus, a weathering processes. In contrast, sandstones such
detailed method must be provided before their as the S and S1 samples are characterized by highly
selection as building material. For this purpose, a ductile lithoclasts that do not allow the formation of
simple laboratory programme along with a stable grains necessary for generating a strong
mathematical model was proposed in the current granular structure. The findings reported in this
study. Sandstones were subjected to weathering paper can be summarized as follows:
agents such as freezing-thawing and salt 1. The strength of the sandstones seems to influence
crystallization. Uniaxial compressive strength, their sensitivity to weathering agents. Sandstones
point load strength, Brazilian indirect tensile, showing low strength, such as the S, S1 and Tr
weight loss and P-wave velocity measured during samples, are less resistant than rocks with high
these phenomena have shown that the salt strength, like B and C samples.
crystallization test can considerably affect the 2. The crystallization of salt in the pore space of the
physical and mechanical properties of sandstones sandstones can considerably weaken them in
compared to freezing-thawing. The strength of comparison to freezing-thawing.
sandstones is important for resistance against 3. The AHP may be used to study the main
weathering, because when the strength of a rock is influencing factors affecting sandstone’s usability
exceeded the fabric begins to disintegrate. The as building material.
measured tensile and compressive strength of the 4. The main influencing factors may be sequenced
Upper Red Formation sandstones depend on some from most important to least important as follows:
Petrophysical and durability tests on sandstones for the evaluation of their… 41

uniaxial compressive strength, strength reduction showed that the studied sandstones have different
factor (R), initial porosity, weight loss (%) in salt suitability classes, from very low to very high.
crystallization test, Id15 under salt crystallization Samples like S, S1 and Tr were shown to be very
test, main grain contact type and main unsuitable materials for construction, while B and
mineralogical composition. C sandstones have very high suitability for use as
5. Results obtained from the proposed AHP model building stones.

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