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ESA Notes

Aeronautical Engineering (Anna University)

Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university

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EXPERIMENTAL
STRESS ANALYSIS
AE8605

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AE8605 EXPERIMENTAL STRESS ANALYSIS LTPC

3003
OBJECTIVE
To study the various experimental techniques involved for measuring displacements, stresses,
strains in structural components.

UNIT I Extensometers and displacement sensors 8

Principles of measurements, Accuracy, Sensitivity and range of measurements. Mechanical,
Optical Acoustical and Electrical extensometers and their uses, Advantages and disadvantages,
Capacitance gauges, Laser displacement sensors.

UNIT II Electrical Resistance Strain Gauges 12

Principle of operation and requirements, Types and their uses, Materials for strain gauge.
Calibration and temperature compensation, cross sensitivity, Wheastone bridge and potentiometer circuits
for static and dynamic strain measurements, strain indicators Rosette analysis, stress gauges, load cells,
Data acquisition, six component balance.

UNIT III Photoelasticity 11

Two dimensional photo elasticity, Concept of light – photoelastic effects, stress optic law,
Transmission ohotoelasticity, Jones calculus,Plain and Circular polariscopes, Interpretation of fringe
pattern, Calibration pf photoelastic materials, Compensation and separation techniques, Introduction to
three dimensional photo elasticity.

UNIT IV Brittle coating and Moire techniques 7

Relation between stresses in coating and specimen, use of failure theories in brittle coating, Moire
method of strain analysis.

UNIT V Non – Destructive Testing 7

Fundamentals of NDT, Acoustic Emission Technique, Radiography, Thermography, ultrasonic,
Eddy current testing, Fluorescent penetrant testing.
TOTAL: 45 periods

TEXT BOOKS
1. Dally, J.W., and Riley, W.F., “Experimental Stress Analysis”, McGraw-Hill Inc., New York,
1998.

2. Srinath, L.S., Raghava, M.R., Lingaiah, K., Garagesha, G., Pant B., and Ramachandra,
K., “Experimental Stress Analysis”, Tata McGraw-Hill, New Delhi, 1984.
3. Sadhu singh, “ Experimental stress analysis” Khanna Publishers, New Delhi 1996.

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UNIT I

Extensometers and displacement sensors

Experiment:

The special observation mode to confirm or something doubt 801.

Stress analysis:

It is an Engineering discipline that determines the stress in materials & structures

subjected to static or dynamic forces (or) loads.

Aim of the analysis: To determine whether the [element or collection of elements]

“STRUCTURE” can safely with stand the specified forces.

Normally the safety load can be measured using F.O.S [factor of safety]
ultimate stress
=
maximum allow the stress

This FO.S. given to design engineering for the purpose of design. From the F.O.S the
design Analyst calculate design

ultimate tensile stress

“Design factor “ =
Maximum calculator tensile stress

Types of load acting on a structure:

∗Tension
∗Compression
∗Shear Design factor is got by use of these variables
∗Torsion
∗Bending

Software Used By Design Engg

∗ Pro - Mechanica
∗ Analysis
∗ Misc software
∗ Nastron
∗ Rohrz [analysis software]

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∗ Caesar II

1. What is measurement?

The process of obtaining the magnitude of a quantity such as length or mass relative to a
unit of measurement such as meters or kilogram.

∗ The act of measuring or the process of being measured [used]

∗ The system of measuring

System & unit is:

→ International System of units

→ Imperial system
→ Metric system

TYPES OF MEASUREMENT:

Generally two measurements

1) VECTOR’S : have an magnitude [an amount] & a direction

2) SCALAR’S : have an magnitude but have no direction.

On the basis of S.I units the measure divided & classified into following,
 Linear [length or distance]
 Mass [weight]
 Volume
 Temperature
All measuring instruments have calibrations. These are markings or division in
measuring tool.

Linear:
Linear measurements are made using a Metric stick or Metric Ruler.

Measured in meter centimeter millimeter

↓ ↓ ↓
m cm mm
Mass:
Mass measurements are made using a balance

There are several kinds of balance,

o Triple beam balance
o Dial – a gram balance

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o Electric / digital balance

o Analytical balance
Measured in gram, kilograms, centigrams, milligrams.

Volume:

The volume of any solid, liquid, gas, plasma or vacuum is how much 3-D space it occupies
Measured in cubic meters, cubic centimeter liters, milliliters.

Temperature:

Temperature measurement using modern scientific thermometers & temperature scales.

Measured in Fahrenheit, Kelvin, celcius.

Principles of measurement:

The techniques of measurement are of immense importance in most facets of scientific

research & human civilization.

Computation with decimals frequently involves the addition or subtraction of numbers do

not have the same number of decimal places.

Estimation:

Estimation is the calculated approximation of a result which is usable even if input data
may be incomplete or uncertain. It can be computed precisely.

Precision:

The Measurement of a precision depends upon how precisely the instrument is marked.
It is important to realize that precision refers to the size of the smallest division on the scale.

Simply we can say, that one instrument is more precise than another does not imply that
the less precise instrument is poorly manufactured.

The precision of measurement system also called reproducibility or repeatability

⇓
It is degree to which repeated measurement under unchanged conditions show the same
result’s.

Reproducibility:

It is one of the main principles of the scientific method & refers to the ability of a test or
experiment to be accurately reproduced.
Repeatability:

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It is the variation in measurement taken by a single, person or instrument on the same

item & under the same conditions.
Accuracy:

The accuracy of measurement depends upon the relative size of the probable error.

The Accuracy of a measurement system is the degree of closeness of measurements of a

quantity to its actual [true] value.

The measurement system is valid if it is both accurate & precise.

No of true positives + no of true negatives
ACCURACY =
no of true positives & false positives + false negatives + true negatives
No of true positives
Precision =
No of true positives + false positives
Accuracy = (Sensitivity ) (prevalence) + specificity [1-prevalency]

Accuracy may be determined from sensitivity & specificity provided prevalence.

Sensitivity:
No of true positives
sensitivity =
No of true positives + no of false negatives

Specificity:
No of true negatives
specificity=
No of true negatives + no of false positives
Example:

True positives (TP) – sick people correctly diagno as sick

False positives (FP) _ Healthy as sick
True Negatives (TN) _ Healthy correctly indentified as healthy
False negatives (FN)_ Sick people incorrectly identified as healthy
False positives & False negatives also called as Type –I & Type II error
TP → condition present + positive result
FP → condition absent + positive result
FN → condition present + Negative result
TN → condition absent + Negative result

Example:
1) 3.72 inches or 2417 feet
o We can say 3.72 inches is more precise
o 2417 feet is more accurate
2) 30 seconds or 28 second’s
• 30 second is more accurate & Precise.

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Error:
It is classified into two types
systematic 
 error
random 

Systematic error impacts the accuracy of measurement results

1) Factory instrument
2) Faculty measuring
3) Personal bias

Errors to avoided systematic error:

1) Instrument error
2) Procedural error
3) Personal bias

Random error’s:
1) Least count error
2) Mean value of measurement

probable error
Percent of Error =
Measured value

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EXTENSOMETERS
Strain Measurement

Introduction

Strain gauges are mostly used to measure strains on the free surface of a body. The state
of strain at any point on the free surface of a body can be characterized in terms of three
Cartesian strain components ∈ xx, ∈y y and γx y as

∂u ∂v
∈x x = ∈ xy =
∂x ∂y
∂v ∂u
γ XY = +
∂x ∂y

Where u and v are the displacement components in x and y directions respectively. These
equations suggest that if the two displacements u and v can be measured at all points on the
surface of a body, strains at any point on the surface can be determined.

