Prepared by: Nathaniel M.

Cabansay, BSCpE

DIFFERENTIAL
EQUATIONS
FIRST 10 MODULES
Prerequisite: Derivatives and Integrals

Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay

BSCpE-2

Cebu Institute of Technology-University

Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

LICENSING

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This set of modules is not for sale and is freely distributed. It is also used for educational purposes only.

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License. To view a copy of this license, visit [Link]
Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Licensing .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2
Non-Commercial................................................................................................................................................................................ 2

Licensing ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 2
Chapter 1 Introduction to Differential Equations .......................................................................................................................... 5

Module 1 Basic Terms and Definitions ......................................................................................................................................... 5

When Derivatives Appear in an Equation ............................................................................................................................... 5

Terms and Definitions .................................................................................................................................................................. 5

Module 2 Verifying Solutions to Differential Equations ........................................................................................................... 8

Solutions to Differential Equations ........................................................................................................................................... 8

Verifying Solutions to Differential Equations ......................................................................................................................... 8

Chapter 2 Finding Differential Equations ........................................................................................................................................10

Module 3 Elimination of Arbitrary Constants...........................................................................................................................10

Eliminating Arbitrary Constants ..............................................................................................................................................10

Examples of Eliminating Arbitrary Constants ......................................................................................................................10

Module 4 Families of Curves .........................................................................................................................................................12

Review on Equations of Curves ...............................................................................................................................................12

How to Form Differential Equations from a Family of Curves .......................................................................................12

Types of Constants .....................................................................................................................................................................12

Examples of Finding Differential Equations of Families of Curves ..................................................................................13

Chapter 3 First-Order First-Degree Differential Equations ......................................................................................................26

Module 5 Variable Separable Differential Equations ...............................................................................................................26

Solutions of Differential Equations..........................................................................................................................................26

First-Order First-Degree Differential Equations .................................................................................................................26

Variable Separable Differential Equation ...............................................................................................................................26

Examples of Variable Separable Differential Equations......................................................................................................26

Module 6 Homogeneous Differential Equations ......................................................................................................................37

Homogeneous Differential Equations.....................................................................................................................................37

Examples of Homogeneous Differential Equations.............................................................................................................37

Module 7 Exact Differential Equations .......................................................................................................................................54

Exact Differential Equations ......................................................................................................................................................54

Examples of Exact Differential Equations ..............................................................................................................................54

Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

Module 8 Inexact Differential Equations ....................................................................................................................................61

Inexact Differential Equations ..................................................................................................................................................61

Integrating Factors .......................................................................................................................................................................61

Examples of Inexact Differential Equations ..........................................................................................................................62

Integrable Combinations ............................................................................................................................................................76

Examples of Integrable Combinations ....................................................................................................................................77

Module 9 Linear Differential Equations ......................................................................................................................................81

Linear Differential Equations ....................................................................................................................................................81

Examples of Linear Differential equations .............................................................................................................................83

Module 10 Bernoulli Differential Equations ..............................................................................................................................90

Bernoulli Differential equations ...............................................................................................................................................90

Examples of Bernoulli Differential Equations .......................................................................................................................91

References ..............................................................................................................................................................................................97
Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

MODULE 1 BASIC TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

WHEN DERIVATIVES APPEAR IN AN EQUATION

Differential equations are, simply put, equations containing a derivative or differential. Below are examples of
differential equations:

+ =1−

+ − =0

− =0

tan + cot =0

= +

In that last equation denotes the fifth derivative of .

TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

We commonly use derivatives in forms like: , , , and so on.

The variable in the numerator of this form is called the dependent variable, while the variable(s) in the
denominator is/are the independent variable(s). If we have , then is the dependent variable and is the
independent variable.

Ordinary differential equations contain only one independent variable and no partial derivatives. Partial
differential equations contain either multiple independent variables or partial derivatives.

− =3

This equation only contains for an independent variable, and they are not partial derivatives, so this is an
ordinary differential equation.

+3 = −

This equation only contains for an independent variable, but they are partial derivatives, so this is a partial
differential equation.
Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

! !
+ =0

This equation contains and for independent variables, so this is a partial differential equation.

The order of the differential equation is the order of the highest derivative in the equation. For example, we have
the equation:

+ − =0

"
The highest order appearing above is a third-order derivative " , which means this is a third-order differential
equation.

#
+ 8# =
#
%
The highest order appearing above is a first-order derivative , which means this is a first-order differential
equation.

' '
& −4 =

)
The highest order in this one is a second-order derivative , which means this is a second-order differential
equation.

The degree of the differential equation is the exponent to which the highest-order derivative is raised after all
derivatives are expressed free from radicals.

−3 + =0

The highest-order derivative is and it is only at the first power, so this is a first-degree differential equation.

* *
+4 + , −* =0

The highest-order derivative is and it is only at the first power, so this is still a first-degree differential equation.

We do not mind the - . as this is not the highest-order derivative.

& − =

"
The highest-order derivative is " and it is only at the first power, but the other side of the equation is under a
radical, so we should express this equation free from radicals by squaring both sides:
Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

− =/ 0

Notice that the highest order derivative is now at the second power, this means that this is actually a second-
degree differential equation.

Linear differential equations have all their dependent variables and derivatives occur only in the first degree or
not in other functions such as radicals or used as exponents. Non-linear differential equations do not
necessarily have those.

+1 =

All the terms in this differential equation are only to the first degree, so this is a linear differential equation.

2
+ −3 ++ , =0

A term in this differential equation is raised to the second degree, so this is a non-linear differential equation.

*
− sin 5 + e − √* = 0

"
Only " is in the first degree, so this is a non-linear differential equation.
Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

MODULE 2 VERIFYING SOLUTIONS TO DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

SOLUTIONS TO DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

A solution to a differential equation is a derivative-free relation among the variables which satisfies the equation
or reduces the equation to an algebraic identity when substituted.

A general solution contains arbitrary constants, with the number of arbitrary constants equal to the order of the
differential equation (e.g., a first-order differential equation’s general solution contains one arbitrary constant, a
second-order D.E.’s general solution contains two, and so on.)

A particular solution can be obtained from the general solution by assigning values to the arbitrary constants,
usually via an initial value problem.

Although we will not encounter many particular solutions here, these may appear from Module 5 onwards.

VERIFYING SOLUTIONS TO DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

= −9 is a solution to 4 + 12 +3 =0
"
:
Example 1: Verify that

No. STATEMENT REASON

1 = −9 : Given

4 + 12 +3 =0

= −9
"
= −9
2 : :

27 :
Differentiate both sides of with

=
2
respect to

135 =
=− :
4
135 = 27
4 +− :
, + 12 + :
, + 3 +−9 :
,=0
4 2
3 Substitute everything in statement 2 into the
given differential equation

4 −135 :
+ 162 :
− 27 :
=0 Simplify the left-hand side

5 −5 :
+6 :
− :
=0 Divide both sides by 27

6 0=0 Simplify the left-hand side

∴ = −9
"
:
is a solution to the differential equation

=e − =3 +e
@A
Example 2: Verify that is a solution to

No. STATEMENT REASON

e
=e −
2
1 Given

=3 +e
Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

e =e −
@A
=e −
2
2 Differentiate both sides of with

e
′ = 3e −
respect to

2
e e
3e − = 3 +e − ,+e
2 2
3 Substitute everything in statement 2 to the
given differential equation
e 3e Multiply e −
@A
3e − = 3e − +e
2 2
4 by 3

e e
3e − = 3e −
2 2
5 Combine like terms

∴ =e −
@A
is a solution to the differential equation

No. STATEMENT REASON

1 Given

2
Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

CHAPTER 2 FINDING DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

MODULE 3 ELIMINATION OF ARBITRARY CONSTANTS

ELIMINATING ARBITRARY CONSTANTS

Eliminating arbitrary constants is the process of removing arbitrary constants in an equation to obtain a
differential equation.

The resulting differential equation has the following characteristics:

a. Its order is equal to the number of arbitrary constants in the relation (e.g., a relation with one arbitrary
constant results in a first-order differential equation, one with two arbitrary constants results in a second-
order differential equation)
b. It is free from arbitrary constants
c. It is consistent with the given relation (i.e., the given relation is a solution to the resulting differential
equation)

If you have already differentiated the given relation the same number of times as the number of arbitrary constants
(e.g., you have differentiated a relation with two arbitrary constants twice) and the arbitrary constants are still not
eliminated, do algebraic manipulation.

EXAMPLES OF ELIMINATING ARBITRARY CONSTANTS

Example 1: Find the differential equation whose solution is −3 =C

No. STATEMENT REASON

1 −3 =C Given

2 3 − 3D +2 E=0 Only one arbitrary constant C is present, so differentiate

only once with respect to .

3 −D +2 E=0 Divide both sides by 3

4 − −2 =0 Multiply +2 by -1

5 − −2 =0 Divide both sides by

−2 − =0
(OPTIONAL) Rewrite as , rearrange the left-hand

−2 − =0
side, and multiply both sides by .

Example 2: Find the differential equation whose solution is = FG e: +F e

No. STATEMENT REASON

1 = FG e: +F e Given
Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

= −3FG e: +F e Two arbitrary constants FG and F are present, so

= 9FG e +F e
2
: H differentiate twice with respect to

− = 4FG e:
− = −8FG e:
3 The arbitrary constants were not eliminated, so do
algebraic manipulation.
In this case, we can try adding or subtracting equations

F first by creating a system of equations from −

together to eliminate the constants. We can eliminate

and −

2 −2 = 8FG e: We can then eliminate FG by multiplying − =

− = −8FG e: H
4FG e: and adding to − = −8FG e:
4

Resulting equation:

3 −2 − =0

5 +2 −3 =0 Multiply both sides by -1

Example 3: Find the differential equation whose solution is = cos I + 3 sin I + CeJ + e:J (where I is a
parameter)

No. STATEMENT REASON

1 = cos I + 3 sin I + CeJ + e:J Given

= −I sin I + I3 cos I + ωCeJ − I e:J Four arbitrary constants , 3 , C and

= −I cos I − I 3 sin I + I Ce +I e
2
J :J are present, so differentiate four times

=I sin I − I 3 cos I + I Ce J
−I e:J
with respect to

2
= I2 cos I + I2 3 sin I + I2 CeJ + I2 e:J

3 2
= I2 L cos I + 3 sin I + CeJ + e:J The arbitrary constants were not
eliminated, so do algebraic manipulation.
In this case we can factor out I2 from all
terms

4 2
= I2 Substitute statement 1 into statement 3

5 2
− I2 = 0 Subtract I2 from both sides
Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

MODULE 4 FAMILIES OF CURVES

REVIEW ON EQUATIONS OF CURVES

=M +3
1. Lines

− =M −
a. Slope-Intercept Form:
N N
Intercept Form: O + P = 1
b. Point-Slope Form:
c.

a. Circle of radius Q centered at ℎ, 1 : −ℎ + −1 =Q

2. Conic Sections

b. Ellipse centered at ℎ, 1
+ =1
:T :U
O P
i. Horizontal major axis:

+ =1
:T :U
P O
Parabola with vertex at ℎ, 1
ii. Vertical major axis:

−ℎ = ±4' −1
c.

−1 = ±4' −ℎ
i. Opening upwards/downwards:

Hyperbola centered at ℎ, 1
ii. Opening to the right/left:
d.
− =1
:T :U
O P
i. Horizontal transverse axis:

− =1
:U :T
O P
ii. Vertical transverse axis:
= W sin - + Z., where in applications is normally replaced by for time, W is the
X
Y
amplitude, [ is the period, and Z is the phase shift.
3. Sinusoids:

HOW TO FORM DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS FROM A FAMILY OF CURVES

1. If needed, draw the figure from a given condition showing a few members of that family of curves and
identify the equation of such curve.
2. From the equation and conditions, identify the arbitrary constants and fixed constants or parameters.
3. Obtain the differential equation of the family of curves by eliminating arbitrary constants and simplifying
the results.

TYPES OF CONSTANTS
Arbitrary constants can be found in a solution whose values can be obtained from sets of boundary conditions.
Their values will differ between members of a family of curves.

Fixed constants or parameters are not to be eliminated and can still be found in the differential equation of a
relation. Their values are common to all members of a family of curves.
Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

EXAMPLES OF FINDING DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF FAMILIES OF CURVES

Find the differential equations of the following families of curves:

1. Parallel lines

No. STATEMENT REASON

1 Given family of curves

2 =M +3 Slope-intercept form of a line. For lines to be parallel,

their slopes must be equal.

3 =M In this case, we have only one arbitrary constant: 3, so

differentiate with respect to only once.

4 −M=0 Subtract M from both sides

−M =0
5 To convert to differential form, rewrite as

6 M − =0 Multiply both sides by −

2. Lines passing through a fixed point 0, 3 on the -axis

No. STATEMENT REASON

1 Given family of curves

2 =M +3 Slope-intercept form of a line. In this case, 3 should be

common to all members.

3 =M In this case, we have only one arbitrary constant: M, so

differentiate with respect to only once.

The arbitrary constant M was not eliminated, but we can

= +3
substitute M in the original equation with . Convert to
4

differential form by rewriting as

Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

5 = +3 Multiply both sides by

6 3− + =0 Subtract from both sides

7 −3 − =0 (OPTIONAL) Multiply both sides by −1

3. Lines with slope and y-intercept equal

No. STATEMENT REASON

1 Given family of curves

2 =M +M Slope-intercept form of a line. In this case, 3 = M.

3 =M In this case, we have only one arbitrary constant: M, so

differentiate with respect to only once.

The arbitrary constant M was not eliminated, but we can

= +1
substitute M in the original equation with and factor
4

the right-hand side. Convert to differential form by

rewriting as

5 = +1 Multiply both sides by

6 − +1 =0 Subtract +1 from both sides

4. Lines passing through a fixed point , 0 on the -axis

No. STATEMENT REASON

1 Given family of curves

2 =M − Point-slope form of a line. In this case, N, N = ,0

and is common to all members.

3 =M In this case, we have only one arbitrary constant: M, so

differentiate with respect to only once.
Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

The arbitrary constant M was not eliminated, but we can

= −
substitute M in the original equation with . Convert to
4

differential form by rewriting as

5 = − Multiply both sides by

6 − − =0 Subtract − from both sides

5. Lines with slope and x-intercept equal

No. STATEMENT REASON

1 Given family of curves

=M −M N, N = M, 0 .
=M −M
2 Point-slope form of a line. In this case,

3 =M In this case, we have only one arbitrary constant: M, so

differentiate with respect to only once.

= − The arbitrary constant M was not eliminated, but we can

substitute M in the original equation with .
4

5 − − =0 Subtract from both sides

6 − + =0 Multiply both sides by −1

6. Lines passing through a fixed point ℎ, 1

No. STATEMENT REASON

1 Given family of curves

−1 =M −ℎ Point-slope form of a line. In this case, N , N = ℎ, 1

and ℎ, 1 is common to all members of the family.
2

−1 In this case, we have only one arbitrary constant: M, but

M=
−ℎ we can isolate M by dividing both sides by − ℎ to
3
Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

−ℎ − −1
0=
make it easier to eliminate. We then differentiate with

−ℎ
respect to only once, already using the form instead
of the form.

