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NP6

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7 views17 pages

NP6

Uploaded by

Sourin Naskar
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We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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With a, = 0.72 MeV and a,,,, = 23 MeV, it follows that the first two terms in the numerator are negligible, and so A 1 2 ee 3.31 me 2 V+ 147, / gym G2) 2, For small A, Z,., = A/2 as expected, but for large A, Zp, < 4/2. For heavy” nuclei, Equation 3.31 gives Z/A = 0.41, consistent with observed values for. heavy stable nuclei. : : _ Figure 3.18 shows a typical odd-A decay chain for A = 125, leading to the stable nucleus at Z = 52. The unstable nuclei approach stability by converting a neutron into a proton or a proton into a neutron by radioactive B decay. Notice how the decay energy (that is, the mass difference between neighboring isobars) increases as we go further from stability. For even A, the pairing term gives two parabolas, displaced by 26. This permits two unusual effects, not seen in odd-A decays: (1) some odd-Z, odd-N nuclei can decay in either direction, converting a neutron to a proton or a proton to a neutron; (2) certain double B decays can become energetically possible, in which the decay may change 2 protons to 2 neutrons. Both of these effects are discussed in Chapter 9. 3.4 NUCLEAR ANGULAR MOMENTUM AND PARITY In Section 2.5 we discussed the coupling of orbital angular momentum ¢ and spin s to give total angular momentum j. To the extent that the nuclear potential is central, Zand s (and therefore j) will be constants of the motion, In the quantum’ mechanical sense, we can therefore label every nucleon with the corresponding | quantum numbers ¢, s, and~j. The total angular momentum of a nucleus containing A nucleons would then be the vector sum of the angular momenta of all the nucleons. This total angular momentum is usually called the nuclear Spin” and is represented by the symbol J. The angular momentum J has all of the usual properties of quantum mechanical angular momentum vectors: J? = WIL + 1) and I, = mh (m= -1I, +I), For many applications involving angular momentnm the nuelene k, ee ow as ee components of ¢ and the 2s + 1 components of s. No fields of sufficient strength to break the coupling of the nucleons can be produced. We therefore observe the! behavior of J as if the nucleus were only a single “spinning” particle. For this reason, the spin (total angular momentum) J and the corresponding spin quan- tum number J are used to describe nuclear states. To avoid confusion, we will always use J to denote the nuclear spin; we will use j to represent the total angular momentum of a single nucleon. It will often be the case that a single valence particle determines all of the nuclear’ properties in that case, J = j. In other cases, it may be necessary to consider two valence, particles, in which case J = j, + j,, and several different resultant values of. £ may be possible. Sometimes the odd particle and the remaining core of nucleons. each contribute to the angular momentum, with J = Iparticte + Score’ One important restriction on the allowed values of J comes from considering the possible z components of the total angular momentum of the individual, nucleons. Each j must be half-integral (4, 3, 3...) and thus its only possible z components are likewise half-integral (+4, +3h, +4h,.,.). If we have an even number of nucleons, there will be an even number of half-integral components, with the result that the z component of the total J can take only integral values. This requires that / itself be an integer. If the number of nucleons is odd, the total z component must be half-integral and so must the total [. We therefore Tequire the following rules: odd-A nuclei: J = half-integral even-A nuclei: 7 = integral ee a a ee tive) even-Z, even-N nuclei, all have spin-0 ground states. This is evidence for thé nuclear pairing force we discussed in the previous section; the nucleons couple together in. spin-0 pairs, giving a total I of zero. As a corollary, the ground state’ spin of an odd-A nucleus must be equal to the j of the odd proton or neutron. We discuss this point further when we consider the nuclear shell model in Chapter 5. Along with the nuclear spin, the parity is also used to label nuclear states. The parity can take either + (even) or — (odd) values. If we knew the wave function of every nucleon, we could determine the duclear parity by multiplying together the parities of each of the A nucleons, ending with a result 7 either + or —: 1 =, --- m4. However, in practice no such procedure is possible, for we generally cannot assign a definite wave function of known parity to every nucleon. Like the spin /, we regard the parity 7 as an “overall” property of the whole nucleus. It can be directly measured using a variety of techniques of nuclear decays and reactions. The parity is denoted by a + or — superscript to the nuclear spin, as /*. Examples are 0*, 2~, 3”, 3*. There is no direct theoretical relationship between J and 7; for any value of J, it is possible to have either 7 = + or m= —. ~_ Ft Nuclean. angular Ta an aati Py oa ——— LplucCews > Nuc@eona — apin V2, cengular momentum. _ lero), angulas. momentum a atlas nciclenss — vi Ea) . ee [T= Zhi = 2a + Ai Epes eT im J koden a > angelag: Seg gromortin T > sbin (Total Nucdcar) De Tote angular momentum of dhe -s Nuc leur: aes oulenmost ( oo )= Jonexmost an _ me A omen) Se comes from. the qufeamost nucleons , cone nuclem acknall th aouanse, themselb pain wise 30 thak their net _arralas momentum hercomes 20710 o the evenalJ an momentury _puset [Link] the emes}- Shel\s nuclem = Oies % ane momen additive + ~ongulase eye we : odd A nwedl?t —s T= halle integeal even Fy nue eli > f= Tnbegra) » = nNucke; tx gE ber even ~ even ee = ven maw no. Nucker can te edudied by Uding externeh eu fe int. > Bren if EN interactions coeakes than © or they can etudy Rome prop: oF nuceeun dinturbing. Experiments y Sten - Grerlack exp. D eemon e eck 3» Microwave mpechoncopy. NNR > PY AMUICAL HIOTICIS aft GIstlsst I WHaApler 10. The simplest distributions of charges and currents give’ only the\ “west: order} fnultipole fields. A spherical charge distribution gives only a monopole (Coulomb): field; the higher order fields all vanish. A ‘circular current loop gives: only -a° magnetic dipole field. Nature has not been arbitrary in the construction of nuclei; if a simple, symmetric structure (consistent with the nuclear interaction) is! possible, then nuclei tend to acquire that structure. It is therefore. usually’ necessary to measure or calculate only the lowast order multipole moments. to: characterize the electromagnetic properties of the nucleus. Another restriction on the multipole moments comes about from the symmetry ° of the nucleus, and is directly related to the parity of the nuclear states. Each’ electromagnetic multipole moment has a parity, determined by the behavior of the multipole operator when r > —r. The parity of electric moments is (—1)*,. where L is the order of the moment (L = 0 for monopole, L = 1 for dipole, L = 2 for quadrupole, etc.); for magnetic moments the parity is (—1)*+1. When’ we compute the expectation value of a moment, we must evaluate an integral of the form fy*Oy dv, where © is the appropriate electromagnetic operator. The’ parity of y itself is not important; because y appears twice in the integral, whether » > + or y > —yw does not change the integrand. If, however, © has. odd parity, then the integrand is an odd function of the coordinates and must vanish identically. Thus all odd-parity static multipole moments must vanish—elec- tric dipole, magnetic quadrupole, electric octupole (L = 3), and so on. a The monopole electric moment is just the net nuclear charge Ze. The next nonvanishing moment is the magnetic dipole moment p. A circular loop carrying current i and enclosing area A has a magnetic moment of magnitude |p| = if the current is caused by a charge e, moving with speed v in a circle of radius r (with period 27r/v), then e e lal = @aryay”” oe Im (3.32) where |¢| is the classical angular momentum mor. In quantum mechanics, we! operationally define the observable magnetic moment to correspond to the direction of greatest component of ¢; thus we can take Equation 3.32 directly’ into the quantum regime by replacing ¢ with the expectation value relative to the | axis where it has maximum projection, which is m,h with m,= +¢. Thus eh pase (3.33) where now ¢ is the angular momentum quantum number of the orbit. The quantity eh/2m is called a magneton. For atomic motion we use the electron mass and obtain the Bohr magneton , = 5.7884 X 10~> eV/T. Putting in the proton mass we have the nuclear magneton by = 3.1525 x 10-8 eV/T. Note that 1 charge densily a pastity oh clectzie riomenta = (-4y4 fos” monopole , L=0 fox dipole , ded (gz) for qudwopole, b= 2 (32%s*) 3 paxity ob raanelic moments = ey No_monnpate toe mognetic moment compuke the “expeclation value of 6, y= [9 [Link] Tf 6 Gs. odd uede_pavd Fy then this _inlezed) will be odd wrdese pasty 80 Ankepoal become zero ox Vanish. TT 6 & We wd egy Tae a wil suswive, ae Wiignéhic’-chipode momentum, = i (rr?) Bo, tts eh my —————_ arn ot a ; — 7 ey : Ms Mg-e _ whese ae 2 Bohai Plagnetoy oy nuclear’ magneto == gS SF TROT oy = : a - prota er amd = 152510 F evr Cs Merz Ma 80, (eer (Un << He ok. oe Neots aw =. ofemic. i Bes Pw dum) [4t Chom _orbiclad ang. or moméidun) Gy —> g- haetoa. Syd yo prot 9420 fou raw on (ny chame) _ Bue to intinsie_asbin oh muctonus BE aew 9s > sbin-g- feck. BL H Be 2 foo € (- theortical value) [Dirac eg] Js= 2:0023 fos e~ (experimental valuia) al al Gaa Date__/__y $e _90= 2 (theovtieal value) fos prolm “Phe en 0t = 055856912 +O Op (Rxb vale) [Prof peooeett exp valle) mnesho 23:6 tem ©) Chee —— NucGoun io_not_efemencary Gio €~ hud dbey bv oubot change dn d-value due to imbernal shuchie, ob brobm “and neu =) Quark Medd. a) at Electic quadaopdla moment 2 @8 = e (sz x) ex _pasiticle _ moves with -sbhesicat aymmetsic then, €-6 = ely (st w).y-dv “HE fon proton €B acl GX GEG av foo spherically ay mmebric. | scht yt} gaa 2 ye eget S then, sziwhs 3xx% 92 +, [@6=0 tox a [e6=0 | peor proton ce = Ee The particle, moves in Oo blat suxhace a Ne bey plane) fe Z=0o _—— : @6= e(stey— ~ = e(o-) £6 = 2 (sz sty = e( avr) S28 = 2.285] a Ob reeset : oO 2. Fe os

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