It is seen from Eq. (16.1) that the Cartesian strains are actually the slopes of the
displacement surfaces u and v. For precision in the estimation of the slopes of the displacement
surfaces, the in-plane displacements u and v should be determined quite accurately. However,
particularly for small elastic strains, the in-plane displacements are exceedingly small. No
versatile and easy method is yet available for the direct measurement of these displacements over
the entire surface of a body. This difficulty is overcome partially by using a strain gauge to
measure the change in the distance between two points on the surface of the body due to
straining. This change in length is converted to axial strain by the following relationship:

∆u
∈xx =
∆x

Here ∆ u is the change in length over a distance or the gauge length, ∆x. It is to be noted

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that the strain measured in this manner represents only the average strain over the gauge length,
∆x. The magnitude of error in the strain measured this way depends on the strain gradient along
the gauge length ∆ x and the length ∆x. This aspect is discussed further in Sec.
Strain gauges of all types are essentially devices that sense the change in length, magnify
it and indicate it in some form. They can be classified into broadly five groups on the basis of
the physical employed for the magnification of change in length.
(i) Mechanical
(ii) Optical
(iii) Interferometric type
(iv) Electrical
(v) Pneumatic, and
(vi) Acoustical
(vii) Magnetic
(viii) Scratch gauge
(ix) Photoelastic gauge

Mechanical Strain Gauges:

i) Wedge and screw magnification
ii) Simple mechanical lever magnification
iii) Compound magnification system
iv) Compound lever magnification system
v) Magnification by rack and pinion
vi) Combined lever, rack and pinion magnification

Compound magnification system

(a) Huggenberger and CEJ Extensometers

These mechanical devices are generally known as extensometers and are used to measure
strain under static or gradually varying loading conditions. An extensometer is usually provided
with two knife edges which are clamped firmly in contact with the test component at a specific
distance or gauge length apart. When the test component is strained, the two knife edges
undergo a small relative displacement. This is amplified through a mechanical linkage and the
magnified displacement or strain is displayed on a calibrated scale.
The Berry strain gauge (Fig. 16.1) uses a system of a lever and dial gauge to magnify the small
displacement between the knife edges. It can Measure strains down to 10 microstrain over a 50
mm gauge length. The mechanical amplifying element in the CEJ extensometer is a twisted
metal strip or torsion tape stretched between the knife edges.

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Figure: Berry Strain Gauge

Figure: Johansson extensometer

Half the length of this strip is twisted in one direction while the other half is twisted in the
opposite direction. A pointer is attached at the centre. The displacement of the knife edges, i.e.
starching of the torsion

tape is converted into a highly amplified rotational movement of the pointer. The CEJ
extensometer can measure strain with a sensitivity of 5 micro strain over a gauge length of 50
mm.

Compound lever magnification system

In the Huggenberger extensometer (Fig. 16.3) a set of compound levers is used to

magnify the displacement of the knife edges. The extensometer is highly accurate, reliable,
light-weight and self-contained. The movable knife edge (f) rotates the lever c about the lower
pivot. The lever c in turn rotates the pointer through the link d. The magnification ratio is given
by 1112a1a2. Extensometers with this ratio varying between 300 and 2000 and with gauge
lengths in the range 6.5 to 100 mm are available. The sensitivity of these extensometers could
be as high as 10 micro strain. It is well suited for applications where its unusually large height
does not pose problems of instability in mounting.

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Figure: Huggenberger extensometer

(b) Scratch Gauge

The scratch gauge is a self-contained compact device providing a permanent record of

displacement over a period of time. In this gauge

Figure: Scratch gauge (Prewitt Associates, USA)

the relative displacement between two stainless steel base planets L and S secured to the test
component causes a scriber D to scratch sharply the actual component deformation on a small

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brass (targer, T). The target is held in position by two tiny rollers and two stainless steel
brushes. The free end of the long driver brush B engages a peripheral groove of the target. It is
also guided in a bent tube BT. When a tensile deformation is removed or a compressive
deformation is produced, the plates L and S move towards each other. This causes the driver
brush B to rotate the circular target by a small amount. However during a tensile deformation
the driver brush B just slides back in the target groove without rotating it. Thus tensile
movements scribe a line parallel to the gauge axis (Fig. 16.5). Compressive movements and
removal of tensile strain scribe a line at approximately 45o to the gauge axis. The height h of
the recorded data is the product of the strain and gauge length. The traces on the target are
evaluated by viewing them with a microscope having a calibrated eye-piece scale. The
minimum strain that a scratch gauge can sense is about 100 micro strain. The gauge lengths of
these gauges are rather large.

Figure: Scratch gauge record

The scratch gauge is compact in size and weighs less than 30 g. It can be attached to
almost any surface with clamps or screws or adhesive bonding. It can measure stresses under
all types of loading-static, fatigue or shock. It can be used to record stresses in all types of
environments- room and elevated temperatures, under water, under radiation, etc.

Optical Gauges

(a) Mechanical-Optical Gauges

In mechanical-optical gauges a combination of mechanical and optical levers are used to
amplify the relative displacement between the knife edges. The moving knife is pivoted.

So that it rotates while undergoing displacement.

The principle of the signal mirror system is illustrated in Fig. 16.6. The pivoting knife
edge carries a mirror A. The reflection of an illuminated scale B in this mirror is viewed
through the observing telescope. Any deformation of the structure to which this gauge is fixed,
rotates the mirror A and thereby brings different portion of the scale into view.

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Figure: Martens optical gauge

Thus the change in the reading on the scale is directly proportional to the deformation
being measured.

A schematic diagram of the Tuckerman optical gauge and the autocollimator used with it
is given in Fig. 16.7. The autocollimator carries both the source of a parallel beam of light and
an optical system with reticle to measure the deflection of the reflected ray. A tungsten-carbide.

Figure: Tuckerman optical gauge (American Instrument Co., Inc)

Rocker (lozenge) functions as the moving knife edge. One face of this lozenge is
polished to function as a mirror. The rotation of the lozenge resulting from a deformation of the
structure deflects the incident parallel light beam back to the measuring reticle. Actually, three
images are visible on the reticle- one giving the measured displacement or strain and the other
two helping the alignment of the gauge. In this system, any relative motion between the
component and the autocollimator will not affect the measurement. Also, errors due to rotation
of the extensometer are eliminated in this system.

The sensitivity of the Tuckerman gauge is 2 micro strain. The gauge is available with a
wide range of gauge lengths, starting from 6 mm. It can reliably measure both static and dynamic

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strains. With the gauge, cyclic strains up to a frequency of 180 c/s have been successfully
measured.

Photoelastic Strain Ganges

A Photoelastic Strain Gauges (Fig. 10.8) essentially consists of: (i) a strip of plastic with
a reflective backing containing a “frozen-in” fringe pattern of equally spaced fringes, (ii) a
sandwich sheet of a Polaroid and a quarter-wave plate covering the plastic strip, and (iii) a
graduated scale for measurement. This gauge when bonded to a test component will indicate
visually and quantitatively the presence of strain through the movement of the residual fringe
pattern. Usually a principle strain difference of 1000 microstrain causes one fringe to move a
distance equal to the fringe spacing. If one can read the fringe position to one-twentieth of the
fringe spacing, a sensitivity of 50 microstrain can be obtained.

Figure: Photoelastic strain gauge

Acoustical Strain Gauge:

The vibrating wire or acoustical gauge consists essentially of a steel wire tensioned
between two supports a predetermined distance apart. Variation of the distance alters the natural
frequency of vibration of the wire and this change in frequency may be correlated with the
change in strains causing it. An electro-magnet adjacent to the wire may be used to set the wire
in vibration and this wire movement will then generate an oscillating electrical signal. The
signal may be compared with the pitch of an adjustable standard wire, the degree of adjustment
necessary to match the two signal frequencies being provided by a tensioning screw on the
standard wire. Calibration of this screw allows a direct determination of the change of length of
a measuring gauge to be made once the standard gauge has been tuned to match the frequency of
the measuring wire.

The visual display produced or a CRO renders adjustment easier. Tuning is now more
usually accomplished by feeding the two signals into the two pairs of plates of an oscillograph
and making use of the Lissajous figure formation to balance the frequencies. Matching of the
tones is simplified and made more accurate by tuning out the beats which results when the
vibration frequencies of two wires are nearly the same, which can be compared by using
earphones.

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The fundamental frequency of a stretched wire may be estimated from the expression.