−ℎ .
−ℎ − −1 =0
4 Multiply both sides by

5 −1 − −ℎ =0 Multiply both sides by −

7. Lines with algebraic sum of intercepts fixed at 1

Here, we use the intercept form of the line + = 1. We can go about this in two ways:
O P

a. Leave 3 as the arbitrary constant

No. STATEMENT REASON

1 Given family of curves

+ =1 Intercept form of a line. Since 1 = + 3, solve for .

3 We then have = 1 − 3 so substitute that into the
2

equation.

+ =1 In this case, we have only one arbitrary constant: 3, but

1−3 3
3
let’s first rewrite the equation into slope-intercept form
to make it easier to differentiate.
3 Multiply both sides by 3 to isolate .
+ , + =3
1−3
4

3 Subtract -
P
.
= −+ , +3
1−3
U:P
5 from both sides

3 Notice that 1 − 3 = − 3 − 1
=+ , +3
3−1
6

3
=
3−1
7 Differentiate both sides with respect to

3−1 =3 The arbitrary constant 3 was not eliminated, so we’ll try

to solve for 3. Start by multiplying both sides by 3 − 1
8

9 3 −1 =3 Multiply 3 − 1 by

10 3 −3=1 Subtract 3 from both sides and add 1 to both sides

11 3 −1 =1 Factor 3 from the left-hand side

Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

1 −1
3=
−1
12 Divide both sides by

1
− + =
−1
13 Substitute statements 7 and 12 into statement 4

− + −1 =1 −1
− + + − =1
14 Multiply both sides by

15 − + + −1 − =0 Subtract 1 from both sides

16 − + −1 + =0 Multiply both sides by -1

b. Leave as the arbitrary constant

No. STATEMENT REASON

1 Given family of curves

+ =1 Intercept form of a line. Since 1 = + 3, solve for 3.

3 We then have 3 = 1 − so substitute that into the
2

equation.

+ =1
1−
3 In this case, we have only one arbitrary constant: , but
let’s first rewrite the equation into slope-intercept form
to make it easier to differentiate.
1− Multiply both sides by 1 −
+ , + =1−
4 to isolate .

1− Subtract -
U:O
.
= −+ , +1− O
5 from both sides

−1 Notice that 1 − =− −1 .
=+ , +1−
6

−1
=+ ,
7 Differentiate both sides with respect to

8 = −1 The arbitrary constant was not eliminated, so we’ll try

to solve for . Start by multiplying both sides by

9 − = −1 Add to both sides

10 − 1 = −1 Factor from the left-hand side

1 −1
=−
−1
11 Divide both sides by
Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

1
− + =1+
−1
12 Substitute statements 7 and 11 into statement 4

1 −1 +1
− + =
−1
13 Simplify the right-hand side

1
− + =
−1
− + −1 =1 −1
− + + − =1
14 Multiply both sides by

15 − + + −1 − =0 Subtract 1 from both sides

16 − + −1 + =0 Multiply both sides by -1

8. Circles with center on the -axis

No. STATEMENT REASON

1 Given family of curves

2 −ℎ + =Q Standard form of a circle centered at ℎ, 1 , with 1 = 0

3 2 −ℎ +2 =0 In this case, we have two arbitrary constants ℎ and Q so

differentiating with respect to to eliminate Q

we must differentiate twice to eliminate them. Start by

4 −ℎ+ =0 Divide both sides by 2

5 + =ℎ Add ℎ to both sides

1+ + =0
eliminate ℎ
6 Differentiate a second time with respect to to

7 + +1=0 (OPTIONAL) Rearrange the equation by order of

derivatives
Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

9. Circles with center on the -axis

No. STATEMENT REASON

1 Given family of curves

2 + −1 =Q Standard form of a circle centered at ℎ, 1 , with ℎ = 0

3 2 +2 −1 =0 In this case, we have two arbitrary constants 1 and Q so

differentiating with respect to to eliminate Q

we must differentiate twice to eliminate them. Start by

4 + −1 =0 Divide both sides by 2

5 + =1 Add 1 to both sides

−
+ =0
eliminate 1
6 Differentiate a second time with respect to to

7 − − =0 (OPTIONAL) Multiply both sides by − and

rearrange the equation by order of derivatives

10. Circles with radius Q and tangent to the -axis

No. STATEMENT REASON

1 Given family of curves

2 −ℎ + ±Q =Q Standard form of a circle centered at ℎ, 1 , with 1 = Q

Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

3 2 −ℎ +2 ±Q =0 In this case, we have only one arbitrary constant: ℎ so

we must differentiate once to eliminate it. Start by
differentiating with respect to

−ℎ+ ±Q =0 The arbitrary constant ℎ was not eliminated, so we must

try to solve for ℎ. We start by dividing both sides by 2
4

5 + ±Q =ℎ Add ℎ to both sides

6 \ − + ±Q ] + ±Q =Q Substitute statement 5 into statement 2

\ ±Q ] + ±Q =Q
we can drop the negative sign inside as −1 = 1
7 Simplify the expression in the left-hand side. Note that

8 \ ±Q ] + ± 2Q + Q = Q Square ±Q

9 \ ±Q ] + ± 2Q = 0 Subtract Q from both sides

11. Circles with radius Q and tangent to the -axis

We can go about this in two ways: We can either multiply after eliminating Q from the right-hand side in the
final differential equation…

No. STATEMENT REASON

1 Given family of curves

2 ±Q + −1 =Q Standard form of a circle centered at ℎ, 1 , with ℎ = Q

3 2 ±Q +2 −1 =0 In this case, we have only one arbitrary constant: 1 so

we must differentiate once to eliminate it. Start by
differentiating with respect to
±Q The arbitrary constant 1 was not eliminated, so we must
+ −1 =0
try to solve for 1. We start by dividing both sides by 2
4

±Q Add 1 to both sides

+ =1
5

±Q
±Q +^ −/ + 0_ = Q
6 Substitute statement 5 into statement 2

±Q
±Q ++ , =Q
we can drop the negative sign inside as −1 = 1
7 Simplify the expression in the left-hand side. Note that
Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

±Q ±Q
/ 0 + ± 2Q + Q = Q
8 Square

±Q Subtract Q from both sides

/ 0 + ± 2Q = 0
9

10 ±Q + + 2Q =0 Multiply both sides by

11 ± 2Q + Q + ± 2Q =0 Square ±Q

…or we can do it before.

No. STATEMENT REASON

1 Given family of curves

±Q + −1 =Q
ℎ, 1 , with ℎ = Q
2 Standard form of a circle centered at

2 ±Q +2 −1 =0
constant: 1 so we must differentiate once
3 In this case, we have only one arbitrary

to eliminate it. Start by differentiating with

respect to
±Q The arbitrary constant 1 was not
+ −1 =0
eliminated, so we must try to solve for 1.
4

We start by dividing both sides by 2

±Q Add 1 to both sides
+ =1
5

±Q
±Q +^ −/ + 0_ = Q
6 Substitute statement 5 into statement 2

±Q
±Q ++ , =Q
7 Simplify the expression in the left-hand

sign inside as −1 = 1
side. Note that we can drop the negative

8 ±Q + ±Q = Q Multiply both sides by

9 ±Q +1 = Q Factor ±Q from the left-hand side

10 ± 2Q + Q 1+ = Q Square ±Q

11 ± 2Q + Q + ± 2Q + Q = Q Multiply both polynomials on the left-hand

side
Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

12 ± 2Q + Q + ± 2Q =0 Subtract Q from both sides

12. Parabolas with vertex and focus on the -axis

No. STATEMENT REASON

1 Given family of curves

= ±4' −1 Standard form of a parabola with vertex at ℎ, 1 , with

ℎ=0
2

We have two arbitrary constants: ' and ℎ, so we must

= ±4'
−1
3

−1
differentiate twice to eliminate them. Start by dividing
both sides by
2 −1 − to eliminate '
=0
−1
4 Differentiate both sides with respect to

5 2 −1 − =0 Multiply both sides by −1

6 2 − 21 − =0 Divide both sides by

7 2 − = 21 Add 1 to both sides

8 2 − + =0 Differentiate both sides with respect to to eliminate 1

9 − =0 Simplify the left-hand side

10 − =0 (OPTIONAL) Multiply the left-hand side by -1

13. Parabolas with vertex and focus on the -axis

No. STATEMENT REASON

1 Given family of curves

= ±4' −ℎ Standard form of a parabola with vertex at ℎ, 1 , with

1=0
2

We have two arbitrary constants: ' and 1, so we must

= ±4'
−ℎ
3

both sides by − ℎ
differentiate twice to eliminate them. Start by dividing
Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

2 −ℎ − to eliminate '
=0
−ℎ
4 Differentiate both sides with respect to

5 2 −ℎ − =0 Multiply both sides by −1

6 2 − 2ℎ − =0 Divide both sides by

7 2 − = 2ℎ Add 1 to both sides

− to eliminate ℎ
2−/ 0=0
8 Differentiate both sides with respect to

2 − + =0 −
by −1
9 Multiply the left-hand side by and

10 + =0 Simplify the left-hand side

14. Ellipses with horizontal major axes with center at the origin

No. STATEMENT REASON

1 Given family of curves

+ =1
3 and vertex at ℎ, 1 = 0,0
2 Standard form of an ellipse with a horizontal major axis

3 3 + = 3 We have two arbitrary constants: and 3, so we must

multiplying both sides by 3

differentiate twice to eliminate them. Start by

4 23 +2 =0 Differentiate both sides with respect to

5 3 + =0 Divide both sides by 2

6 3 + + =0 Differentiate both sides with respect to again

7 3 =− + Subtract + from both sides

8 − + + =0 Substitute statement 7 into statement 5

9 − − =0 Divide both sides by − and multiply +

by
Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

15. Hyperbolas with horizontal transverse axes and center at the origin

No. STATEMENT REASON

1 Given family of curves

− =1
3 axis and vertex at ℎ, 1 = 0,0
2 Standard form of a hyperbola with a horizontal major

3 3 − = 3 We have two arbitrary constants: and 3, so we must

multiplying both sides by 3

differentiate twice to eliminate them. Start by

4 23 −2 =0 Differentiate both sides with respect to

5 3 − =0 Divide both sides by 2

6 3 − + =0 Differentiate both sides with respect to again

7 3 = + Add + to both sides

8 + + =0 Substitute statement 7 into statement 5

9 + + =0 Divide both sides by and multiply + by

16. Sine waves with amplitude W, period 2`, and phase shift of 0°

No. STATEMENT REASON

1 Given family of curves

2` Sine wave with amplitude W, period [, and phase shift Z

= W sin + + Z,
[
2
Substitute [ = 2` and Z = 0
= W sin
Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

3 = W cos We have only one arbitrary constant: W, so we must

differentiate once to eliminate it.

The arbitrary constant W was not eliminated, so we try

=W
cos to solve for W. We can do that by dividing both sides by
4

cos

= sin
cos bcd
= tan
5 Substitute statement 4 into the original equation, then
recall efb
= tan
6 tan − =0 Subtract from both sides

− cot =0 Divide both sides by tan = cot

G
7 and recall ghd
Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

CHAPTER 3 FIRST-ORDER FIRST-DEGREE DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

MODULE 5 VARIABLE SEPARABLE DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

SOLUTIONS OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

In this chapter, we will be finding solutions to differential equations. There are two types of solutions to look for:

1. General solution – contains arbitrary constants that are not yet defined.
2. Particular solution – does not contain any arbitrary constants and are defined, usually as a result of an
initial value problem. This can be generated from a general solution.

FIRST-ORDER FIRST-DEGREE DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

If you recall, a first-order differential equation has a first derivative as its highest order derivative, and a first-degree
differential equation has that highest derivative raised only to the first power. A first-order first-degree differential
equation has those characteristics. We will be solving this type of equations and they are generally of the form:

i , +j , =0

VARIABLE SEPARABLE DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION

A variable separable differential equation (VSDE) is a differential equation in which the two variables involved
can be separated completely and grouped with the differentials of their own variables.

From the general form above, if i , can be separated into two functions M M and j ,
separated into two functions k k
can be
, the differential equation is a VSDE. We then get the general solution as
follows:

No. STATEMENT REASON

1 i , +j , =0 Given
M M +k k =0 We can factor i , into M M and j ,
k k
2 into

M k Divide both sides by M k

+ =0
k M
3

l +m =0 Let l =
n
and m =
o
o n
4 .

p q r sr + p t u su = v
5 Integrate both sides with respect to their own
differentials. This is the general solution of a VSDE.

EXAMPLES OF VARIABLE SEPARABLE DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

1. Find a general solution to = 3 +4

Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

No. STATEMENT REASON

=3 +4
1 Given

2 = 3 +4 Multiply both sides by

3 3 +4 − =0 Subtract from both sides

p3 + 4 −p =0
4 Integrate both sides with respect to their own
differentials

3
+4 − =F
2
5 Use the integral rules:

p0 =F
owG
p o
= + F, k ≠ −1
k+1

p C! = Cp!

p! ±y = p! ± py

3 +8 −2 =F (OPTIONAL) Multiply both sides by 2. Since 2F is still a

constant, “absorb” 2 into F
6

2 =3 +8 +F (OPTIONAL) Add 2 to both sides and subtract F from

both sides, since −F is still a constant, we can still use
7

+F on the other side.

Let us check if the solution we found is correct:

No. STATEMENT REASON

=3 +4
1 Given

2 2 =3 +8 +F Solution

2 = 6 +8
3 Differentiate both sides of the solution with respect to
.

=3 +4
4 Divide both sides by 2. We got the original differential

∎
equation back.

2. Find a general solution to =5

We can actually find multiple general solutions from this alone.

No. STATEMENT REASON

=5
1 Given
Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

2 =5 Multiply both sides by

=5
3 Divide both sides by

5 − =0
4 Subtract from both sides

p5 −p =0
5 Integrate both sides with respect to their own
differentials

5
− ln| | = F
2
6 Use the integral rules:

p0 =F
owG
p o
= + F, k ≠ −1
k+1

p C! = Cp!

p! ±y = p! ± py

p = ln| | + F

Let us check if the solution we found is correct:

No. STATEMENT REASON

=5
1 Given

5
− ln| | = F
2
2 Solution

1
5 − =0
3 Differentiate both sides of the solution with respect to

5 − =0
4 Multiply both sides by

=5
5 Add to both sides. We got the original differential

∎
equation back.

We can generate another general solution from here:

For example, we can start by isolating first…

No. STATEMENT REASON

5 Add ln| | to both sides and subtract F from both sides,

+ F = ln| |
2 since −F is still a constant, we can still use +F on the
7

other side
Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

Get the exponential of both sides. Note that e} is a

=e w}
constant, so we can simply use F
8

=e e}

= Fe

Fe − =0
9 Subtract from both sides

…or we can multiply the whole equation by 2 first

No. STATEMENT REASON

5 − 2 ln| | = F Multiply both sides by 2. Since 2F is still a constant,
“absorb” 2 into F
7

5 − ln| |=F
log O = logO
8 Law of logarithms:

9 5 − ln =F Since a square of a real number is always positive, we

can remove the absolute value bars.
5 + F = ln Add ln to both sides and subtract F from from
both sides. Since −F is still a constant, we can still use
10

+F on the other side

=e w} Get the exponential of both sides. Note that e} is a

=e e} constant, so we can simply use F
11

= Fe

Get the square root of both sides. √F is still a constant,

= Fe
so we can still use F. We can then use the following
12

laws of exponents (since radicals are simply rational

=
exponents):
n n n

n
√ n =
•
o

Let us check to see if this solution is correct.

No. STATEMENT REASON

=5
1 Given

= Fe
2 Solution

= 5 Fe
3 Differentiate both sides of the solution with respect to

5 Fe = 5 /Fe 0
4 Substitute and in the equation
Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

5 Fe = 5 Fe Multiply 5 by Fe
5 €A

3. Find a general solution to 2 =1+

No. STATEMENT REASON

2 =1+
1 Given

1 1
=
2 1+
2 Get the reciprocals of both sides

1 2 Multiply both sides by 2

=
1+
3

1 2
− =0
1+
Gw
4 Subtract from both sides

1 2
p −p =0
1+
5 Integrate both sides with respect to their own
differentials
• Let • = 1 + , so • = 2
p −p =0
•
6

7 ln| | − ln|•| = F Use the integral rule:

p0 =F

p = ln| | + F

8 ln| | − ln|1 + |=F Substitute back • = 1 +

ln ‚ ‚=F
1+
9 Combine into one logarithm using:

logO − log O = logO

Get the exponential of both sides. e} is still a constant

= e}
1+
10

=F
1+

11 =F 1+ Multiply both sides by 1 +

F =1+ Divide both sides by F, or rather multiply both sides by

, is still a constant, so we can use F
G G
12
} }

13 =F −1 Subtract 1 from both sides

14 = √F − 1 Get the square roots of both sides

Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

Let us check each of the general solutions:

First solution:

No. STATEMENT REASON

2 =1+
1 Given

ln ‚ ‚=F
1+
2 Solution

ln| | − ln|1 + |=F

logO − log O = logO
3 Separate into two logarithms using:

1 2
− =0
1+
4 Differentiate both sides with respect to

1 2
=
1+
Gw
5 Add to both sides

Multiply both sides by 1 +

2 =1+
6 . We got the original

∎
differential equation back.

Second solution:

No. STATEMENT REASON

2 =1+
1 Given

=F
1+
2 Solution

1+ −2
=0
3 Differentiate both sides with respect to

1+
Multiply both sides by 1 +
1+ −2 =0
4

5
2 =1+ Add 2 to both sides. We got the original

∎
differential equation back.

Third solution:

No. STATEMENT REASON

2 =1+
1 Given

2 =F 1+ Solution

F= Solve for F
1+
3
Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

1 = 2F
4 Differentiate both sides of the solution with respect to

2 Substitute F =
1=
1+
Gw
5

Multiply both sides by 1 +

2 =1+
6 . We got the original

∎
differential equation back.

Fourth solution:

No. STATEMENT REASON

2 =1+
1 Given

2 F = 1+ Solution
1+ Solve for F
F=
3

F=2
4 Differentiate both sides of the solution with respect to

1+ Substitute F =
Gw
=2
5

2 =1+
6 Multiply both sides by . We got the original differential

∎
equation back.

Fifth solution:

No. STATEMENT REASON

2 =1+
1 Given

2 = √F − 1 Solution
F
=
2√F − 1
3 Differentiate both sides with respect to

F
2 \√F − 1] + , = 1 + \√F − 1]
2√F − 1
4 Substitute the solution and its derivative into the given
differential equation

5 F =1+F −1 Square √F − 1 on the right-hand side and simplify

the left-hand side

F =F
∎
6 Simplify the right-hand side
Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

4. Find a general solution to cos + tan =0

No. STATEMENT REASON

1 cos + tan =0 Given

2 + tan sec =0 Divide both sides by cos to separate the and

sides by sec .
variables. This is effectively the same as multiplying both

p + p tan sec = p0
3 Integrate both sides with respect to their own
differentials

Let • = tan and • = sec

p + p• • = p0
4

•
+ =F
2 2
5 Use the integral rules:

p0 =F
owG
p o
= + F, k ≠ −1
k+1

tan Substitute back • = tan

+ =F
2 2
6

7 + tan =F Multiply both sides by 2

Let us check the general solutions:

First solution:

No. STATEMENT REASON

1 cos + tan =0 Given

tan
+ =F
2 2
2 Solution

+ tan sec =0
3 Differentiate both sides with respect to

cos + tan =0 Multiply both sides by cos

∎
4 . We got the original
differential equation back.

Second solution:

No. STATEMENT REASON

1 cos + tan =0 Given

2 + tan =F Solution
Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

2 + 2 tan sec =0
3 Differentiate both sides with respect to

cos + tan =0 efb

∎
4 Multiply both sides by . We got the original
differential equation back.

5. Find the solution to = 5 − 2 , where 2 = 10

No. STATEMENT REASON

=5−2
1 Given

2 = 5−2 Multiply both sides by

3 5−2 − =0 Subtract from both sides

p5 −2 −p =0
4 Integrate both sides with respect to their own
differentials

5 5 − − =F Use the following integration rules:

p0 =F
owG
p o
= + F, k ≠ −1
k+1

p C! = Cp!

p! ±y = p! ± py

6 5 2 − 2 − 10 = F Substitute = 10 and = 2 to solve for F

7 10 − 4 − 10 = F Multiply 5 by 2 and square 2

8 F = −4 Subtract 10 from 10

9 5 − − = −4 Substitute F in statement 5 with -4

10 4+5 − − =0 Add 4 to both sides

11 4+5 − = Add to both sides

To check, we substitute = 2 and = 10 into the resulting solution

No. STATEMENT REASON

1 4+5 − − =0 Solution

2 4+5 2 − 2 − 10 = 0 Substitute = 2 and = 10 into the equation

3 4 + 10 − 4 − 10 = 0 Multiply 5 by 2 and square 2

0=0
∎
4 Combine like terms
Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

6. Find the solution to = e :

when 0 =0

No. STATEMENT REASON

= e :
1 Given

2 = e : Multiply both sides by

3 ƒ :
− =0 Subtract from both sides

e e: − =0
=
4 Use the following law of exponents:
nwo n o

5 e: − e: =0 Multiply both sides by e:

p e: − p e: = p0
6 Integrate both sides with respect to their own
differentials
1 Let • = − , • = −2 , so −
G
•= . Let # =
− p e„ • + p e% # = p 0
2 − , so # = −
7

e„
− + e% = F
2
8 Use the integration rules:

p0 =F

p C! = Cp!

p e„ • = e„ + F

e: Substitute back • = − and # = −

− + e: = F
2
9

eN = 0 and =0
− + e:N = F
2
10 Substitute

1 N
= 1, ≠0
− +1=F
2
11 Use the law of exponent:

1 Subtract from 1
G
F=
2
12

ƒ: 1 Substitute F in statement 9 with

G
− + ƒ: =
2 2
13

G
e: 1
e: − − =0
14
2 2
Subtract from both sides and rearrange the equation

15 2e: − e: −1=0 (OPTIONAL) Multiply both sides by 2

We can stop at statement 14 or statement 15, but if we want to write this as =! , we continue as follows:
Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

No. STATEMENT REASON

1 1 1
− − =0
e 2e 2
16 Rewrite negative exponents as denominators (from
statement 14)
1 1 1 G G
= +
e 2e 2
@A
17 Add and to both sides

1 e +1
=
e 2e
18 Combine the right-hand side into one fraction by adding
them

2e
e =
e +1
19 Get the reciprocals of both sides

2e
= ln / 0
20 Get the natural logarithm of both sides
e +1

To check, we substitute = 0 and = 0 into the resulting solution

Using statement 14 above:

No. STATEMENT REASON

e: 1
e: − − =0
2 2
1 Solution

eN 1 = 0 and = 0 into the equation

eN − − =0
2 2
2 Substitute

1 1 N
= 1, ≠0
1− − =0
2 2
3 Use the law of exponents:

0=0
∎
4 Combine like terms

Using statement 20 above:

No. STATEMENT REASON

2e
= ln / 0
e +1
1 Solution

2eN = 0 and = 0 into the equation

0 = ln / 0
eN + 1
2 Substitute

2 N
= 1, ≠0
0 = ln + ,
1+1
3 Use the law of exponents:

4 0 = ln 1 Simplify the expression inside the logarithm

0=0 Use the law of logarithms: log O 1 = 0
∎
5
Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

MODULE 6 HOMOGENEOUS DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

HOMOGENEOUS DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

A function of multiple variables ! , is homogeneous if ! 1 , 1 = 1 o ! , .

Before we get to defining what is a homogeneous differential equation, let us define first a homogeneous function.

Example 1: If we have ! , =3 − +2 , ! 1 ,1 = 31 −1 + 21
1 from the right-hand side: ! 1 , 1 = 1 3 − +2 and substitute to get ! 1 , 1 = 1 ! , ,
. We can then factor

meaning this function is homogeneous. The degree of homogeneity can be determined by the resulting exponent
of k. In this case, the resulting exponent is 3, so this function is a homogeneous function of degree 3.

Example 2: If we have ! , = † + 4 , ! 1 ,1 = †1 + 41 = †1 + 4 . We can then factor √1 to get

! 1 ,1 = √1† + 4 and substitute to get ! 1 , 1 =1 ! ,
‡
, meaning this function is a homogeneous
function of degree ½.

Example 3: If we have ! , = , ! 1 ,1 = . We can then factor ! 1 , 1 = -2 .,

ˆ Uˆ ˆ Uˆ ˆ

2 : 2U : U U :
then simplify and substitute to get ! 1 , 1 =1 ! , , meaning this function is a homogeneous function of
degree 2.

Example 4: If we have ! , = tan - ., ! 1 , 1 = tan - .. We can then simplify to get ! 1 , 1 =

U
U

tan - . and substitute to get ! 1 , 1 =! , , meaning this function is a homogeneous function of degree 0.

powers or degrees. As we saw in example 1 above, all terms 3 ,− , and 2 are of degree 3, so this
We can easily see if an algebraic function (polynomial, rational, and radical) is homogeneous by inspecting the

function is homogeneous.

A homogeneous differential equation is a differential equation i , +j , = 0 in which i ,

and j , are both homogeneous functions of the same degree (e.g., both degree 3, degree 2).

From the general form above, if we add i , and j , and call it ! ,

homogeneous differential equation if ! 1 , 1 = 1o ! ,
, the differential equation is a
.

Once we have determined it is a homogeneous differential equation, we then check which of i , and j ,
is simpler. If j , = # and =# + # or =#+
%
is simpler, we make the substitution . If
i , = # and =# + # or =#+
%
is simpler, we make the substitution .

We then solve this as a variable-separable differential equation.

EXAMPLES OF H OMOGENEOUS DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

=
:
w
1. Find solutions to

We can do this in two ways:

Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

We can multiply both sides by + and use either substitution…

No. STATEMENT REASON

−
=
+
1 Given

1 −1
=
1 +1 homogeneous by substituting = 1 and
2 Determine if the right-hand side is

1 − =1
=
1 +
−
=
+
3 + = − Multiply both sides by +

4 − − + =0 Subtract + from both sides

# − − # + # + # =0
−# # + # − +# =0
6 A. You may either:
A. Substitute = # and =
B.
# + #
B. Substitute = # and =
# + #
Both are just as simple.

A. # − −# −# #−# − #=0
B. # + #−# −# #− −# =0
7 Multiply out all terms

+# +# #+ #=0
#−# −# #− =0
8 A. Simplify the left-hand sides, and for (A),
B. multiply both sides by -1

+# + # + #=0
−# #− # + =0
9 A. Group all
and # terms
B.
and # terms
A.
B.

1+# + # +1 # =0
1−# #− # +1 =0
10 A. Factor
from + #
B.
# +
A. and from

−#
# +
B. from and from

+ #=0
G %wG
Gw%
11 Divide both sides by
#− =0 1+#
A.
G:% G

# +1
% wG
B. A.
B.

A. ‰
G
+‰
%wG
#=F Integrate both sides. ‰ 0 =F
Gw%
12
‰% #−‰ =F
G:% G
wG
B.

A. ‰ +‰ #+‰ #=F
G % G
13
Gw% Gw% p! ±y = p! ± py
‰% #−‰ #−‰ =F
G % G
wG % wG
B.
Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

A. ‰
G
+ ‰ •+‰
G G G
#=F Let • = 1 + # = # + 1 and • =
„ Gw%
2# #, then • = # #
G
14
‰% #− ‰ #−‰ =F
G G G G
wG „
B.

A. ln| | + ln|•| + arctan # = F

G owG
/ 0 + F, k ≠ −1
p o
=‹ k+1
15
arctan # − ln|•| − ln| | = F
G

ln| | + F, k = −1
B.

1 1 •
p • = arctan - . + F
+•
16 A. ln| | + ln|1 + # | + arctan # = F
G
Substitute back • = 1 + # = # + 1
arctan # − ln|# + 1| − ln| | = F
G
B.

A. ln| | + ln ‚1 + - . ‚ + arctan - . = F
17 G Substitute back:
A. # =
arctan - . − ln ‚- . + 1‚ − ln| | = F
G

#=
B.
B.