1 P 1 ( Eδ L ) / L
=f = A
2L m 2L m

Figure: Acoustical Strain Gauge

Where A = cross – sectional area of vibrating wire

E = Young’s modulus of wire material
L = length of vibrating wire
m = mass per unit length of the wire
P = tensioning force in the wire
δL = increment in length of the vibrating wire.

Figure: Shows an acoustical gauge developed by Dr. O. Schaefer about 1933. The
sensitivity of this gauge is very high, with possible determinations of displacement of the order
of 0.25 µ cm. The range is limited to about 1/1000 of the wire length. The gauge is temperature
sensitive unless the thermal coefficients of expansion of the base and wire are closely matched
over the temperature range encountered during a test.

Pneumatic Strain Gauge:

The principle of operation of an air or pneumatic gauge depends upon the relative
discharge of air between a fixed orifice and a variable orifice. Fig. shows a pneumatic gauge.

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Air under constant pressure H, flows through two orifices placed in series. The pressure h which

Figure: Pneumatic strain gauge

Prevails between these two orifices is a function of the ratio of their areas. The fixed orifice G is
called the nozzle and the second orifice S, which is smaller, is called the exhaust orifice and is of
variable area of cross-section. As a result of it, the pressure h serves to measure the dimension of
S. Air after passing through the orifice G, strikes the top plate and is vented to the atmosphere.
The flow of air through the two orifices in series must be equal if incompressibility is assumed.
This assumption is practically valid as the pressures are quite low. Let,

AG = cross – sectional are of nozzle orifice G

AS = cross – sectional area of discharge orifice S
CG, CS = coefficients of contraction for the orifices
ρ = density of air
g = acceleration due to gravity

Since the flow through each orifice is the same, hence

2g ( H − h) 2gh
CG , AG = Cs As
ρ ρ

When CS = CG = C, then

H
h=
1 + ( AS / AG )
2

Figure shows the basic arrangement in a pneumatic strain gauge. Air at constant pressure
flows through two orifices of cross – sectional areas A1 and A2. The area A2 of the variable area
orifice is a function of the gap d which varies as the distance between the knife edge changes.
The pressure ∆p built up in the chamber is approximately given by

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p0
∆p =
1 + ( A2 / A1 )
2

Thus the relationship between ∆p and the displacement of the extensometer d is

nonlinear. However, with proper design this non linear characteristics of the gauge can be
minimized and a nearly linear characteristic can be obtained over a narrow range of
displacement.

Figure: Pneumatic strain gauge – Single pressure output

Better linearity can be obtained in the arrangement shown in figure. Magnifications up to

100,000 and gauge lengths as small as 1 mm are possible to achieve in these gauges.

Figure: Pneumatic strain gauge – Differential pressure output

Pneumatic gauges are sensitive, robust and reliable. They are suitable for both static and

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dynamic strain measurements.

When the specimen is leaded, the distance between the two gauge points changes. This
elongation is transmitted through the level’s system to the pneumatic gauge, where it changes the
gap between orifice S and the top plate, this changing the area As in direct proportion to the
strain. From Eq. it is obvious that the manometer reading varies as a quadratic function of the
strain. However, it has an inflection point when h/H = ¾ or AS/AG = 0.58. Hence, for values in
this neighbor- hood, the relation is very nearly linear. Multiplication factors of 100.000 are
possible with this type of pneumatic amplification.

Scratch Gauge:
Of all the gauges available, perhaps the most ingenious because of its simplicity, is the
scratch gauge. The instrument consists of two parts; a target, and a scratch arm. These parts
may be secured to the test piece by screw, solder, or clamp applied at g and e. The target is a
small plate with a chromium – plated surface and includes a raised clip arm ‘a’. The scratch arm
b is pivoted at the elastic hinge C and carries, at f, several grit particles embedded in cured
rubber. Motion between e and g is recorded as scratches made by the grit particles f on the
chromium plated target. Propulsion of the scratch arm across the target is accomplished by the
spring action of the elastic hinge C.

(a) Scratch recording system

(b) Magnified strain record

Figure: Scratch gauge

The cross motion is regulated by the pressure of clip a on arm b. This pressure develops
sufficient static friction to restrain the arm, but cross motion is permitted by the smaller sliding
friction, which results from relative motion of the target and arm and the test piece is strained.
The rate of the scratch arm cross travel is a function of the sliding motion occurring, rather than
of time. It can be controlled by variation of the clip pressure and the thickness of the spring
hinge. The several grit particles scratch patterns of varying depth, depending on the alignment of

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target and arm. Of course, the most clearly defined pattern is used for interpreting the record. T
he base line is established by moving the arm across the target while the test piece is in an
unloaded condition. The measurements of deformation indicated by the scratches on the target,
is accomplished by means of a microscope. Figure (b) shows the strain record.

This gauge is used for measuring deformation of rail – road rails because of the load
caused by a passing train. Strain measurements can be made inside pressure vessels, inside
moving mechanisms, under water etc. Dynamic strains pattern on analysis can be separated into
various harmonics of a vibratory deformation. However, this gauge cannot be applied to small
structures or finished surfaces, and extreme care has to exercised in measuring the scratch record
to obtain any degree of precision. The gauge is also little affected by its own inertia forces.
Readings may be estimated to 0.0025 mm.

Electrical Strain Gauges:

Introduction:

An electrical stain gauge is a device in which a change in length produces a change in

some electrical characteristics of the gauge.

The electrical strain gauges may be classified as follows:

(a) The inductance or magnetic strain gauges.
(b) The capacitance strain gauges.
(c) The electrical resistance strain gauges.

Out of these three types of gauges, the resistance strain gauges (RSG) have become more
popular and reliable. Hence, in this chapter, we shall study the first two types of gauges briefly
and lay more emphasis on the resistance gauges.

The inductance type of strain gauges in which the strain is measured as a change in the
magnetic field, was developed as a strain gauge about 1930 by Shamberger. Since then this
gauge has been used for various applications, particularly in motion measurements. An
important application of inductance type of gauge is the linear variable differential transformer,
developed by Schaevitz about 1947.
The capacitance type of gauges have found very little use as strain gauges and are not
commercially available. However, these type of gauges have found applications as transducers
to measure pressure, force and displacement.

In 1856 Lord Kelvin reported that the electrical resistance of certain wires varied with the
tension to which the wires were subjected. Bridgeman in 1923 confirmed Kelvin’s results in a
series of tests involving wires under hydrostatic pressure. Little use was made of this knowledge
until after 1930, when attempts were made to apply the phenomenon of strain sensitivity in wires
to the actual measurement of strain in other bodies. The first use of this principle for strain
measurements was made by Carlson and Eaton about 1931. A non metallic, unbounded
resistance gauge was however developed and used by Mc – Collum and Peters in 1924. A non –
metallic, bonded resistance gauge was developed by Bloach in 1935.

The bonded wire metallic strain gauge was developed independently and almost

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simultaneously in 1938 by Simmons at the California Institute of Technology and Ruge at the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, now commercially known as the SR 4 gauges, and
marketed by Baldwin – Lima – Hamilton Corporation of U.S.A. Since then the activity in this
field has been on the increase and a lot of improvements has been made in these gauges. During
the 1950’s considerable attention was given to the foil – type strain gauges. Much of the credit
for development and acceptance of this type of gauge goes to Bean, Saunders and Roe.
Currently the foil gauges have largely displacement the wire gauges.

A uniquely constructed weld able wire filament strain gauge has been developed recently
for application in may hostile environments and installation by Ailtech (U.S.A)

Electric Inductance Strain Gauges:

An electric inductance gauge is a device in which the mechanical quantity to be

measurement produces a change in the magnetic field, and hence in the impedance, of a current –
carrying coil. The impedance of a coil depends on its inductance and on its effective resistance,
and either or both of these quantities can be made sensitive to the mechanical quantity being
measured. The inductance which is changed can be either the self inductance eof the coil or its
mutual inductance with respect to another coil. Depending upon the method of varying the
impedance, electric – inductance gauges may be classified as follows:

1. Variable – air – gap gauges. In which the reluctance of the magnetic field is varied by
changing the air gap.
2. Movable – core solenoid gauges. In which the reluctance of the magnetic circuit is varied
by changing the position of the iron core in the coil.
3. Eddy current gauges. In which the losses in the magnetic circuit are varied by changing
the thickness or position of the high – loss element inserted in the magnetic field.
4. Magnetostriction gauges. In which the reluctance of the magnetic circuit is varied by
changing the stress in the magnetic core of the coil.