Use log O = logO

A. ln| | + ln Υ1 + - . Π+ arctan - . = F
18 to simplify the
logarithms with a constant term

B. arctan - . − ln Œ•- . + 1Œ − ln| | = F

A. ln Œ •1 + - . Œ + arctan - . = F
19 Combine into one logarithm

B. arctan - . − ln Œ •- . + 1Œ = F

20 A. lnŽ† + Ž + arctan - . = F Multiply

arctan - . − lnŽ† + Ž=F

A. into the radical
B. B. into the radical

…Or keep it as it is and use the substitution =#

No. STATEMENT REASON

−
=
+
1 Given

1 −1
=
1 +1 substituting = 1 and = 1
2 Determine if the right-hand side is homogeneous by

1 −
=
1 +
−
=
+
# # − = # and =#+
%
#+ =
# +
3 Let
Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

# # −1
#+ =
# +1
4 Factor from the right-hand side and simplify

# #−1
#+ =
#+1
# #−1 Subtract # from both sides
= −#
#+1
5

# #−1− # +#
=
#+1
6 Combine into one fraction

# −# − 1
=
#+1
1 #+1
=
# −# − 1
7 Get the reciprocals of both sides

1 # 1
=− −
# # +1 # +1
8 Split the right-hand side into two fractions

1 # 1 Multiply both sides by #

= −+ + , #
# +1 # +1
9

1 # 1 Add -
%
+
G
. # to both sides
+ + #=0
# +1 # +1 % wG % wG
10

1 # 1 Integrate both sides. ‰ 0 =F

p +p #+p #=F
# +1 # +1
11

1 1 1 1 Let • = # + 1 and • = 2# # or
G
•=# #
p + p •+p #=F
2 • # +1
12

1
‰ „ • = ln|•| + F and ‰ „ • = arctan - . + F
G G G „
ln| | + ln|•| + arctan # = F
2 wO O O
13

1 Substitute back • = # + 1
ln| | + ln|# + 1| + arctan # = F
2
14

1 Substitute back # =
ln| | + ln ‚- . + 1‚ + arctan - . = F
2
15

Use log O = logO

ln| | + ln •&- . + 1• + arctan - . = F
16 to simplify the logarithms with a
constant term

ln • &- . + 1• + arctan - . = F
17 Combine the logarithms on the left-hand side into one
logarithm

ln ‘† + ‘ + arctan - . = F
18 Multiply into the radical

To check, we verify the solutions by differentiating and see if we get an equality/identity or the original differential
equation.
Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

First solution:

No. STATEMENT REASON

1 ln ‘† + ‘ + arctan - . = F Solution to be verified

2 ln|•| + arctan # = F Let • = † + and # = . We then get

•= 2 +2 and # =
G
† w
:
. We will need these two quantities
later
1 1 ln • =
G
• and -arctan -O .. =
„
•+ #=0
• # +1 „
3
•
O
„ wO

1 2 +2 1 − Substitute • = † + and • =
/ 0+ + ,=0
† + 2† + 2 +2
4
G
- . +1
† w
+ −
then simplify.
Substitute # = and # =
:
+ =0
+ +
and
simplify.
− + +
=0
+
5 Combine the left-hand side into one fraction

6 − + + =0 Multiply both sides by +

7 + = − Subtract − from both sides

− Divide both sides by +
=
+ original equation back, so lnŽ† + Ž +
8 . We got the

arctan - . = F is indeed a solution.

Second solution:

No. STATEMENT REASON

1 arctan + , − ln ‘† + ‘=F Given

2 arctan # − ln|•| = F Let • = † + and # = . We then get

•= 2 +2 and # =
G
† w
:
. We will need these two quantities
later
1 1 ln • =
G
• and -arctan -O .. =
„
#− •=0
# +1 • „
3
•
O
„ wO
Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

1 − 1 + Substitute • = † + and • =
+ ,− / 0=0
† + 2† + 2 +2
4
G
- . +1
† w
− +
then simplify.
Substitute # = and # =
:
− =0
+ +
and
simplify.
− − +
=0
+
5 Combine the left-hand side into one fraction

6 − − + =0 Multiply both sides by +

7 + = − Add + from both sides

− +
=
+ original equation back, so arctan - . −
8 Divide both sides by . We got the

lnŽ† + Ž = F is indeed a solution.

2. Find solutions to = w√

We can multiply both sides by \ + † ] and use the substitution =# …

No. STATEMENT REASON

=
+†
1 Given

1
=
1 +† 1 1 homogeneous by substituting = 1 and
2 Determine if the right-hand side is

1 =1
=
1 + †1
1
=
1 + 1†
=
+†

3 \ +† ] = Multiply both sides by \ + † ]

−\ +† ] =0
B. \ + † ] − =0
4 A. Subtract
A. \ + † ] from both sides
B. from both sides

# + # − \# + †# ] =0 =#
B. \# + †# ] − # + # =0 =# + #
5 A. Since is simpler, substitute
and

A. # + #−# − √# =0
B. # + √# −# − #=0
6 Multiply out all terms

# − √# =0
√# − #=0
7 A. Simplify the left-hand side
B.
Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

#− =0 √#
G G
√%
8 A. Divide both sides by
− #=0
G G
√%
B.

A. ‰ #−‰
G G
=F Integrate both sides. ‰ 0 = F
√%
9

‰ −‰ #=F
G G
√%
B.

A. 2√# − ln| | = F owG

B. ln| | − 2√# = F p o
= ‹k + 1 + F , k ≠ −1
10

ln| | + F , k = −1

Substitute # =
2• − ln| | = F
11
A.

B. ln| | − 2• = F

…or leave it as it is and use the substitution =#

No. STATEMENT REASON

=
+†
1 Given

1
=
1 +† 1 1 by substituting = 1 and = 1
2 Determine if the right-hand side is homogeneous

1
=
1 + †1
1
=
1 + 1†
=
+†
# # = # and =#+
%
#+ =
+ √#
3 Substitute

# #
#+ =
+ √#
4 Simplify the right-hand side

# #
#+ =
1 + √#
# # Subtract # from both sides
= −#
1 + √#
5

# # − #\1 + √#]
=
1 + √#
6 Combine the right-hand side into one fraction.

# −#√#
=
1 + √#
# −#√#
=
√# + 1
Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

1 √# + 1
=
# −# √#
7 Get the reciprocals of both sides

1 √# + 1 Multiply both sides by #

= #
−# √#
8

1 ’+1 Let ’ = √#. This means ’ = #, ’ = # √#, then

= 2’ ’
−’ ’ 2 = # and 2’ ’ = #
9

1 2’ + 2
= ’
−’
10 Simplify the right-hand side

1 2 2 Split G:“:“ into :“ + :“

“w “
= −+ + , ’
’ ’
11

1 2 2 Add -“ + “ . ’ from both sides

“
+ ’+ ’=0
’ ’
12

1 2 2 Integrate both sides. ‰ 0 = F

p +p ’+p ’=F
’ ’
13

2 owG
ln| | + 2 ln|’| − =F
’ p o
= ‹k + 1 + F, k ≠ −1
17

ln| | + F , k = −1
2 Substitute back ’ = √#
ln| | + 2 lnŽ√#Ž − =F
√#
18

2 Substitute back # =
ln| | + 2 ln Œ• Œ − =F
19

Simplify 2 ln ‚• ‚ by using log O = log O

ln| | + ln ‘ ‘ − 2& = F
20

and rewrite − ”
as −2•
•
A

ln| | − 2& = F
21 Combine into one integral

To check, we verify the solutions by differentiating and see if we get an equality/identity or the original differential
equation.

First solution:

No. STATEMENT REASON

2& − ln| | = F
1 Solution to be verified
Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

1 − 1
+ ,− =0
2 Differentiate both sides and simplify the left-hand side
•
− 1
− =0
†

− −†
=0
3 Combine the left-hand side into one fraction.
†
−\ +† ]
=0
†

4 −\ +† ] =0 Multiply both sides by †

5 \ +† ] = Add \ + † ] to both sides

Divide both sides by \ + † ]

=
+†
6 . We got the original
equation back, so 2• − ln| | = F is indeed a solution.

Second solution:

No. STATEMENT REASON

ln| | − 2& = F
1 Solution to be verified

1 1 −
− + ,=0
2 Differentiate both sides and simplify the left-hand side
•
1 −
− =0
†

† − +
=0
3 Combine the left-hand side into one fraction.
†
\ +† ] −
=0
†

4 \ +† ] − =0 Multiply both sides by †

5 \ +† ] = Add to both sides

Divide both sides by \ + † ]

=
+†
6 . We got the original
equation back, so 2• − ln| | = F is indeed a solution.

3. Find solutions to =2 +

No. STATEMENT REASON

1 =2 + Given
Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

1 =2 1 +1
1 = 21 + substituting = 1 and = 1
2 Determine if the right-hand side is homogeneous by

=2 +
−2 + =0
B. 2 + − =0
3 A. Subtract
A. 2 + from both sides
B. from both sides

# + # −2 # + =0 = # and =
B. 2 # + − # + # =0 # + #
4 A. Since is simpler, substitute

A. # + # − 2# −2 =0
B. 2# +2 −# − #=0
5 Multiply out all terms

#−# −2 =0
B. # +2 − #=0
6 A. Simplify the left-hand side

#− #+2 =0 Combine all # and

#+2 − #=0
7 A. terms
B.
G
#−
G
=0 #+2
%w
8 A. Divide both sides by
− #=0
G G
%w
B.

A. ‰
G
#−‰
G
=F Integrate both sides. ‰ 0 = F
%w
9

‰ −‰ #=F
G G
%w
B.

A. ln|# + 2| − ln| | = F 1
p • = ln|•| + F
B. ln| | − ln|# + 2| = F •
10

11 A. ln ‘ + 2‘ − ln| | = F Substitute back # =

B. ln| | − ln ‘ + 2‘ = F

A
w Use the property of logarithms: log O − log O =
ln Œ” Œ=F
log O - .
12
A.

ln ŒA Œ=F
w
B.
”

A
w
= F OR ln ‘ ‘=F
w
expression inside the logarithm. Since e} is still a
”
13 Get the exponential of both sides OR simplify the

constant, we can still use F on the right-hand side.

A.

A = F OR ln ‘ ‘=F
w w
B.
”

=F
w

is performed here. Since e} is still a constant, we can

14 A. Whichever was not performed first in statement 13

=F still use F on the right-hand side.

w
B.

To check, we verify the solutions by differentiating and see if we get an equality/identity or the original differential
equation.
Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

First solution:

No. STATEMENT REASON

+2
ln • •=F
1 Solution to be verified

−
+ , − - + 2.
• –=0
2 Differentiate both sides and simplify the left-

+2
hand side

− − −2
— ˜=0
+2
−2 −2
— ˜=0
+2
−2 −2
=0
+2
3 −2 −2 =0 Multiply both sides by +2

4 −2 + =0 Factor −2 from −2 −2
=2 + Add 2 +
A
5 to both sides. We got the
w
original equation back, so ln Œ” Œ = F is
indeed a solution.

Second solution:

No. STATEMENT REASON

ln • •=F
1 Solution to be verified

+2

−
+ 2 - + 2. − + ,
• –=0
2 Differentiate both sides and simplify the left-

- + 2.
hand side.

1 - + 2. −- − .
— ˜=0
- + 2.

1 +2 − +
— ˜=0
- + 2.
+2 − +
=0
+2
+2 − +
=0
+2
2 +2 −
=0
+2
Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

3 2 +2 − =0 Multiply both sides by +2

4 2 + − =0 Factor 2 from 2 +2

5 =2 + Add to both sides. We got the original

equation back, so ln ŒA Œ = F is indeed a

w
”
solution.

Third solution:

No. STATEMENT REASON

+2
=F
1 Solution to be verified

−
+ , − - + 2.
=0
2 Differentiate both sides and simplify the left-hand side.

− − −2
=0

−2- . −2
=0
−2 −2
=0

3 −2 −2 =0 Multiply both sides by

4 −2 + =0 Factor −2 from −2 −2
=2 + Add 2 +
A
5 to both sides. We got the original
w
equation back, so ”
= F is indeed a solution.

Fourth solution:

No. STATEMENT REASON

=F
+2
1 Solution to be verified
Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

−
- + 2. − + ,
=0
2 Differentiate both sides and simplify the left-hand side.

- + 2.
+2 − +
=0
- + 2.
2- . +2 −
=0
- + 2.
2 +2 −
=0
- + 2.

2 +2 − =0
3 Multiply both sides by - + 2.

4 2 + − =0 Factor 2 from 2 +2

=2 +
back, so A = F is indeed a solution.
5 Add to both sides. We got the original equation
w
”

Fifth solution:

No. STATEMENT REASON

+2
ln ‚ ‚=F
1 Solution to be verified

+ 2 − +2 2
/ 0=0
+2
2 Differentiate both sides and simplify the left-
2

1 +2 −2 −4
hand side.

/ 0=0
+2
1 −2 −2
/ 0=0
+2
1 −2 −2
+ ,=0
+2
−2 −2
=0
+2

3 −2 −2 =0 Multiply both sides by +2

4 −2 + =0 Factor −2 from −2 −2

=2 + Add 2 +
original equation back, so ln ‘ ‘ = F is
w
5 to both sides. We got the

indeed a solution.
Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

Sixth solution:

No. STATEMENT REASON

ln Œ Œ=F
+2
1 Solution to be verified

+2 +2 − 2 +2
/ 0=0
+2
2 Differentiate both sides and simplify the left-

1 2 +4 − −2
hand side.

/ 0=0
+2
1 2 +2 −
/ 0=0
+2
1 2 +2 −
+ ,=0
+2
2 +2 −
=0
+2
3 2 +2 − =0 Multiply both sides by +2

4 2 + − =0 Factor 2 from 2 +2
=2 +
equation back, so ln ‘ ‘ = F is indeed a
5 Add to both sides. We got the original

w
solution.

Seventh solution:

No. STATEMENT REASON

+2
=F
1 Solution to be verified

+2 − +2 2
=0
2 Differentiate both sides and simplify the left-hand side.
2

3 −2 −2 =0 Multiply both sides by

4 −2 + =0 Factor −2 from −2 −2

=2 + Add 2 +
= F is indeed a solution.
w
5 to both sides. We got the original
equation back, so

Eighth solution:

No. STATEMENT REASON

=F
+2
1 Solution to be verified
Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

+2 − 2 +2
=0
+2
2 Differentiate both sides and simplify the left-hand side.

2 +4 − −2
=0
+2
2 +2 −
=0
+2
2 +2 −
=0
+2
3 2 +2 − =0 Multiply both sides by +2

4 2 + − =0 Factor 2 from 2 +2
=2 +
back, so A = F is indeed a solution.
5 Add to both sides. We got the original equation
w
”

4. Find solutions to + − =0

No. STATEMENT REASON

1 + − =0 Given

\ 1 + 1 1 ] − 1 =0
1 +1 −1 =0 substituting = 1 and = 1
2 Determine if the right-hand side is homogeneous by

1 + −1 =0
+ − =0
# +# − # + # =0 = # and =
# + #
3 Since is simpler, substitute

4 # +# −# − #=0 Multiply out all terms

5 # − #=0 Simplify the left-hand side

1 1 #
− #=0
#
6 Divide both sides by

1 1 Integrate both sides. ‰ 0 = F

p −p #=F
#
7

1 owG
ln| | + =F
# p o
= ‹k + 1 + F, k ≠ −1
8

ln| | + F , k = −1

Substitute # =
ln| | + =F
9

To check, we verify the solution by differentiating and see if we get an equality/identity or the original differential
equation.

No. STATEMENT REASON

1 ln| | + =F Solution to be verified

Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

1 −
+ =0
2 Differentiate both sides and simplify the left-hand side

+ −
=0

+ − =0
back, so ln| | + = F is indeed a solution.
3 Multiply both sides by . We got the original equation

+ − =0 +
equation back, so ln| | + = F is indeed a solution.
4 Factor from . We got the original

Find the solution to - + eA . − eA = 0, 1 =0

” ”
5.

No. STATEMENT REASON

1 - + e . − e = 0, 1 =0 Given

U U
+1 + 1 eU , − 1 eU =0
substituting = 1 and = 1
2 Determine if the right-hand side is homogeneous by

1- + e . −1 e =0
- + e . − e =0

+ # e% − e% # + # =0 Since − eA is simpler, substitute = # and =

”

# + #
3

4 + # e% − # e% − e% # = 0 Multiply out all terms

5 1 − e% # = 0 Simplify the left-hand side

1
− e% # = 0
6 Divide both sides by

1 Integrate both sides. ‰ 0 = F

p − p e% # = F
7

8 ln| | − e% = F ‰ „ • = ln|•| + F and ‰ e„ • = e„ + F

G

9 ln| | − e = F Substitute # =

10 N
ln|1| − eG = F Substitute = 0 and =1

11 F = −1 ln 1 = 0 and eN = 1

ln| | − e = −1

To check, we verify the solution by differentiating the particular solution and see if we get an equality/identity or
we get back the original differential equation.

No. STATEMENT REASON

1 ln| | − e = −1 Particular solution

Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

1 −
−e + ,=0
2 Differentiate both sides and simplify the left-hand side

1 e e
− + =0

+ e e
— ˜ − =0

- + e . − e =0
equation, so ln| | − e = −1 is indeed a solution.
”
3 Multiply both sides by . We got back the original
A
Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

MODULE 7 EXACT DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

EXACT DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

An exact differential equation is a differential equation with the form i , +j , = 0 such that:

i j
=

™
Remember this symbol ? This represents a partial derivative. In the test for exactness above, means the partial
derivative of the multivariable function i , with respect to , which means that we only differentiate any
š
terms with respect to and treat as though it were a constant. Similarly, for , we treat as though it were a
constant.

=
From the general form above, if the differential equation passes the test for exactness
™ š
, the equation is an exact differential equation. We then get the general solution as follows:

No. STATEMENT REASON

1 i , +j , =0 Given
› Determine a function › , =
=i ,
2
i , =j ,
such that

›
=j ,
and

›=i ,
›=j ,
3 Multiply both sides of the first equation by and
both sides of the second equation by

› = pi , +m
4 Integrate both sides. For the first equation, since

› = pj , +l only which we’ll call m . For the second

we treated as a constant, we add a function of

add a function of only which we’ll call l .

equation, since we treated as a constant, we

pi , +m = pj , +l
determine m and l
5 Equate both integrals to one another to

v = p œ r, u •r + t u = p ž r, u •u + q r
determined value of m or l
6 The general solution is either form with the

EXAMPLES OF EXACT DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

1. Find a solution to 5 + 4 + 4 −8 =0

No. STATEMENT REASON

1 5 +4 + 4 −8 =0 Given
Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

i Get the partial derivative of 5 + 4 with respect to

=4
and the partial derivative of 4 − 8
2

j
with respect

=4
to and test to see if they are equal. This differential
equation is exact.
› Determine a function › such that =i ,
=5 +4
3
=j ,
and
›
=4 −8

› = 5 +4
› = 4 −8
4 Multiply the first equation by and the second
equation by

5 › =p 5 +4 Integrate both sides

› =p 4 −8

5 Use the integral rules ‰ =

•Ÿ‡
+ F, k ≠ −1,
›= +4 +m
o

2
owG
6

› =4 −2 2
+l ‰ C! = C‰! , and ‰ ! ±y =
‰! ± ‰y
5
+4 +m =4 −2 2
+l
2
7 Equate both equations in the previous statement to each
other

5 Subtract 4 from both sides. The function containing

+m = −2 2
+l
2 alone is equated to l
8

5 alone is equated to m .
and the function containing

l = ,m = −2 2
2
5 Substitute m = −2 2
+4 −2 2
=F
2 l =
9 into the first equation or

Then set › = F
into the second equation in statement 6.

To check, we verify the solution by differentiating and see if we get an equality/identity or the original differential
equation.

No. STATEMENT REASON

5
+4 −2 2
=F
2
1 Solution to be verified

5 +4 + −8 =0
5 +4 +4 −8 =0
2 Differentiate both sides and simplify the left-hand side.

5 +4 + 4 −8 =0
+4 −2 = F is
3 Collect all and terms together. We got back the
2
original differential equation, so
indeed a solution.

2. Find a solution to + 2 +4 =0

No. STATEMENT REASON

Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

1 3 + 2 +4 =0 Given
i Get the partial derivative of 3
=6
and the partial derivative of 2 + 4 with respect to
2 with respect to

j
=6
and test to see if they are equal. This differential
equation is exact.
› Determine a function › such that =i ,
=3
3
=j ,
and
›
=2 +4

›=3
›= 2 +4
4 Multiply the first equation by and the second
equation by

5 › = p3 Integrate both sides

› = p2 +4

›= +m Use the integral rules ‰ o

=
•Ÿ‡
+ F, k ≠ −1,
›= + 2+l owG
6
‰ C! = C‰! , and ‰ ! ±y =
‰! ± ‰y

7 +m = + 2
+l Equate both equations in the previous statement to each
other
m = 2
+l
l = 0, m = alone is equated to l
8 Subtract from both sides. The function containing
2
alone is equated to m .
and the function containing

+ 2
=F Use the second equation without the +l
there was no function of purely ) and set › to F
9 (since

To check, we verify the solution by differentiating and see if we get an equality/identity or the original differential
equation.

No. STATEMENT REASON

1 + 2
=F Solution to be verified

2 3 +2 +4 =0 Differentiate both sides and simplify the left-hand side.

3 + 2 +4 =0
+ 2 = F is indeed
3 Collect all and terms together. We got back the
original differential equation, so
a solution.

3. Find a solution to sin − sin + cos + cos − =0

No. STATEMENT REASON

1 sin − sin + cos + cos − =0 Given

i Get the partial derivative of sin −
= cos − sin
sin with respect to and the partial
2
Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

j derivative of cos + cos − with

= cos − sin respect to and test to see if they are
equal. This differential equation is exact.
› Determine a function › such that =
= sin − sin
3

› i , =j ,
= cos + cos −
and

› = sin − sin
› = cos + cos −
4 Multiply the first equation by and the
second equation by

5 › = p sin − sin Integrate both sides

› = p cos + cos −

›= sin + cos + m
‰ = + F, k ≠ −1,
6 Use the following integral rules:
•Ÿ‡
›= cos + sin − +l
o
2 owG
‰ C! = C‰! , ‰! ±
y = ‰! ±‰y
‰ sin • • = − cos • + F, and
,

‰ cos • • = sin • + F

sin + cos + m = cos + sin − +l

2
7 Equate both equations in the previous
statement to each other

Subtract sin and cos from both

m =− +l
2
8

equated to l
sides. The function containing alone is

l = 0, m =− containing alone is equated to m .

2
and the function

cos + sin − =F +l
2
9 Use the second equation without the

purely ) and set › to F

(since there was no function of

To check, we verify the solution by differentiating and see if we get an equality/identity or the original differential
equation.

No. STATEMENT REASON

cos + sin − =F
2
1 Solution to be verified

2 cos − sin + sin + cos − =0 Differentiate both sides and simplify the
left-hand side.

3 sin − sin + cos + cos − =0 Collect all and terms together.

+ 2 = F is indeed a
We got back the original differential
equation, so
solution.
Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

4. Find a solution to 3 +e + + e −2 =0

No. STATEMENT REASON

1 3 +e + + e −2 =0 Given
i Get the partial derivative of 3 +e
=3 +e
2

j + e − 2 with
with respect to and the partial

=3 +e
derivative of
respect to and test to see if they are
equal. This differential equation is exact.
› Determine a function › such that =
=3 +e
3

› i , =j ,
= + e −2
and

›= 3 +e
›= + e −2
4 Multiply the first equation by and
the second equation by

5 › = p3 +e Integrate both sides

›=p + e −2

›= + e +m
›= + e − +l
‰ o = + F, k ≠ −1,
6 Use the following integral rules:
•Ÿ‡

owG
‰ C! = C‰! , ‰! ±
y = ‰! ±‰y
‰ e„ • = e„ + F
, and

7 + e +m = + e − +l Equate both equations in the previous

statement to each other

m =− +l and e from both sides.

l = 0, m =−
8 Subtract

equated to l
The function containing alone is

containing alone is equated to m .

and the function

+ e − =F
+l
9 Use the second equation without the

purely ) and set › to F

(since there was no function of

To check, we verify the solution by differentiating and see if we get an equality/identity or the original differential
equation.

No. STATEMENT REASON

1 + e − =F Solution to be verified

2 3 + + e + e −2 =0 Differentiate both sides and simplify the

left-hand side.
Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

3 3 +e + + e −2 =0 Collect all and terms together and

simplify. We got back the original

+ e − = F is indeed a
differential equation, so

solution.

5. Find the solution to + + 2 + −1 = 0, 1 =1

No. STATEMENT REASON

1 + + 2 + −1 = 0, 1 =1 Given
i +
=2 +2
2 Get the partial derivative of

j derivative of 2 + − 1 with respect

with respect to and the partial

=2 +2 to and test to see if they are equal.

This differential equation is exact.
› Determine a function › such that =
= +2 +
3

› i , =j ,
=2 + −1
and

›= +2 +
›= 2 + −1
4 Multiply the first equation by and
the second equation by

5 ›=p +2 + Integrate both sides

› = p2 + −1

›= + + +m
3 ‰ = + F, k ≠ −1,
6 Use the following integral rules:
•Ÿ‡
o
›= + − +l owG
‰ C! = C‰!
‰! ±y = ‰! ±
, and

‰y

+ + +m = + − +l
3
7 Equate both equations in the previous
statement to each other

+m =− +l
3
8 Subtract and from both sides.

equated to l
The function containing alone is

l = ,m =− containing alone is equated to m .

3
and the function

Substitute m = − into the first

+ + − =F
3 equation or l =
9
"

Then set › = F
in statement 6.

1 = 1 and = 1 into the

+1+1−1=F
3
10 Substitute
equation
Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

4
F=
3
11 Simplify the left-hand side

4
+ + − =
3 3

To check, we verify the general solution by differentiating the particular solution and see if we get an
equality/identity or the original differential equation.

No. STATEMENT REASON

4
+ + − =
3 3
1 Solution to be verified

2 + 2 + + +2 − =0 Differentiate both sides and simplify the

left-hand side.
+2 + + 2 + −1 =0
+ + 2 + −1 =0
3 Collect all and terms together and

+ + −
simplify. We got back the original
"

= is indeed a solution.
differential equation, so
2
Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

MODULE 8 INEXACT DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

INEXACT DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

Recall that an exact differential equation has the form i , +j , = 0 such that =
™ š
. Not all
differential equations are exact differential equations, and many of them have:

i j
≠

These are called inexact differential equations and must be transformed into an exact differential equation so
we could get a solution.

INTEGRATING FACTORS

To transform inexact differential equations into exact differential equations, we must multiply both sides with
respect to a factor known as an integrating factor. The integrating factor, which we’ll call , can be found in
three ways:

Case of Integrating Factors IF THEN

1 i j
+ − ,=!
j
Case 1 The integrating factor is of the
form
− divided by j = e‰ ¡
™ š
This is attempted first
(The result of
is a function of purely )
1 i j
+ − ,=y
i
Case 2 The integrating factor is of the
form
− divided by i = e: ‰ ¢
™ š
This is attempted when Case 1 fails
(The result of
is a function of purely )
1 i j
+ − ,≠!
j
Case 3 The integrating factor is of the

1 i j
form
= O P
This is attempted when the first two
+ − ,≠y
i
and 3 are determined
cases fail
This may also be attempted first Where
(No function of a single variable
i j j 3i
from:

− = −
results)

and 3 such that =

Note that if our differential equation does not contain any transcendental functions, we can also just multiply both
O P ™ š
sides by and determine . This basically applies the integrating factor for Case 3
(whether the equation actually does fit only Case 3 or fits any of the first two cases) before determining and 3. If
O P
we use this alternative method and run into any contradictions along the way, then is not of the form and
may be transcendental.
Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

As we will see later in Module 12, many inexact differential equations satisfying the first two cases can be solved
using other methods, such as solving them as a variable-separable differential equation, homogeneous differential
equation, as a linear differential equation, or as a Bernoulli differential equation, the last two of which will be
discussed in the next two modules.

EXAMPLES OF INEXACT DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

1. Find a solution to − + =0

No. STATEMENT REASON

1 − + =0 Given
i − with
= −1
2 Get the partial derivative of

j
respect to and the partial derivative
=1 of with respect to and test to see if

i j š
they are equal. This differential equation
− = −2 is not exact. We then subtract from
™
as we will need this one.

1 i j 2
+ − ,=−
j
3 We will try to determine which case fits
this equation. Here, we see that this fits

= e‰ :
e‰ ¡
Case 1, so our integrating factor is
G
= e: ‰
.

= e: £d| |
= e£dŽ Ž
¤

= :
Alternate Method:
Multiply both sides by O P and solve
for and 3. For an equation to equate
Alternate Method: to 0, all coefficients must equal 0.
Ow P
− O PwG
+ OwG P
=0
i
=3 Ow P:G
− 3+1 O P
We will get the same integrating factor

j
with either method

= +1 O P

3 Ow P:G − 3 + 1 O P
= +1 O P

3 Ow P:G
− 3+1 O P− +1 O P
=0
3 Ow P:G − 3 + + 2 O P
=0
3=0
3+ +2=0

+2=0
= −2
= :

1
-1 − . + =0
equation by :
4 Multiply both sides of the original
Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

i 1 Get the partial derivative of 1 −

=−
5 with

j 1
=−
G
respect to and the partial derivative
of with respect to and test to see if
they are equal. This differential equation
is now exact.
› Determine a function › such that =
=1−
6

› 1 i , =j ,
=
and

7 › = -1 − . Multiply the first equation by and

1
›=+ ,
the second equation by

8 › = p1 − Integrate both sides

1
›=p

›= + +m
‰ o = + F, k ≠ −1,
9 Use the following integral rules:
•Ÿ‡

›= +l owG
‰ C! = C‰! , ‰! ±
y = ‰! ±‰y
‰¥ • = ln|•| + F
G
, and

10 + +m = +l Equate both equations in the previous

statement to each other

+m =l
l = ,m =0
11 Subtract from both sides. The

to l
function containing alone is equated

alone is equated to m .
and the function containing

+ =F
+m
12 Use the first equation without the

purely ) and set › to F

(since there was no function of

We check the solution and see if we get the original equation back.

No. STATEMENT REASON

1 + =F Solution to be verified

−
+ =0
2 Differentiate both sides and simplify the left-hand side.

+ − =0
− + =0
+ +
3 Collect all and terms together and simplify. We
"

− = is indeed a solution.
got back the original differential equation, so
2
Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

2. Find a solution to 2 − + + −2 =0

No. STATEMENT REASON

1 2 − + + −2 =0 Given
i
=2 −4 +2
2 − + with respect to
2 Get the partial derivative of

j
=2
− 2 with respect to and
and the partial derivative of

i j
− =2 −4 =2 −2
test to see if they are equal.