The impedance of a coil to the passage of alternating current is given by the expression:

( 2π fL )
2
=Z + R2
Where Z = impedance in ohms
f = frequency in hertzs
L = inductance of the coil in henrys
R = resistance component in ohms.

In general, R is negligible as compared to L and the impedance varies almost in proportion to the
inductance. The inductance of a variable – air – gap gauge is given by
8.1026 N 2
= L × 10 −8
li la
+
µ ai aa

Where N = number of turns.

li = length of iron magnetic circuit, cm
la = length of air gap, cm

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µ = permeability of magnetic material at the maximum alternating flux

density
ai = cross – section of iron, cm2
aa = cross – section of air gap, cm2

li l
If the valve of µ is sufficiently large, then is negligible as compared to a and we find that
µ ai aa

aa
L= × 8.1026 N 2 × 10 −8
la
The relationship between the voltage applied across a coil and the flux density in its core is

E = 0.10667 B a N f × 10-8
Where E = voltage
B = flux density in lines per square cm
a = cross section of core, cm2.

Thus, we find that under ideal conditions, the impedance of an iron – core coil varies
inversely with the length of the air gap in the magnetic circuit. If the motion to be measured is a
large percentage of the initial air gap, very large change in impedance can be produced and large
amounts of electric energy become available. Therefore, the variable – air – gap gauge is one of
the best – known methods of converting small motions into high energy electric signals. For
large motions, it is more advisable to use the moving – core solenoid. Eddy – current gauges
find applications in special fields, such as the measurement of motion and of the thickness of non
ferrous sheets Magnetostriction effect is small in most commercial magnetic irons but is large in
nickel and some nickel – iron and cobalt – iron alloys. Figure shows circuits for some of the
gauges. These gauges are placed in one arm of an inductance bridge with either a voltmeter or
CRO to indicate the out – of – balance potential to the bridge. The bridge is supplied with an
alternating current of about 1000 hertz for static strain measurements. For dynamic strains, the
frequency of current source must be 20 to 30 times the frequency of the strain being measured.
One serious difficulty is that magnetic forces set up across the air gap frequently give rise to
serious vibrations in the structure. These gauges cannot be applied to light structures. Large
strains cannot be measured as the strain – inductance relationship is linear only over a small
range of strain. These gauges are weighty, bulky and susceptible to magneto – mechanical
resonance.

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(a) Variable air gap gauge

(b) Moving coil solenoid gauge

(c) Eddy current gauge

Figure: Inductance strain gauges
Figure shows the basic impedance bridge circuit. E1 and E2 are the laminated iron cores
and A is the armature. When the armature A moves the air gap between A and E1 increases and
that between A and E2 decreases or vice versa. This changes the reluctance of the magnetic
paths in E1 and E2 and consequently changes the impedance of the two coils which are wound on
them. Let Z1, Z2, Z3 and Z4 be the impedance of the gauge coils and balancing elements. Z5 is
the impedance of the instrument circuit. In order to reduce the voltage across Z5 to zero, both the
resistive and the reactive components of the bridge legs must be balanced. Both of the following
conditions must be fulfilled.

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Figure: Basic impedance bridge circuit

R1 R3
=
R2 R4
X1 X3
And =
X2 X4

Electromagnetic Strain Gauge:

If a magnetic bar is loaded by a torsional moment, a voltage is recorded by a

galvanometer connected to a coil through which the bar is put. An electromotive force is
induced in the coil of the electromagnet which depends on the torsional moment acting on the
core of the electromagnet which is twisted. This is known as Wiedemann’s effect. The factors
which influence the magnitude and linearity of the induced electromotive force are: the degree of
saturation of magnetic field, the geometry of the attachment to the structure, the frequency of
power supply, the size of the tube, the number of turns of the wire wound round the tube, the
material of the pipes and its condition. The electromagnetic strain – gauge is shown in figure.
The pick up unit, measuring the longitudinal component of the magnetic flow, consists of a pick
up coil and a low drain a.c. voltmeter. The influence of the pick up unit depends on the non –
inductive resistance Rm of the measurement device, on the inductive resistance wl of the coil, on
the non – inductive resistance Rc of the coil and on the slenderness ratio r = lD of the tube. The
mathematical formula expressing the influence of the measurement unit on the variation of the
induced electromotive force or the actual, i.e., measured slope of the characteristics Km’ is

Figure: Electromagnetic strain gauge (Wiedemann’s effect)

Rm x
Km' = K0 2
Rc  wl 
1+  
 Rc 
Where K0 = ideal slope of the characteristic, for r = 0.8.
x = ratio of induced electromotive force for general r to the voltage Em for r = 0.8.
Linear Variable Differential transformer

Of the various types of variable inductance gauges, the linear variable differential
transformer (LVDT) is well known for the measurement of displacement. A variety of

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transducers for measurements of strain, displacement, pressure, acceleration and force have
been built with LVDT as the sensing element. In a transducer with LVDT as the strain-sensing
element, the base carrying the primary and secondary coils is attached to one knife edge while
the movable magnetic core is connected to the order (Fig.16.9). The centre primary coil is fed
from an at supply. The two balanced secondary windings on either side of the primary coil,
connected together in phase opposition function as pick-up coils. The output from the LVDT is
theoretically zero when the sliding magnetic core is placed midway

(a) Gauge

(b) Output voltage vs. core position

Figure: Linear variable differential transformer gauge

Between the secondary coils. Movement of the core in one direction away from the null position
produces an output alternating voltage proportional to the displacement from the centre.
Displacement of the core in the opposite direction will produce an output 1800 out of phase with
the first output. The phase angle has to be determined for finding out the direction of
displacement of the core.

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The frequency of the applied ac voltage, i.e. the carrier frequency, limits the dynamic
response of the LVDT. The frequency of the signal being measured should be less than about
one – tenth of the carrier frequency. Further, the dynamic response of the LVDT is restricted by
the mass of the core and the supporting mechanical components.

The LVDT requires a driving force of the order of a fraction of a gram to move the core
in the coils. It can be used over a wide range of temperature – below zero to elevated
temperatures. It provides a high – level output. The sensitivity of LVDT usually lies in the
range 0.02 to 0.15 V/mm displacement per volt of excitation applied to the primary coil. A point
to be noted is that the performance of the LVDT can be severely affected by the presence of
metal masses and stray magnetic fields in its vicinity. The size and mass of the LVDT and the
problem of mounting through knife edges rather restricts its use in strain gauge work.

(b) Capacitance Strain Gauges:

The capacitance of a condenser can be varied by either varying the distance between the
condenser plates or by varying the area. In a capacitance strain gauge the displacement.
Resulting from the strain in the test

(a) Cross – section view

(b) Gauge in a alignment frame

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Figure: Hitec capacitance gauge (Hitec Corporation, USA)

Component varies its capacitance either by varying the distance between the condenser
plates or by varying the area between the plates. In the capacitance gauge shown schematically
in figure, capacitance changes occur due to axial sliding of an outer cylinder relative to two
concentric inner cylinders. Temperature compensation is achieved by using a compensating rod
fabricated from a material with the same thermal characteristics as the test component. It
functions satisfactorily at temperatures up to about 8000C. With a refined measurement
technique, it can measure ± 20, 000 µ∈ with a sensitivity of 1 µ∈.

The electrical capacity between parallel plates is given by:

8.86 × 10 −3 KA ( N − 1)
C=
h
Where
C = capacitance in pico farads.
K = dielectric constant of the medium between the two plates.
N = number of plates
h = distance between plates, mm.