š
This differential equation is not
exact. We then subtract
™
from as we will need this
one.
1 i j
+ − ,=2
j
3 We will try to determine which
case fits this equation. Here, we
= e‰
=e H integrating factor is e‰ ¡
see that this fits Case 1, so our
. If
we try the alternate method, we
will run into contradictions.
Alternate Method:
2 Ow −2 O Pw +2 OwG PwG + Ow P −2 O PwG =0
i
=2 3+1 Ow P −2 3+2 O PwG +2 3+1 OwG P

j
= +2 OwG P −2 O:G PwG

2 3+1 Ow P
− 2 3 + 2 O PwG + 2 3 + 1 OwG P

= + 2 OwG P − 2 O:G PwG

2 3+1 Ow P − 2 3 + 2 O PwG + 2 3 + 1 OwG P − +2 OwG P

+ 2 O:G PwG = 0
2 3+1 Ow P − 2 3 + 2 O PwG + 23 − OwG P +2 O:G PwG =0
23 + 2 = 0
−23 − 4 = 0
23 − = 0
2 =0
=0
However, 3 does not have one definite value, thus:
≠ O P

2e − 2e + 2e + e − 2e =0
original equation by e
4 Multiply both sides of the
Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

i
= 2e − 4e + 2e
2e − 2e + 2e
5 Get the partial derivative of

j
= 2e + 2e − 4e = 2e − 4e + 2e
derivative of e − 2e
with respect to and the partial

with respect to and test to

see if they are equal. This
differential equation is now
exact.
› Determine a function › such
= 2e − 2e + 2e
=i , =
6

›
=e − 2e j ,
that and

› = 2e − 2e + 2e
›= e − 2e
7 Multiply the first equation by
and the second equation by

› = pe − 2e
8 Integrate both sides of the
second equation

›= e − e +l
‰ = + F, k ≠ −1,
9 Use the following integral rules:
•Ÿ‡
o
owG
‰ C! = C‰!
and‰ ! ±y =
,

‰! ± ‰y
› Differentiate › partially with
= 2e + 2e − 2e +l
respect to and solve for l
10

2e − 2e + 2e = 2e + 2e − 2e +l
0=l
l = FG
respect to . We use FG here so
11 Integrate both sides with

we

›= e − e + FG Substitute l with FG ,
› − FG = e − e subtract FG from both sides, and
12

set › − FG to F
e − e =F

We check the solution and see if we get the original equation back

No. STATEMENT REASON

1 e − e =F Solution to be verified
2 e +2 e + e − 2 e +2 e =0
2 e +2 e + e −2 e −2 e =0
2 Differentiate both sides and

2 +2 + −2 −2 =0
simplify the left-hand side.
Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

2 −2 +2 + −2 =0
2 − + + −2 =0
3 Collect all and terms
together and simplify. We got

equation, so e − e =
back the original differential

F is indeed a solution.

3. Find a solution to + sin + sin + cos =0

No. STATEMENT REASON

1 + sin + sin + cos =0 Given

i +
= cos + sin + cos = cos + + sin
sin with respect to and the
2 Get the partial derivative of

j partial derivative of − 2 + 3 − 20
= sin

i j
with respect to and test to see if they
− = cos + š
are equal. This differential equation is
not exact. We then subtract from
™
as we will need this one.

1 i j cos +
+ − ,=
j sin + cos
3 We will try to determine which case fits

1 i j cos +
this equation. Here, we see that this fits
+ − ,= = cot
i sin + e: ‰ ¢
Case 2, so our integrating factor is

= e: ‰ efg
. We cannot use the

= e: £d|bcd
alternate method here as
| transcendental functions are present
G
= e bcd = e£d|ebe
£d‘ ‘ |

1
= = csc
sin
+ + + cot =0
csc
4 Multiply both sides of the equation by

i Get the partial derivative of + with

=1
5

j of + cot with respect to and test

respect to and the partial derivative
=1
to see if they are equal. This differential
equation is now exact.
› Determine a function › such that =
= +
6

› i , =j ,
= + cot
and

›= +
›= + cot
7 Multiply the first equation by and
the second equation by

8 ›=p + Integrate both sides

› = p + cot
Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

›= + +m
2 ‰ o = + F, k ≠ −1,
9 Use the following integral rules:
•Ÿ‡

›= + ln|sin |+l owG

‰ C! = C ‰! , ‰! ±
y = ‰! ±‰y
‰ cot • • = ln|sin • | + F
, and

+ +m = + ln|sin |+l
2
10 Equate both equations in the previous
statement to each other

+m = ln|sin |+l
2
11 Subtract from both sides. The

to l
function containing alone is equated

l = ,m = ln|sin | alone is equated to m .

2
and the function containing

Substitute m = ln|sin | into the

+ + ln|sin |=F
2 first equation or l =
12
into the

set › = F
second equation in statement 9. Then

We check the solution and see if we get the original equation back

No. STATEMENT REASON

+ + ln|sin |=F
2
1 Solution to be verified

2 + + + cot =0 Differentiate both sides and simplify the left-hand side.

+ + + cot =0
+ sin + sin + cos =0 sin to get back the original differential equation and
3 Collect all and terms and multiply both sides by

verify that + + ln|sin | = F is indeed a solution.

4. Find a solution to + 2 +3 − 20 =0

No. STATEMENT REASON

1 + 2 +3 − 20 =0 Given
i
=
2 Get the partial derivative of with

j of − 2 + 3 − 20 with respect to
respect to and the partial derivative
=4

i j
and test to see if they are equal. This
− = −3 š ™
differential equation is not exact. We
then subtract from as we will
need this one.
1 i j −3
+ − ,=
j 2 + 3 − 20
3 We will try to determine which case fits

1 i j 3
this equation. Here, we see that this fits
+ − ,=−
i e: ‰ ¢
Case 2, so our integrating factor is
.

=e
‰
Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

G
=e
‰

= e £d| |
= e£dŽ Ž
"
Alternate Method:
Multiply both sides by O P and solve
=
for and 3. For an equation to equate
to 0, all coefficients must equal 0.
Alternate Method:
OwG PwG
+ 2 Ow P
+3 O Pw
− 20 O P
=0
i
We will get the same integrating factor
= 3+1 OwG P with either method

j
= 2 +2 OwG P
+3 O:G Pw
− 20 O:G P

=2 +2 OwG P
+3 O:G Pw
− 20 O:G P

3+1 OwG P
=2 +2 OwG P
−3 O:G Pw
+ 20 O:G P

3+1 OwG P
−2 +2 OwG P
−3 O:G Pw
+ 20 O:G P
=0
3−2 −3 OwG P +3 O:G Pw − 20 O:G P =0

3−2 −3=0
3 =0
−20 = 0

3−3 =0
3=3
=
4 2
+ 2 +3 − 20 =0 Multiply both sides of the equation by

i Get the partial derivative of 2 with

=4
5

j of 2 + 3 − 20 with respect to
respect to and the partial derivative
=4
and test to see if they are equal. This
differential equation is now exact.
› Determine a function › such that =
= 2
6

› i , =j ,
= 2 +3 − 20
and

›= 2

›= 2 +3 − 20
7 Multiply the first equation by and
the second equation by

8 ›=p 2 Integrate both sides

› = p2 +3 − 20

2
›= +m
2 ‰ o = + F, k ≠ −1,
9 Use the following integral rules:
•Ÿ‡
2 ¦ owG
›= + −5 2
+l ‰ C! = C‰!
2 2
, and
Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

‰! ±y = ‰! ±
‰y
2 2 ¦
+m = + −5 2
+l
2 2 2
10 Equate both equations in the previous
statement to each other
¦ ˆ

m = −5 2
+l
2
11 Subtract from both sides. The

to l
¦
l = 0, m = −5
function containing alone is equated
2
2 alone is equated to m .
and the function containing

2 ¦
+ −5 2
=F +l
2 2
12 Use the second equation without the

purely ) and set › to F. (OPTIONAL)

(since there was no function of
2
+ ¦
− 10 2
=F Multiply both sides by 2 to simplify, and
since 2C is still a constant, “absorb” 2
into C.

We check the solution and see if we get the original equation back

First solution

No. STATEMENT REASON

2 ¦
+ −5 2
=F
2 2
1 Solution to be verified

2 2
+2 +3 − 20 =0 Differentiate both sides and simplify the
left-hand side.
2
+ 2 +3 − 20 =0
+ 2 + 3 − 20 =0
3 Collect all and terms and divide
both sides by to get back the original

+ −5 = F is indeed a
differential equation and verify that
ˆ §
2

solution.

Second solution

No. STATEMENT REASON

1 2
+ ¦
− 10 2
=F Solution to be verified

2 2 2
+4 +6 − 40 =0 Differentiate both sides and simplify the
left-hand side.

2 2
+ 4 +6 − 40 =0
+ 2 + 3 − 20 =0 both sides by 2 to get back the
3 Collect all and terms and divide

2
+ ¦ − 10 2 = F is indeed a
original differential equation and verify
that
solution.
Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

5. Find a solution to + + =0

No. STATEMENT REASON

1 + + =0 Given
i Get the partial derivative of +
=1+3
2

j
with respect to and the
=1 partial derivative of with respect

i j
to and test to see if they are
− =3 š
equal. This differential equation is
not exact. We then subtract
™
from as we will need this one.

1 i j 3
+ − ,=
j +
3 We will try to determine which

1 i j
case fits this equation. Here, we
+ − ,=3
i integrating factor is O P .
see that this fits Case 3, so our

i j j 3i
− = −
3 +
3 = −
Alternative Method:
Multiply both sides by O P and
3 = −3−3 solve for and 3. For an equation
3 = −3 −3
−3 = 0
to equate to 0, all coefficients

−3 = 3
must equal 0.

3 = −3
+3 =0
We will get the same integrating
= −3
factor with either method

= : :

Alternate Method:
O PwG
+ Ow Pw
+ OwG P
=0
i
= 3+1 O P
+ 3+3 Ow Pw

j
= +1 O P

3+1 O P
+ 3 + 3 Ow Pw
= +1 O P

3+1 O P
+ 3+3 Ow Pw
− +1 O P
=0
3− O P
+ 3 + 3 Ow Pw
=0

3− =0
3+3 =0
3 = −3
−3 − =0
= −3
= : :
Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

1 1
+ + 1, + =0
by : :
4 Multiply both sides of the equation

i 2
=−
+ 1 with respect to and the
G
5 Get the partial derivative of

j 2
"

=− partial derivative of
G
" with
respect to and test to see if they
are equal. This differential
equation is now exact.
› 1 Determine a function › such that
= +1
=i , =j ,
6

› 1
=
and

1
›=+ + 1,
7 Multiply the first equation by

1
›=+ ,
and the second equation by

1
›=p +1
8 Integrate both sides

1
›=p

1
›=− + +m
2 ‰ = + F, k ≠ −1,
9 Use the following integral rules:
•Ÿ‡
o
1 owG
›=− +l ‰ C! = C‰!
2
‰! ±y = ‰! ±
, and

‰y
1 1
− + +m =− +l
2 2
10 Equate both equations in the
previous statement to each other

+m =l G

l = ,m =0
11 Add to both sides. The

equated to l
function containing alone is
and the function

m .
containing alone is equated to

1
− + =F +m
2
12 Use the first equation without the

function of purely ) and set › to

(since there was no

F.

We check the solution and see if we get the original equation back

No. STATEMENT REASON

1
− + =F
2
1 Solution to be verified
Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

1 1
− + =0
2
2 Differentiate both sides and simplify the left-hand side.

1 2 +2
/ 0+ =0
2 2 2

1 1
+ + =0

1 1
+ + 1, + =0
3 Collect all and terms and multiply both sides by

+ + =0 verify that −
G
+ = F is indeed a solution.
to get back the original differential equation and

6. Find a solution to + 2
+ =0

No. STATEMENT REASON

1 + 2
+ =0 Given
i Get the partial derivative of +
=1+2 2
2
2

j
with respect to and the
=1 partial derivative of with respect

i j
to and test to see if they are
− =2 2
š
equal. This differential equation is
not exact. We then subtract
™
from as we will need this one.

1 i j 2 2
+ − ,=
j +
3 We will try to determine which
2
1 i j
case fits this equation. Here, we
+ − ,=2
i integrating factor is O P .
see that this fits Case 3, so our

i j j 3i
− = −
3 + 2
2 2
= −
Alternative Method:
Multiply both sides by O P and
2 2
= −3−3 2
solve for and 3. For an equation
2 2
= −3 −3 2

−3 = 0
to equate to 0, all coefficients

−3 = 2
must equal 0.

3 = −2
+2 =0
We will get the same integrating
= −2
factor with either method

= : :

Alternate Method:
O PwG
+ Ow2 Pw
+ OwG P
=0
i
= 3+1 O P
+ 3+2 Ow2 PwG

j
= +1 O P

3+1 O P
+ 3+2 Ow2 PwG
= +1 O P
Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

3+1 O P
+ 3+4 Ow2 PwG
− +1 O P
=0
3− O P
+ 3 + 2 Ow2 PwG
=0

3− =0
3+2 =0
3 = −2
−2 − =0
= −2
= : :

1 1
+ + , + =0
by : :
4 Multiply both sides of the equation

i 1 G
+
=−
5 Get the partial derivative of

j 1
=− G
with respect to and the
partial derivative of with
respect to and test to see if they
are equal. This differential
equation is now exact.
› 1 Determine a function › such that
= +
=i , =j ,
6

› 1
=
and

1
›=+ + ,
7 Multiply the first equation by

1
›=+ ,
and the second equation by

1
›=p +
8 Integrate both sides

1
›=p

1
›=− + +m
3 ‰ o = + F, k ≠ −1,
9 Use the following integral rules:
•Ÿ‡

1 owG
›=− +l ‰ C! = C‰!
‰! ±y = ‰! ±
, and

‰y
1 1
− + +m =− +l
3
10 Equate both equations in the
previous statement to each other
G
+m =l
3
11 Add to both sides. The function

l
containing alone is equated to
l = ,m =0
3 alone is equated to m .
and the function containing

1
− + =F +m
3
12 Use the first equation without the
(since there was no
Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

function of purely ) and set › to

F.

We check the solution and see if we get the original equation back

No. STATEMENT REASON

1
− + =F
3
1 Solution to be verified

+
+ ,+ =0
2 Differentiate both sides and simplify the left-hand side.

1 1
+ + =0

1 1
+ + , + =0
3 Collect all and terms and multiply both sides by

+ 2
+ =0
verify that − + = F is indeed a solution.
to get back the original differential equation and
G "

7. Find solutions to − + 2
− =0

No. STATEMENT REASON

1 − + 2
− =0 Given
i Get the partial derivative of + +
=2 −1
2

j derivative of − with respect to and

with respect to and the partial
=2 2
−1

i j
test to see if they are equal. This
− =2 −2 2
š ™
differential equation is not exact. We
then subtract from as we will
need this one.

1 i j 2 −2 2
+ − ,=
j −
3 We will try to determine which case fits
2

1 i j 2 −2 2
this equation. Here, we see that this fits

+ − ,=
i − O P
Case 3, so our integrating factor is

i j j 3i
.