C 8.86 × 10 −3 KA ( N − 1) C
Now = 2
= −
dh h h
∆h
Strain ε=
l0
h ∆C
Hence ε=
l0 C

Where l0 is the gauge length

Figure: Simplified diagram of a capacitance transducer circuit

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Thus the capacitance of a condenser may be changed either by changing the spacing
between the condenser plates or the condenser plate area may be changed. The variation in the
capacitance because of a change in the plate spacing while the change in capacitance resulting
from a change in area is linear for large changes in the plate area. Two types of circuits may be
used to measure the change in capacitance of a gauge. In the first methods, a capacitance bridge
is supplied with an a.c., the out – of – balance of the bridge, because of a change in the
capacitance of the gauge, is measured by either a voltmeter or CRO. In the second method, the
capacitance gauge may be placed in a circuit, oscillating at resonance. As the capacitance of the
condenser changes as a result of strain the frequency of oscillation of the circuit changes. The
output of this resonant circuit is passed through a discriminator, the variation in frequency is
indicated on the screen of CRO. The first method employs an amplitude – modulated signal,
while the second method uses a frequency – modulated signal. A simplified diagram of a
capacitance transducer circuit is shown in figure.

Capacitance gauges are small in size and they have excellent high – frequency response
and high temperature resistance, as well as good linearity resolution and ability to measure both
static and dynamic quantities. These gauges are sensitive to temperature, vibrations, have high
impedance output and complexity of associated electronic equipment. Dielectric, mounting and
clamping difficulties make this gauge not too desirable.

Laser displacement sensors

The principle of laser displacement sensor ranging
The principle of laser displacement sensor
ranging is a method where triangulation is
applied by combining the emitting element
and the position sensitive device (PSD) to
perform ranging (detecting the amount of
displacement).
The emitting element of Devices in laser
displacement sensors uses a semi-conductor
laser. The laser light is focused through the
emitting lens and projected on an object. At
that time, some of the light beam that is
reflected from the object produces a light
spot on the position sensing device. When
the object moves, the PSD moves as well.
Detecting the changes in positions makes it
possible to detect the amount of displacement
of the object.
Some of the receiving elements use a linear image sensor, and not the PSD. The PSD enables
you to acquire information only about the center position of the amount of light of the entire light
spot. On the other hand, the emitting elements with the linear image sensor detect the amount of
light received by each cell. Therefore, even when there are variations in the amount of light
within the spot due to influences from the object's surface, even more accurate detection can be

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performed for the peak position of the light intensity. This significantly reduces errors due to the
influence of the objects' surfaces.
PSD device and position detection methods

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UNIT II Electrical Resistance Strain Gauges

Electrical Resistance Strain Gauges

In the electrical resistance strain gauges the displacement or strain is measured as a
function of the resistance change produced by the displacement in the gauging circuit. An ideal
strain gauge should have the following basic characteristics:
1. The gauge should be of extremely small size (gauge length and width) so as to adequately
estimate strain at a point.
2. The gauge should be of significant mass to permit the recording of dynamic strains.
3. The gauge should be easy to attach to the member being analysed and easy to handle.
4. The strain sensitivity and accuracy of the gauge should be sufficiently high.
5. The gauge should be unaffected by temperature, vibration, humidity or other ambient
conditions.
6. The calibration constant for the gauge should be stable over a wide range of temperature
and time.
7. The gauge should be capable of indicating both static and dynamic strains.
8. It should be possible to read the gauge either on location or remotely.
9. The gauge should exhibit linear response to strain.
10. The gauge and the associated equipment should be available at a reasonable cost.

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11. The gauge should be suitable for use as a sensing element or other transducer systems.

Types of Resistance Strain Gauges

There are basically four types of electrical resistance strain gauges as classified below:
1. Unbonded gauges:
(a) Non-metallic
(b) Metallic

2. Bonded gauges

(a) Non-metallic
(b) Metallic
(i) Wire type
(ii) Foil type.

3. Weldable gauges.
4. Piezoresistive gauges.

1. (a) Unbonded non -Metallic Gauges.

The 32scillosc nonmetallic gauge is a mechanically actuated gauge that contains a

resistance element so arranged that when one part of the gauge is displaced with respect to
another there is developed a change in pressure on the measuring element of the gauge. This
change in pressure changes the resistance of the element which may be recorded by electrical
means. A gauge of this type was developed in 1923 and 1924 by McCollum and Peters and is
shown in Fig. This gauge is composed of a series of carbon plates arranged in a stack. The stack
is so adjusted that a displacement of one part of the gauge relative to another changes the
pressure, on the stack of plates. When the strain is applied in the structure to which the gauge is
attached, the change in length is communicated to the carbon-plate stack. This change in length
requires a change in pressure in the stack, and the resistance of the stack changes.

Figure: Unbonded non-metallic strain gauge.

With an increase in pressure, the areas of contact between the plates are enlarged and new
areas come into contact, thus decreasing the resistance of the element. If the pressure is released,
the areas of contact are reduced, and some of the areas lose contact, thus increasing the resistance
of the element. If the pressure becomes excessive, so that the elastic limit of the carbon in the

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gauges is exceeded or the carbon is even crushed, or if the plates are allowed to shift in the
lateral direction with respect to each other, the results become erratic. Besides these difficulties,
there is a further defect of mechanical friction and hystertsis in the mechanical parts of the
gauge.

Gauge of this kind have been used to determine displacements, loads and strains in
flexible cables, airplanes, bridges, vibrating members, dynamometers and pressure gauges.
However, with the advancement of metallic gauges the usefulness of these type of gauges has
reduced materially.
1. (b). Unbonded-Metallic Gauges.

The principle of the 33scillosc-metallic gauges is based on the change in electrical

resistance of a metallic wire due to the change in tension of the wire. The first device of this
kind was designed by Carlson and Eaton in 1930. This type of gauge is constructed by winding
wire in three coils, the first providing a coil unaffected by the gauge motion, and the other two
having tensions altered by the gauge motion, each in an opposite manner. The whole is mounted
in a sleeve that allows only longitudinal movement. The coils are placed under initial tension
into a four arm Wheatstone bridge. As the compressive strain is applied, the prestrain would
simply be relieved and the 33scillosc element would remain taut. For the gauge to register
compressive strains, the initial assembly must include a built-in tensile prestrain in the coils
greater than the maximum compressive strain to be measured. A gauge of this type is shown in
Fig. These type of gauges are rarely used for experimental stress analysis. However, these type
of gauges have been incorporated into accelerometers and pressure pickups.

Figure: Unbonded metallic strain gauge.

2. (a) Bonded Non-Metallic Gauges.

A strain gauge using direct bonding of a non-metallic resistor element to a material in

which the strain is so to be measured was reported by Bloach in 1935. In this gauge a carbon
coating is applied directly to the surface of the structure in which strain is to be measured. For
metallic structures the surface is first coated with a non-conducting material. If the underlying

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surface of such a coating is stretched, the carbon particle would move apart, and the under-
coating is compressed, the particles would move closer together, and the resistance will change.
This resistance change can be interpreted in terms of strain.

Generally these type of gauges are made by impregnating carbon particles in plastic
sheets. These sheets are then cut into strips about 6 mm wide and 25 mm long. On each end of
the strip a silver band is plated so that lead wires may be attached (fig). The gauge is bonded
directly to the surface to be strained with a common glue.

Figure: Bonded non-metallic strain gauge.

These sensitivity and resistance of the gauge are affected by temperature and humidity.
This gauge is of rugged construction and can withstand rough handling. However, the cross-
sensitivity of the gauge is quite high.

2. (b) Bonded Metallic Gauges.

The bonded metallic type of strain gauge consists of a length of a strain-sensitive

conductor mounted on a small piece of paper or plastic backing. In use this gauge is cemented to
the surface of the structural member to be tested. These gauges may be either of the wire or foil
type. In the case of wire strain gauges, the filament consists of a long length of wire in the form
of a grid fixed in place with a suitable cement. The wire grid may be either of the flat type (fig.
a) or wrap-around type (Fig. b). After attaching the lead wires to the two ends of the grid, a
second piece of paper is cemented over the wire as a cover. In the wrap around type of wire
gauges, the strain-sensitive wire is wound around a cylindrical core in the form of a close-wound
helix. This core is then flattened and cemented between layers of paper for purpose of protection
and insulation. Fig.(c) shows a flat wire grid free filament construction.

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Figure (a): Bonded wire flat grid gauge.

Figure (b): Bonded wire wrap-around gauge.

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(c) Flat wire grid free filament construction. (d) Bonded flat foil grid gauge.

Figure: Types of bonded metallic gauges.

The foil type of stain gauge has a grid made from a very thin strain-sensitive foil (fig d).
The width of foil is very large as compared to the thickness so that the gauge provide a much
larger area for cementing the gauge. The gauge configuration is obtained by printing the desired
pattern on a sheet of foil with acid resistant ink and subsequently etching away the unprotected
metal. Another method of manufacture involves precision punching of the gauges from a foil
sheet. The foil type of gauges have the following advantages over the wire type gauges.

1. The width of the foil at the end of each loop can be greatly increased to reduce the
sensitivity of the sensitivity of the gauge to transverse strains.
2. The cross-section of the gauge conductor is rectangular, resulting in the high ratio of
surface area to cross-section area. This increases heat dissipation and avoids adhesion
between the grid and the backing material.
3. The gauge factor is higher by 4 to 10 per cent that other gauges.
4. These gauges are easier to manufacture.
5. These gauges can be used to measure strain on curved surfaces.
6. These gauges are suitable for static and dynamic strain measurements.
7. They have very good fatigue properties.
8. Stress relaxation and 36scillosco is very less in these gauges.

3. Weldable Strain gauges.

Some of the limitations of the bonded type of metallic gauges are their comparatively
costly, time consuming and complicated method of bonding. This realization led to the
development of the weldable wire resistance strain gauge-a strain gauge capable of being
installed in minutes and in any environment. This unique technique, utilizing capacitive
discharge spot welding equipment eliminates the need for all bonding materials.

The weldable strain gauge consists of a strain sensitive element, the Nickel Chrome or
Platinum Tungsten, housed within a small diameter stainless steel tube. The strain element is

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insulated from the tube with highly compacted ceramic insulation or metallic oxide powder,
normally high purity magnesium oxide, which also serves as a strain transfer medium from the
housing to strain element. This weldable gauges are equipped with a thin flange spot welded to
the strain tube. This flange is subsequently spotwelded to the structure under test and provides
the bond required to transfer strain.

Integral leads are attached to the basic gauge by welding. When the gauge is welded to a
specimen and the test specimen put into tension or compression, the stress is transmitted through
the weld to the mounting flange, into the strain tube, and through the magnesium oxide powder.

The basic construction of a quarter-bridge or half-bridge, self-temperature compensated

gauge is shown in Fig. and includes integral metal sheathed or flexible lead wire configurations.
This gauge construction provides inherent mechanical and environmental protection for both the
main filament and lead wires and is used over a broad temperature range from cryogenic to 65oC.
Weldable strain gauges can be used for a wide range of static and dynamic measurement
applications. Their rugged construction and positive attachment make it possible to measure
strain at higher or low temperatures and in server environments, including shock and vibration,
steam, salt water, chemicals, and other corrosive atmospheres.

(a) Quarter bridge gauge. (b) Half bridge gauge.

Figure: Weldable strain gauges

4. Piezo-resistive strain gauges.

Crystals of silicon, germanium, quarts and Rochelle salt show a change in resistance
when deformed by applying pressure. This effect can be utilized to measure strain. Such like
gauges are called piezo-resistance strain gauges. We shall discuss these gauges in details.

Materials for Gauges

A good gauge material should have the following qualities:

1. High gauge factor

2. High resistance
3. Low temperature sensitivity
4. High electrical stability

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5. High yield point stability

6. High endurance limit
7. Good workability
8. Good solderability and workability
9. Low hysteresis
10. Good corrosion resistance
11. Low thermal e.m.f. when joined with other metals.
The important properties of the most commonly used materials for strain gauges are
given in Table.

Carrier Materials

A strain-gauge grid is normally supported on some form of carrier material. This

provides the necessary electrical insulation between the grid and the material to be tested,
dimensional stability, and also provides some degree of mechanical protection for the delicate
sensing element. A good carrier material should have the following desirable characteristics:

1. Minimum thickness
2. High mechanical strength
3. High dielectric strength
4. Minimum temperature restrictions
5. Good adherence to cement used
6. Non-hygroscopic.

Temperature Compensation

The ideal strain gauge would change resistance in accordance with stress-producing
deformations in the structural surface to which it was bonded and for no other reason.
Unfortunately, gauge resistance is affected by many other factors, out of which temperature is
very important.

The total indicated strain occurring at a point in a structure is made up of mechanical

strain and apparent strain. The mechanical strain is that produced by external forces. The
apparent strain is the portion of the total indicated strain induced by thermal effects including
expansion of the base metal, expansion of the gauge metal and change in electrical resistance of
the gauge. Thus, when the ambient temperature increases (say), then

∆l
1. The gauge grid will elongate so that = α.∆T.
l
∆l
2. The base material on which the gauge is mounted will elongate so that = β.∆T.
l
3. The resistance of the gauge metal will increase because of the influence of the
∆R
temperature coefficient of resistivity of the gauge material so that = γ.∆T.
R
The combined effect of these three factors will produce a temperature induced change in
∆R 
resistance of the gauge,   with may be expressed as:
 R  ∆T

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 ∆R  = β − α ∆T.F + γ .∆T
  ( )
 R  ∆T

Where α = thermal coefficient of expansion of the gauge material

β = thermal coefficient of expansion of the base material
γ = temperature coefficient of resistivity of the gauge material
F = gauge factor
R = resistance of gauge
∆T = rise in temperature.

Equation holds only for small values of ∆T , where α,β and γ can be considered constant.
For large values of ∆T , average values of these factors might be used without introducing large
errors.

If α ≠ β , then the gauge will be subjected to a mechanical strain, ( β − α ) ∆T , which

does not occur in the specimen.

If α = β, then this component of apparent strain vanishes. However, the gauge will still
register a change of resistance with temperature if γ is not zero. In order to prevent significant
errors due to this effect, some form of “temperature compensation” is usually employed when
strain gauges are used in applications where the steady state or static component of strain must
be measured. Currently available methods of compensation for the apparent strain include the
use of a dummy or compensating strain gauge, self-temperature compensating (STC) gauge,
compensation by dissimilar or similar gauges in the Wheatstone bridges and compensation by
computation.

1. Compensating Dummy Gauge:

The earliest form of temperature compensation makes use of the electrical bridge circuit
in which the active gauge is connected to balance out unwanted temperature induced
resistance change. This is usually called the “compensating dummy” arrangement. The
“dummy gauge” identical to the active gauge in type and lot number, is mounted on an
unstressed piece of the specimen material and placed in the same thermal environment as
the active gauge. The active and compensating gauges are then connected as adjacent
arms of the bridge circuit in the readout instrument. Effects common to both gauges will
preserve bridge – balance conditions, and no output signal results. Since only the active
gauge is exposed on mechanical or thermal strain caused by specimen stress, bridge
unbalance is proportional to the magnitude of specimen stress producing strain. The
method fails entirely if the temperature does not vary in an identical fashion at both
gauge locations.

2. Self-temperature Compensated Gauge:

The terms ”temperature compensated” is applied to strain gauges in which the resistance
change due to temperature is equal to zero. Self-temperature compensated gauges will
perform properly only when used on materials having the specific value of thermal
expansion coefficient for which they are designed. STC gauges can be obtained for use

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on materials having thermal expansion coefficients from zero to 25 ppm/oC.

Two method are used for obtaining self-temperature compensation. In the first method,
self-temperature compensation is created by altering the temperature coefficient of resistance of
the grid material so that, when mounted on materials having a certain thermal expansion
coefficient, the apparent strain will be a suitably low value. This is done, in most cases, by
special selection or thermal processing of the grid alloy. The two principal classes of strain-
gauge alloys susceptible to such treatment are Constantan and Karma. The second method
includes forming a grid with two lengths of gauge wires joined suitably in series so that the
resultant apparent strain is zero.

Dual-element self temperature Compensation by dissimilar gauges.