− = −
2
− 3 −
2 −2 2
= −
Alternative Method:
Multiply both sides by O P and solve
2 −2 2
= − −3 2
+3 for and 3. For an equation to equate
2 −2 2
= 3− + 2
−3
3− =0
to 0, all coefficients must equal 0.

= −2
−3 = 2 We will get the same integrating factor

3 = −2
with either method

= : :

Alternate Method:
Ow Pw
− O PwG
+ Ow Pw2
− OwG P
=0
Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

i
= 3+2 Ow PwG
− 3+1 O P

j
= +2 OwG Pw2
− +1 O P

3+2 Ow PwG
− 3+1 O P

= +2 OwG Pw2
− +1 O P

3+2 Ow PwG
− 3+1 O P
− + 2 OwG Pw2

+ +1 O P
=0
3+2 Ow PwG
+ −3 O P
− + 2 OwG Pw2
=0

3+2=0
−3 = 0
+2=0
= −2
3 = −2
= : :

1 1
+ − , ++ − , =0 : :
4 Multiply both sides of the equation by

i 1 −
G
=
5 Get the partial derivative of

j 1
= −
G
with respect to and the partial
derivative of with respect to
and test to see if they are equal. This
differential equation is now exact.
› 1 Determine a function › such that =
= −
6

› 1 i , =j ,
= −
and

1
›=+ − ,
7 Multiply the first equation by and

1
›=+ − ,
the second equation by

1
›=p −
8 Integrate both sides

1
›=p −

1
›= + +m
2 ‰ = + F, k ≠ −1,
9 Use the following integral rules:
•Ÿ‡
o
1 owG
›= + +l ‰ C! = C‰!
3
‰! ±y = ‰! ±
, and

‰y
1 1
+ +m = + +l
2 3
10 Equate both equations in the previous
statement to each other
Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

G
+m = +l
2 3
11 Subtract from both sides. The

to l
function containing alone is equated
l = ,m =
2 3 alone is equated to m .
and the function containing

1 Substitute m =
"

+ + =F
2 3
12 into the first
equation or l =
equation in statement 9. Then set › =
into the second

F
We check the solution and see if we get the original equation back

No. STATEMENT REASON

1
+ + =F
2 3
1 Solution to be verified

+
− + =0
2 Differentiate both sides and simplify the left-hand side.

− − + 2
=0
− + 2
− =0
+ + = F is indeed a
3 Collect all and terms. We got back the original
G "
differential equation, so
solution.

INTEGRABLE COMBINATIONS

You might notice that we frequently encounter certain products or quotients of , , and together. These
combinations can be derivatives of certain products, quotients, or functions of and known as integrable
combinations. These can be used to find integrating factors or just make finding solutions to inexact differential
equations faster.

Here are some common exact differentials:

= +
- .=
1.
:
2.
- .=
:
3.

-arctan - .. =
:
w
4.

-arctan - .. =
:
w
5.

ln =
w
6.

- ln - .. = -arcoth - .. = -artanh - .. =
G w :
: :
7.

- ln - .. = -arcoth - .. = -artanh - .. =
G w :
: :
8.

- .=
:G w
o:G •¤‡ •
9.

- ln + .=
G w
w
10.
Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

- .=
:G w
o:G w •¤‡ w •
11.
12. O P
= O:G P:G
+3

EXAMPLES OF INTEGRABLE COMBINATIONS

1. Find solutions to + + − =0

No. STATEMENT REASON

1 + + − =0 Given
i + +
= 1+2
2 Get the partial derivative of

j derivative of − with respect to and

with respect to and the partial
= −1
test to see if they are equal. This
differential equation is not exact.

3 + + − =0 Rearrange the left-hand side of the

given differential equation

/ + 10 + + ,=0
- .=
:
4 If we divide both sides by , we have
an exact differential .

+ +arctan + ,, = 0 That doesn’t seem to be a good idea,

-arctan - .. =
:
but there is another exact differential
− -arctan - .. = 0 that fits:
w
.
We can also use -− arctan - .. =
: :
w

+ arctan + , = F
rules ‰ 0 = F, ‰ = + F, k ≠
5 Integrate both sides. Use the integral
•Ÿ‡
o
owG
−1, and ‰ ! ±y =
− arctan + , = F
‰! + ‰y

To check, we differentiate the solution and see if we can get back the original equation or arrive at an identity.

First solution:

No. STATEMENT REASON

1 + arctan + , = F Solution to be verified

−
+ =0
+
2 Differentiate both sides and simplify the left-hand side.

+ + − =0
+ + − =0
+ arctan - . = F is
3 Collect all and terms. We got back the original
differential equation, verifying that
indeed a solution.
Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

Second solution:

No. STATEMENT REASON

1 − arctan + , = F Solution to be verified

−
− =0
+
2 Differentiate both sides and simplify the left-hand side.

−
+ =0
+
+ + − =0

+ + − =0
− arctan - . = F is
3 Collect all and terms. We got back the original
differential equation, verifying that
indeed a solution.

2. Find solutions to + + − =0

No. STATEMENT REASON

1 + + − =0 Given
i Get the partial derivative of + +
= 1+2
2

j derivative of − with respect to and

with respect to and the partial
= −1
test to see if they are equal. This
differential equation is not exact.

3 + + − =0 Rearrange the left-hand side of the

given differential equation

/ + 10 + + ,=0
- .=
:
4 If we divide both sides by , we have
an exact differential .

+ +arctan + ,, = 0 That doesn’t seem to be a good idea,

-arctan - .. =
:
but there is another exact differential
− -arctan - .. = 0 that fits:
w
.
We can also use -− arctan - .. =
: :
w
Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

+ arctan + , = F
2 rules ‰ 0 = F, ‰ = + F, k ≠
5 Integrate both sides. Use the integral
•Ÿ‡
o
owG
−1, and ‰ ! ±y =
− arctan + , = F ‰! + ‰y
2

+ 2 arctan + , = F

− 2 arctan + , = F

First solution:

No. STATEMENT REASON

+ arctan + , = F
2
1 Solution to be verified

−
+ =0
+
2 Differentiate both sides and simplify the left-hand side.

+ + − =0
+ + − =0
+ arctan - . = F is
3 Collect all and terms. We got back the original
differential equation, verifying that
indeed a solution.

Second solution:

No. STATEMENT REASON

− arctan + , = F
2
1 Solution to be verified

−
− =0
+
2 Differentiate both sides and simplify the left-hand side.

−
+ =0
+
+ + − =0

+ + − =0
− arctan - . = F is
3 Collect all and terms. We got back the original
differential equation, verifying that
indeed a solution.

Third solution:

No. STATEMENT REASON

1 + 2 arctan + , = F Solution to be verified

Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

−
2 + 2+ ,=0
+
2 Differentiate both sides and simplify the left-hand side.

+ + − =0
+ + − =0
+ arctan - . = F is
3 Collect all and terms. We got back the original
differential equation, verifying that
indeed a solution.

Fourth solution:

No. STATEMENT REASON

1 − 2 arctan + , = F Solution to be verified

−
2 −2 =0
+
2 Differentiate both sides and simplify the left-hand side.

−
+ =0
+
+ + − =0

+ + − =0
− arctan - . = F is
3 Collect all and terms. We got back the original
differential equation, verifying that
indeed a solution.
Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

MODULE 9 LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

A linear differential equation is a differential equation with the form i , +j , = 0 such that it
can be written into either of the following forms:

+l =m

+l =m

The two forms above are known as the standard forms of a linear differential equation. The first is for a differential
equation linear in , the second a differential equation linear in . Much like with inexact differential equations,
they are solved using integrating factors and these integrating factors are derived as follows.

No. STATEMENT REASON

+l
1 Left-hand side of the standard form of
the linear differential equation

+l

+ l
2 Let be the integrating factor we need.
Multiply both sides by

+ l

= +
3 Note that we are one term away from
having an exact differential, specifically

= +
that of or

This means, we must equate l

= l
or l
© ©
4 to
to
= l

= l
= l
5 Multiply both sides by the differentials
of their respective independent
variables
1
=l
6 Divide both sides by

1
=l
Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

ln| | = p l + FG
7 Integrate both sides with respect to

being integrated using the rule ‰ • =

G
their differentials, the left-hand side

ln| | = p l + FG „
ln|•| + F, using FG as our constant of
integration. We then subtract FG from
both sides but still use +FG as −FG is
still a constant.

8 = e‰ ª w}‡ Get the exponential of both sides

= e‰ ª w}‡

= e‰ ª e}‡ = F e‰ ª Use the law of exponents nwo =

n o
9
= e‰ ª e}‡ = F e‰ ª
and notice that e}‡ is still a constant, so
to simplify the right-hand side,

we equate that to F .

10 = e‰ ª Since the integrating factor will be

= e‰ ª
the constant F will end up divided out
multiplied to both sides of the equation,

anyway, so equate F = 1

Now that we know the integrating factors, we can now derive the solutions as follows:

No. STATEMENT REASON

+l =m
11 Standard form of the linear differential
equation

+l =m

e‰ ª +l e‰ ª =m e‰ ª
12 Multiply both sides by the integrating
factor

e‰ ª +l e‰ ª =m e‰ ª

\ e‰ ª ]=m e‰ ª
\ e‰ ª ]
13 The left-hand side is an exact

\ e‰ ª ]
differential, specifically:
\ e‰ ª ]=m e‰ ª and

e‰ ª = pm e‰ ª +F
14 Integrate both sides with respect to
for the first equation and with respect

e‰ ª = pm e‰ ª +F
to for the second equation

is solved by e‰ ª = ‰m e‰ ª
From statement 14 above, we have now found the solutions to a linear differential equation. A differential

e = ‰m e
equation linear in , and a differential equation linear in is solved by
‰ª ‰ª .
Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

EXAMPLES OF LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

1. Find a solution of + = sin

No. STATEMENT REASON

+ = sin
1 Given

e‰ ª = pm e‰ ª +F
2 This differential equation is
linear in , so use this formula

Let l = 1 and m =
e‰ = p sin e‰ +F
sin
3

e = p sin e +F p1 =
4

Integrate by parts: Let • =

sin and # = e
5 Sign u dv

+ • = sin #=e

- • = cos #=e

• = − sin
+ p# = e

p sin e = sin e − p cos e +F

p sin e = sin e − +cos e + p sin e ,+F

2 p sin e = sin e − cos e +F

e
p sin e = + , sin − cos +F
2
eH
e = + , sin − cos +F
2
6 Substitute the resulting integral
into statement 4

7 2 e = e sin − cos +F Multiply both sides by 2

To check, we differentiate the solution and see if we can get back the original equation or arrive at an identity.

No. STATEMENT REASON

1 2 e = e sin − cos +F Solution to be verified

2 e + 2e = sin e + cos e − cos e − sin e
2 e + 2e = sin e + cos e − cos e + sin e
2 Differentiate both sides
2 e + 2e = sin e + cos e − cos e + sin e
and simplify.
2e +2 e = 2 sin e
Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

+ = sin
2e
3 Divide both sides by
. We got back the

2 e = e sin −
original equation, so

cos + F is indeed a
solution

2. Find a solution to −2 =6

No. STATEMENT REASON

−2 = 6
1 Given

2
− =6
2 Divide both sides by

e‰ ª = pm e‰ ª +F
3 This differential equation is linear in ,
so use this formula

4
e: ‰ = p6 e‰ : +F Let l = − and m =6

1
e: £d| |
= p6 e: £d| |
+F p • = ln|•| + F
•
5

log O = log O
e£dŽ = p6 e£dŽ +F
6 ¤ Ž ¤ Ž

e£d =
= p6 +F
7

=6 +F pC =C +F
8

To check, we differentiate the solution and see if we can get back the original equation or arrive at an identity.

No. STATEMENT REASON

1 = 6 +F Solution to be verified

−2
=6
2 Differentiate both sides and simplify the left-hand side.
2
1 2
− =6
"
−2 =6
3
equation, so 2 e = e sin − cos + F is indeed
Multiply both sides by . We got back the original

a solution
Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

3. Find a solution to − +3 =0

No. STATEMENT REASON

1 − +3 =0 Given

−+ +3 ,=0
2 Divide both sides by

Add 3 to both sides

− =3
3

e‰ ª = pm e‰ ª +F
4 This differential equation is linear in ,
so use this formula

Let l = − and m =3
G G G
e = p3 e +F
5 :‰ :‰

1
e: £d| |
= p 3 e: £d| |
+F p • = ln|•| + F
•
6

log O = log O
e£dŽ = p 3 e£dŽ +F
7 ¤‡ Ž ¤‡ Ž

e£d =
= p3 +F
8

=3 +F pC =C +F
9

To check, we differentiate the solution and see if we can get back the original equation or arrive at an identity.

No. STATEMENT REASON

1 =3 +F Solution to be verified

−
=3
2 Differentiate both sides and simplify the left-hand side.

1
− =3
− =3
− −3 =0
− +3 =0
differential equation, so = 3 + F is indeed a solution.
3 Collect all and terms. We got back the original

4. Find a solution to 1 + − = +

No. STATEMENT REASON

1+ − = +
1 Given

Divide both sides by 1 +

− =
1+
2
Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

e‰ ª = pm e‰ ª +F
3 This differential equation is linear in , so use
this formula

e
:‰
Gw =p e
:‰
Gw +F Let l =− and m =
Gw
4

Gw G Gw G
e =p e +F
:‰ : :‰ :
5 Gw Gw Gw Gw Add and subtract 1 to
Gw
and split into two
fractions
G G
e =p e +F p! ±y = p! ± py
:‰ w‰ :‰ w‰
6 Gw Gw

G G nwo
= n o
e: ‰ e = p e: ‰ e +F
7 ‰Gw ‰Gw

‰1 = and ‰ • = ln|•| + F
G
e: e£d|Gw |
= p e: e£d|Gw |
+F „
8

9
1+ e: = p 1+ e: +F e£d =

+ = p e: + e: +F
e e
10 Simplify both sides of the equation

+ = p e: +p e: +F
e e
11 Split the integral on the right-hand side into
two.

12 Sign u1 dv1 Integrate by parts.

+ •G = #G = e:

- •G = 1 #G = −e:

p e: = − e: − e:

Sign u2 dv2

+ • = # = e:

- • =2 # = −e:

• =2
p # = e:
+

• =0
p +p # , = −e:
-

p e: =− e: − 2 e: − 2e:

+ = − e: − e: − e: − 2 e: − 2e: + F
e e
13 Substitute the results in statement 12 into
statement 11
1 2 2
+ + + + = −/
+ 0+F
e e e
e e e e
14 Simplify the right-hand side

3 3
+ = −/ + + 0+F
e e e e e
Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

+ +3+3 +
=F @” @” @”
e
15 Add , and to both sides.

To check, we differentiate the solution and see if we can get back the original equation or arrive at an identity.