Compensated gauge.
Figure:

3. Compensation by Dissimilar Gauges:

Compensation of the temperature effect in a bridge network is accomplished by putting

dissimilar gauges into adjacent bridge arms as shown in Figure. The gauge in the first arm
should have a relatively small temperature effect in the same direction. With proper, fixed series
and shunt resistances for the gauge in the second arm, it is possible to obtain an overall
temperature effect for the second arm, that is equal to that of the first arm. Hence, the
temperature effects of the two arms will cancel each other with a relatively small loss in the
strain sensitivity of the network.

This method would appear to have a better chance of success than the self-temperature
compensated gauge because the relative resistance of the filament is not critical. If will always
be possible after a gauge has been made, to select the fixed resistance for proper compensation.
Furthermore, compensation over a greater temperature increases. In this case, temperature
would not have to be known very accurately.

4. Compensation by Similar Gauges:

Best possible temperature compensation is obtained for unpredictable effects as for

predictable effects with two similar gauges in adjacent arms of a Wheatstone bridge.

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However, this circuit arrangement eliminates the hydrostatic component of stress from
the reading and only the shear component of stress is reflected. Hence, the gauges should
be arranged so as to pick up the greatest signal from the shear component of stress. This
means that one gauge should be positioned in the direction of the maximum principal
strain, the other in the direction of minimum principal strain. This method is likely to
give best results when the direction of the principal strains is known.

5. Compensation by Computation:

By knowing the temperature characteristics of a strain gauge and the base metal, and if
the temperature can be observed separately, a correction can be calculated theoretically
from Equation and applied to the observed strain.

Figure: Compensation by similar gauges.

The Transverse Sensitivity:

The strain sensitivity SA of a single, uniform length of a conductor is given by

∆R / R
SA =
ε
Where ε is the uniform strain along the conductor and in the direction of the conductor and in the
direction of the conductor. Whenever the conductor is wound into a strain-gauge grid, certain
effects take place which alter to a certain degree this value of sensitivity of the gauge. The
change is introduced by the end loops, which are transverse to the straight portion of the grid.
Thus the gauge in addition to measuring the strain along its axis also measures the strain
transverse to it. This affect is reflected as an error in the strain gauge reading. This is known as
the transverse or cross-sensitivity of the gauge. Now

Axial (parallel) strain sensitivity

∆R / R
=S11 = when ε y 0
εx

Normal (perpendicular) strain sensitivity

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∆R / R
=S⊥ = when ε x 0
εy

Transverse sensitivity factor K is defined as

S⊥
K=
S
∆R / R
ε x =0
εy
=
∆R / R
ε y =0
εx

Gauge factor F as specified by the manufacturer is

∆R / R
F= when ε y = −0.285 ε x
εx

Assuming that the gauge has been calibrated on steel whose Poisson’s ratio is 0.285.

Associated Instrumentation:

Static strains:

For most analysis work, static strains may be measured by a wheatstone bridge. The
bridge may be either operated on D.C. or A.C. When A.C is employed then a carrier system has
to be used. Generally null balance system is preferred over the out-of-balance method because
the null balance system is more accurate than the direct readout and is less expensive. The
earlier commercial strain indicators use a reference bridge circuit to provide the null-balance
system as shown in Figure. With commercial strain indicators, the adjustment resistance gives a
direct readout in strain. A commercial null-balance system is shown in Figure(a) and (b). These
models can operated either on A.C. or battery. Figure shows a direct readout amplifier and
junction box. Switching and balancing units are available for multiple gauge installations.

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Figure: Direct readout amplifier and junction box.

In the manual null-balance strain indicators the output from each gauge is recorded
manually on a data sheet. The data are usually processed by hand or with a simple
programmable calculator. Figure shows a typical strain indicator system. Figure shows the D.C.
operation of the Wheatstone bridge and Figure shows the A.C. operation. Figure shows an
automatically balanced bridge, it is necessary to build a phase-sensitive detector into the
rectifying circuit.

The manual direct reading strain indicator is shown in Figure. With this instrument, the
Wheatstone bridge is initially balanced and then the voltage output due to stain is amplified and
read out on a digital voltmeter.

Figure: Switching and balancing unit.

Figure: Direct digital readout strain indicator.

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Figure: A typical strain indicating system.

When relatively large strain-gauge installations are used to analyse a problem then automatic
data-acquisition systems should be employed. The automatic data-acquisition system consists of
four basic sub-system which include the controller, the signal conditioner-scanner, the analog-to-
digital converter and the readout devices. The signal conditioner-scanner consists of the power
supply, the Wheatstone bridges and the switches used to connect a large number of gauges in
turn to the single voltage recording instrument. Each bridge has a small control panel with a
balance adjustment, a span adjustment and a calibration switch. The output from the wheatstone
bridge is switched into a high quality digital voltmeter, which measures the average of the input
voltage over a fixed measuring period.

Figure: D.C. operation of Wheatstone bridge.

Dynamic Strains:

While recoding dynamic strains, the frequency of the strain signal is an important
consideration in selecting the recording system. The help of the following table may be taken in
selecting the recording system depending upon the strain frequency.

Frequency Range Recording System

Very low (0-3 Hz) Integrating digital voltmeter, potentiometer
recorder and xy-recorder.
Intermediate (0-10 kHz) Oscillograph with a pen (0-100 Hz) and a light

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writing (0-10 kHz) galvanometer.

High (0-20 kHz) FM instrument tape recorder.
Very high (above 20 kHz) Cathode ray 45scilloscope.

For very low frequencies, instruments such as potentiometer (or strip chart) recorders and
xy-recorders, which employ servo-motors together with feedback control and null-balance
positioning can be used to measure the output voltage from the strain gauge bridge. The
operating principle of such an instrument is shown in Figure.

Figure: Operating principle of a servo-driven null-balance circuit (potentiometer) for

voltage measurement.

Potentiometer recorders can be used to measure voltages from 1 µV to 100 v. The chart
speeds can be varied over a wide range of 25 mm/h to 50 mm/s. Because of their low frequency
response, the potentiometer cannot be used in strain gauge applications where the strain signal
has frequency components greater than 1 Hz. Figure shows a double beam oscilloscope.

For recording strains at high frequencies magnetic-tape analog data recording systems are
used. Data recorded and strode on magnetic tape are usually played back and displayed on an
oscillograph. By varying the tape speed during playback, the time base can be extended or
compressed. Information stored on magnetic tape can be reliably retrieved any number of times
and different analysis made. Figure shows the schematic sketch for a magnetic tape recorder. In
a magnetic tape recorder, the tape (1.27 to 25.4 mm wide) is driven at a constant speed by a
served d.c. capstan motor over either the record or reproduce heads. The speed of the capstan
motor is monitored with a photocell and compared with the frequency from a crystal oscillator to
provide the feedback signal in a closed loop servo system designed to maintain constant tape
speeds. The signal written on the tape by the record magnetic head assemblies is in the form of
variations in the level of magnetism imposed on the magnetic coating of the tape. The reproduce
head converts these variations in magnetism back into electrical signals.

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Figure: X-Y Recorder.

(Courtesy: Hewlett Packard, Palo Alto, California, USA)

Figure: Magnetic tape recorder.

Most instrument tape systems can be used in either direct recording or frequency
modulation (FM) modes. With direct recording, the intensity of magnetization on the tape is
proportional to the instantaneous amplitude of the input signal. Direct recording is usually
limited to audio recording where the human ear, on playback, can average the amplitude errors
or to recordings where the signal frequency and not the signal amplitude is of primary
impotence.

With FM recording, a carrier oscillator is frequency modulated by the input signal. The
oscillator has a centre frequency which corresponds to a zero input signal. Deviations from the
centre frequency are proportional to the input signal. The polarity of the input signal determines
the direction of deviation FM recording preserves the d.c. component in the signal and is much
more accurate than direct recording. Figure shows a basic FM system.