No. STATEMENT REASON

+ +3 +3+
=F
e
1 Solution to be verified

e + + +3 +2 − + +3 +3+ e
=0
e
2 Differentiate both sides

+ + +3 +2 − + +3 +3+
=0
and simplify the left-

e
hand side.
+ + +3 +2 − − −3 −3 −
=0
e
+ − − −
=0
e
+ − − − =0

3 1+ − = + Add and to
1+ − = + both sides, then divide
both sides by . We
got back the original

= F is
equation, so
w w w w
@”
indeed a solution.

+ Q sec Z = cos Z
«
¬
5. Find a solution to

No. STATEMENT REASON

Q
+ Q sec Z = cos Z
Z
1 Given

This differential equation is linear in Q,

Qe‰ ª ¬ ¬
= p m Z e‰ ª ¬ ¬
Z+F
2
so use this formula.

Let l Z = sec Z and m Z = cos Z

Qe‰ b@e ¬ ¬
= p cos Z e‰ b@e ¬ ¬
Z+F
3

4 Qe£d|b@e ¬wghd ¬| = p cos Z e£d|b@e ¬wghd ¬| Z + F p sec Z Z = ln|sec Z + tan Z| + F

5
Q sec Z + tan Z = p cos Z sec Z + tan Z Z+F e£d =

cos Z sec Z = 1 and cos Z tan Z = sin Z

Q sec Z + tan Z = p 1 + sin Z Z+F
6

Q sec Z + tan Z = Z − cos Z + F ‰1 = + F and ‰ sin Z Z =

− cos Z + F
7

8 Q sec Z + Q tan Z = Z − cos Z + F Simplify the left-hand side

To check, we differentiate the solution and see if we can get back the original equation or arrive at an identity.
Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

No. STATEMENT REASON

1 Q sec Z + Q tan Z = Z − cos Z + F Solution to be verified

sec Z Q + Q sec Z tan Z Z + tan Z Q + Q sec Z Z = Z + sin Z Z
sec Z + tan Z Q + Q sec Z tan Z + sec Z Z = 1 + sin Z Z
2 Differentiate both sides and
1 + sin Z
Q + Q sec Z Z = Z
simplify.
sec Z + tan Z
1 + sin Z
Q + Q sec Z Z = Z
sec Z 1 + sin Z

1
Q + Q sec Z Z = Z
sec Z
Q + Q sec Z Z = cos Z Z
Q Divide both sides by Z. We
+ Q sec Z = cos Z
Z
3

equation, so Q sec Z +
got back the original

Q tan Z = Z − cos Z + F is
indeed a solution.

+ Q tan Z = sec Z
«
¬
6. Find a solution to

No. STATEMENT REASON

Q
+ Q tan Z = sec Z
Z
1 Given

This differential equation is linear in Q,

Qe‰ ª ¬ ¬
= p m Z e‰ ª ¬ ¬
Z+F
2
so use this formula.

Let l Z = tan Z and m Z = sec Z

Qe‰ ghd ¬ ¬
= p sec Z e‰ ghd ¬ ¬
Z+F
3

Qe£d|b@e ¬| = p sec Z e£d|b@e ¬| Z + F p tan Z Z = ln|sec Z| + F

4

e£d =
Q sec Z = p sec Z Z+F
5

6 Q sec Z = tan Z + F p sec Z Z = tan Z + F

To check, we differentiate the solution and see if we can get back the original equation or arrive at an identity.

No. STATEMENT REASON

1 Q sec Z = tan Z + F Solution to be verified

2 sec Z Q + Q sec Z tan Z Z = sec Z Z Differentiate both sides and simplify.

Q Divide both sides by sec Z Z. We got back the original
+ Q tan Z = sec Z
Z equation, so Q sec Z = tan Z + F is indeed a solution.
3
Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

Find the solution to cos + sin = 2 cos , - .=

X :G √ X
2
7.

No. STATEMENT REASON

cos + sin = 2 cos

1 Given

Divide both sides by cos

+ tan = 2 cos
2

e‰ ª = pm e‰ ª +F
3 This differential equation is linear in ,
so use this formula

Let l = tan and m = 2 cos

e‰ ghd = p 2 cos e‰ ghd +F
4

e£d|b@e |
= p 2 cos e|£d b@e |
+F p tan Z Z = ln|sec Z| + F
5

6 sec = p2 +F e£d =

sec = +F ‰ o =
•Ÿ‡
+ F, k ≠ −1 and
owG
7
‰ C! = C‰!

−15√2` =
X
=
:G √ X
sec - . = - . + F
32 4̀ 4̀
2
8 Substitute and

−15√2` `
X
\√2] = +F 2
32 16
9 Square on the right-hand side, and
evaluate sec - . = √2 on the left-hand
X
2
side
−15` ` :G √ X
by √2
= +F
16 16
10 Multiply

F = −` X
G¦
11 Subtract from both sides

12 sec = −` Substitute F with −`

To check, we differentiate the solution and see if we can get back the original equation or arrive at an identity.

No. STATEMENT REASON

1 sec = −` Solution to be verified

sec + sec tan =2
+ tan = 2 cos
2 Differentiate both sides and simplify the left-hand side.

efb
cos + sin = 2 cos
sec = − ` is indeed a solution
3 Multiply both sides by . We got back the original
equation, so
Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

MODULE 10 BERNOULLI DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

BERNOULLI DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

A Bernoulli differential equation is a differential equation with the form i , +j , = 0 such that
it can be written into either of the following forms:

+l =m o

+l =m o

These are similar to linear differential equations and in fact are solved like linear differential equations. The only
difference is a needed substitution. The solutions are derived as follows:

No. STATEMENT REASON

+l =m o
1 Standard form of a Bernoulli equation

+l =m o

Divide both sides by o for the first

:o
+l G:o
=m
equation and o for the second
2

:o
+l G:o
=m
equation

# = G:o Let # = G:o for the first equation and

# = 1−k :o
# = G:o
3

#
= :o
1−k
# = G:o
# = 1−k :o

#
= :o
1−k
1 #
+l #=m
1−k
4 Substitute the equivalences in statement

1 #
+l #=m
3 into statement 2

1−k
# Multiply both sides by 1 − k
+ 1−k l # = 1−k m
5

#
+ 1−k l # = 1−k m

# Define new functions › = 1 − k l and

+› #=-
- = 1−k m
6

#
+› #=-
Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

#e‰ = p- e‰ +F
#, so we now get these formulas
7 The differential equation is now linear in

#e‰ = p- e‰ +F

EXAMPLES OF BERNOULLI DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

1. Find a solution to + =

No. STATEMENT REASON

+ =
1 Given

:
:
+ =1
2 Divide both sides by

# # Let # = :
and # = −2 :
+ =1
−2 %
=
3 or
:
:

# 2
− # = −2
4 Multiply both sides by -2

#e‰ = p- e‰ +F
#, so we use this formula
5 The differential equation is now linear in

6
#e: ‰ = −2 p e: ‰ +F Let › = − and - = −2

‰ „ • = ln|•| + F and ‰ C! =
G
#e: £d| |
= −2 p e: £d| |
+F
C‰!
7

log O = log O
#e£dŽ = −2 p e£dŽ +F
8 ¤ Ž ¤ Ž

9
# :
= −2 p :
+F e£d =

# 2 owG
= +F p o
= + F, k ≠ −1
k+1
10

1 2 Substitute # = :
= +F
11

To check, we differentiate the solution and see if we can get back the original equation or arrive at an identity.

No. STATEMENT REASON

1 2
= +F
1 Solution to be verified
Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

−2 + 1
=−
2 Differentiate both sides and simplify.

+ 1
=
1 1 2
+ =
+ =

+ =
= + F is indeed a solution.
G
3 Divide both sides by . We got back the original
equation, so

2. Find a solution to + =e :

No. STATEMENT REASON

+ =e :
1 Given

+ =e
2 Multiply both sides by

Let # = and # = 3 =
%
+# =e
3
3 or

+ 3# = 3e
4 Multiply both sides by 3

#e‰ = p- e‰ +F
#, so we use this formula
5 The differential equation is now linear in

Let › = 3 and - = 3e
#e‰ = 3 p e e‰ +F
6

#e = 3 p e2 +F pC =C +F
7

3 2
#e = e +F p e„ • = e„ + F
4
8

3 2 Substitute # =
e = e +F
4
9 and simplify

To check, we differentiate the solution and see if we can get back the original equation or arrive at an identity.

No. STATEMENT REASON

3 2
e = e +F
4
1 Solution to be verified

3 e e +e = 3e2
e e +e = e2
2 Differentiate both sides and simplify.

e + e = e2
+ =e :
Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

+ =e :
got back the original equation, so e = e2 + F is
3 Divide both sides by and rearrange the equation. We
2
indeed a solution.

3. Find a solution to = −1

No. STATEMENT REASON

= −1
1 Given

− 1 by
= 2
−
2 Multiply

+ = 2
3 Add to both sides

2
:2
+ :
=
4 Divide both sides by

# Let # = :
and # = −3 :2
+# =
−3 %
=
5 or
:2
:

# Multiply both sides by −3

− 3# = −3
6

#e‰ = p- e‰ +F
#, so we use this formula
7 The differential equation is now linear in

Let › = −3 and - = −3
#e‰ : = −3 p e‰ : +F
8

#e: = −3 p e: +F pC =C +F
9

10 Sign u dv Integrate by parts

+ •= # = e:

•= e:
#=−
3
-

e: 1
#e: = −3 /− + p e: H 0 + F
3 3
e: 1
#e: = −3 /− − e: 0 + F
3 9

1
#e: = e: + e: +F
3
11 Simplify the right-hand side

1 Substitute # = :
e :
= e: + e: +F
3
12
Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

To check, we differentiate the solution and see if we can get back the original equation or arrive at an identity.

No. STATEMENT REASON

1
e :
= e: + e: +F
3
1 Solution to be verified

−3 e :2
e +e = e: − 3 e: − e:
−3 e :2
e +e = −3 e:
2 Differentiate both sides and simplify.

e :2
e +e = e:
e
: :
+ e
:2 :
= e:
:
+ :2 =
+ = 2
3 = 2
− Subtract from both sides,
= 2
− divide both sides by and factor

= −1
from the right-hand side. We got

e : = e: + e: + F is
G
back the original equation, so

indeed a solution.

4. Find a solution to + =

No. STATEMENT REASON

+ =
1 Given

− =−
2 Subtract and from both sides

:G
1 Divide both sides by −
− :
+ =
3

# # 1 Let # = :G
and # = − :
+ =
4

#e‰ = p- e‰ +F
#, so we use this formula
5 The differential equation is now linear in

G 1 G
Let › = and -
G
=
G
#e‰ =p e‰ +F
6

1 1
#e£d| | = p e£d| |
+F p • = ln|•| + F
•
7

1 e£d =
# =p +F
8

# = ln| | + F 1
p • = ln|•| + F
•
9

Substitute back # = :G
= ln| | + F
10
Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

To check, we differentiate the solution and see if we can get back the original equation or arrive at an identity.

No. STATEMENT REASON

1 = ln| | + F Solution to be verified

− 1
=
2 Differentiate both sides and simplify.

1 1
− =

− =
− =
− =−
+ =

+ =
differential equation, so = ln| | + F is indeed a
3 Divide both sides by . We got back the original

solution.

5. Find a solution to 3 1 + =2 −1

No. STATEMENT REASON

3 1+ =2 −1
1 Given

− 1 by 2
3 1+ =2 2
−2
2 Multiply

Add 2
3 1+ +2 =2 2
3 to both sides

2 : 2 2
1+
3 :2
+ =
1+ 1+
4 Divide both sides by

# 2# 2 Let # = :
and # = −3 :2
− + =
1+ 1+ − #=3 :2
5 or

# 2# 2 Multiply both sides by −1

− =−
1+ 1+
6

#e‰ = p- e‰ +F
#, so we use this formula
7 The differential equation is now linear in

2 Let › =− and - =−
#e = −p e +F
:‰ :‰
Gw Gw
1+
Gw Gw
8

G 1 G Let • = 1 + and • = 2
#e: ‰„ „
= − p e: ‰„ „
•+F
•
9

1 1
#e: £d|„| = − p e: £d|„| • + F p • = ln|•| + F
• •
10

1 log O = log O
#e£dŽ„ = − p e£dŽ„ Ž • + F
¤‡ Ž ¤‡

•
11
Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

1 e£d =
#• :G = − p •+F
•
12

# 1 owG
= +F p o
= + F, k ≠ −1
• • k+1
13

:
1 Substitute back • = 1 + and # =
= +F
1+ 1+
:
14

To check, we differentiate the solution and see if we can get back the original equation or arrive at an identity.

No. STATEMENT REASON

:
1
= +F
1+ 1+
1 Solution to be verified

−3 :2
1+ − :
2 −2
=
1+ 1+
2 Differentiate both sides and simplify.

−3 :2
1+ −2 : = −2
3 1+ +2 =2 2
3 1+ = 2 2−2
and factor 2
3 1+ =2 −1
3 Divide both sides by

=
from the right-hand side. We get back
¤"

Gw
the original equation, so
+ F is indeed a solution.
G
Gw
Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

REFERENCES

Books

Abell, M. L., & Braselton J. P. (2022). Introductory differential equations (4th ed.). Academic Press.

Bronson, R., & Costa, B. (2022). Schaum’s outlines: Differential equations (5th ed.). McGraw-Hill Education.

Capote, R., & Mandawe, J. (2007). Mathematics & basic engineering sciences. JAM Publisher.

Edwards, C. H., Penney, D. , & Calvis, D. (2021). Differential equations & linear algebra (4th ed.). Pearson.

Nagle, R. K., Saff, E. B., & Snider, A. D. (2018).

Zill, D. (2018). A first course in differential equations with modeling applications (11th ed.). Cengage Learning.

Online Sources

Course Hero (2021). Integrating factors. Paul’s Online Notes. [Link]

equations/first-order-equations/integrating-factors

Dawkins, P. (2020, September 18). Definitions. Paul’s Online Notes. [Link]

de/[Link]

Ferraren, J. [jay yu ef] (2020, November 3). D E by elimination of arbitrary constants [Video]. YouTube.

[Link]

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[Link]

Ferraren, J. [jay yu ef] (2020, November 3). Solution of a differential equation [Video]. YouTube.

[Link]
Prepared by: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

Ferraren, J. [jay yu ef] (2020, November 27). Inexact D E 1 [Video]. YouTube.

[Link]

Ferraren, J. [jay yu ef] (2020, December 1). Inexact D E (part 2 of 2) [Video]. YouTube.

[Link]

Ferraren, J. [jay yu ef] (2020, December 1). Integrable combinations [Video]. YouTube.

[Link]

Yu Jei Abat (2019, August 26). Differential equations – Families of curves solved problems [Video]. YouTube.

[Link]

Yu Jei Abat (2019, September 7). Differential equations – Variable separable DE solved problems [Video]. YouTube.

[Link]

Yu Jei Abat (2019, October 2). Non exact DE made exact using integrating factor – Differential equations [Video].

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