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Figure: Basic F.M. system

Very high frequency recording can be accomplished with cathode ray oscilloscopes
which have bandwidths upto 500 MHz. The CRO is, in effect, a voltmeter which can be
employed to measure transient voltage signals. The heart of the CRO is the cathode ray tube
(CRT). The stream of electrons permits the CRT to be employed as a dynamic voltmeter with an
inertialess indicating system. Now-a-days, storage oscilloscopes are available which retain the
display the image of an electrical wave-form on the tube face after the waveform ceases to exist.
The stored display can be instantaneously erased to ready the tube for display of the next
waveform.

For dynamic strain-gauge applications, the CRO is an ideal voltage-measuring

equipment. The input impedance of the instrument is quite high (about 1 MΩ); thus, there is no
appreciable interaction between THE Wheatstone bridge and the measuring instrument. The
frequency response of an oscilloscope is usually quite high, and even a relatively low-frequency
model (800 kHz bandpass) greatly exceeds the requirements for mechanical strain
measurements, which are rarely more than 50 kHz. The sensitivity of the CRT is normally quite
low and it often requires 100 V to produce 25 mm of deflection on the face of the tube. This
difficulty is generally overcome by providing a built in amplifier in the CRO.

The strain gauge record showing strain as a function of time is obtained by photographing
the face of the CRT as the Spot of light traverses the fluorescent screen. A still camera or a
movie camera may be used to obtain a permanent strain signal record.

Load cells
Load cells have long been used to sense and measure force and torque. When properly designed
and used, they are very accurate and reliable sensors. Load cells are applied in several different
fields, usually for weighing measurements. Among many other things, food, vehicles, and
animals are weighed daily with load cells. The gripper of a robotic arm that picks up an object
can be equipped with load cells in order to provide compression force feedback to the control
system to prevent the object from being damaged or released too early. Also, load cells can be
used to sense the compression forces during a robot's walk to provide data for the equilibrium-
controlling system. In industrial machinery, rods, beams, wheels and bars are instrumented in
order to check the forces exerted on them. The volume or level of a tank can be measured
indirectly by means of a load cell that monitors the total weight. Lift units can also have a load's
total weight measured to prevent overload. Because of such a variety of possible applications,

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load cells are very important.

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a load cell is made up of bonding of several strain gauges. It need not be only one, it can be
multiple, it can be multiple. So, in the same membrane member, if you have a various loads for
example, if you have a torsional load coming up, so then you want to measure 2 3 deflections.
So, you can try to place the strain gauge at the locations where there is maximum strain. You
bond the strain gauge with the member and try to get the displacement here. So, this
displacement can later the converted into strains right. So, a load cell means, you take a member
and this number need not be only solid; it can be also hollow. You have no where is the location
to be placed and at that location, maximum deflection should be there because, the strains
whatever you get is very small micro strains.
So, when you try to amplify this, you will try to get more noise signals. So, that has to be
nullified. So, we place it at the exact location. So, basically what is a load cell is you choose a
member. This member can be a combination of several member or it can be a single member.
And then, in a single member it can be a hollow, it can be solid, it can be hollow. You decide
what the member is on, then you decide where the location to be placed such that these strains
can be measured.
So, that is nothing but a load cell load cell is made up of bonding strain gauges to an elastic
material ok. So, elastic material we talked about within the Hooks law. So, it has to be arrived. If
you put it on a brittle material, you will not be able to do when if you put it on a completely
ductile material. For example, polymer and then strain gauges. Here, the strains what the strain
gauges can undergo is also limited. So, completely ductile material also will be a difficult task.
So, you have to choose a material where and which you have a proper balance of elastic
modulus.
Then, you choose accurate locations by calculations and find out what is a where is a maximum

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stress are coming out and then you try to measure the location for the strain. And then, you try to
change the when you apply load, there is a change in length and then that leads to resistance you
can measure. By the way, where the heavy trucks when it moves on the road, you can see there
are load cells available which are nothing but weighing bridges. So, in the weighing bridges,
when the truck goes there are strain gauges placed at different locations on the load on the
weighbridge.
So, those deflections are measured and then that gives you what is a load of the truck ok. That is
also a load cell. Sometime strain gauges are used; sometimes even mechanical livers are used for
measurement. So, there are generally, there are errors which happen in this strain gauges. When
you use, they always have something called as hysteresis loop. For example, this is deflection,
this is load. As the load increases, it might go like this and when it comes back, it traces another
route. So, this area, this loop is called as hysteresis loop. So, this many a times you repeat it 100
1000 and 10000 times. So, then this loop the tracing path might change ok. Then, the other issue
with strain gauges are creep. So, then the last one is going to be temperature.
So, you have to make sure you have a compensation for hysteresis creep and temperature and
measure the when we use this for measurement and you make sure these error are compensated
properly. Then, you try to get the signal out ok. And, the other most important, if you say this
advantage the advantages are many. If you want to have a load measuring device or a load cell at
then in a load cell, if the operation, what do you do is slightly peculiar where in which you
cannot fix the flat piezo crystals. Then, the strain gauges comes up in your help in big way the
strain gauges.
If you want to have a rough measurements, then we always go with strain gauge load cells. And
once we have established the process very well, we will now then redefined changing the strain
gauges with the piezo crystal. The major disadvantage of the load cell which is using strain
gauges, it has low dynamic response or I can say it has most probably no dynamic response. So,
that means, to say if the event which is happen is very fast, then the strain gauge must expand
and contract also very fast. So, many a times when you have an event which is happening at very
small intervals of time dynamic load measurements cannot be done effectively by using load
cells which is working on the principle of strain gauges.

Data Acquisition
Data acquisition is the sampling of the real world to generate data that can be manipulated by a

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computer. Sometimes abbreviated DAQ or DAS, data acquisition typically involves acquisition
of signals and waveforms and processing the signals to obtain desired information. The
components of data acquisition systems include appropriate sensors that convert any
measurement parameter to an electrical signal, which is acquired by data acquisition hardware.

Physical systems (real-world phenomena)

Transducers and Actuators
Signal Conditioning equipment
Data Acquisition & Control Hardware
Software
Analog-to-Digital Conversion
Analog-to-digital conversion (ADC) and digital-toanalog conversion (DAC) are the processes
that allow digital computers to interact with everyday signals: voltage, current, distance, velocity,
temperature, altitude, force, acceleration, pressure etc. Digital information is different from its
analog counterpart in two respects: - it is sampled - it is quantized.

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Nyquist theorem:

Analog signal that has been digitized can be perfectly reconstructed if the sampling rate was
1/(2W) seconds, where W is the highest frequency in the original signal.

Basic A/D Architecture

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UNIT III Photoelasticity

Introduction

The photoelastic method depends upon the property of certain transparent solids by
which they become doubly refractive under the action of stress, the magnitude of the optical
effect bearing a definite relation to that of the stress. The optical phenomenon, known as the

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“photo-elastic effect” was first discovered by Sir David Brewster in 1816 in sheets of stressed
glass. Brewster, however, did not succeed in obtaining a uniform stress in his model and was not
able to make any quantitative estimate of the relation between the stress and the optical effect
produced. In 1820 Biot demonstrated that a strip of glass became doubly reflecting when set into
a state of longitudinal vibrations and Fresnel attempted to measure the changes in the velocities
of the two oppositely polarized rays in glass without any decisive results. Neumann presented
the first theory of the photoelastic effect in 1841 and expressed the velocities of the two waves in
terms of the three principal strains in the medium. In 1853, Maxwell presented a theory in which
the velocities were related to the principal stresses. Both these theories produced relations of
precisely similar form and were equally applicable to an isotropic linear and elastic material
under any system of combined stress.

The first numerical determinations of the stress-optical coefficients of several materials

were made by Wertheim in 1854, followed by Mach in 1872 and Kerr in 1888. More accurate
determinations were made by Pockets in 1902 and between 1902 and 1912 by Filon. Mesnager
in 1912 carried out the most successful of the attempts to determine the stresses in an actual
engineering structure by using the photoelastic effect in a glass model of a bridge. In 1911,
Coker discovered xylonite an alternative photoelastic material to glass and began an extensive
series of investigations into the stress-distribution in various engineering components. During
the first quarter of the twentieth century, Coker and Filon met together and while working at the
Cambridge University, made a break through by using the recently developed transparent plastic,
for photoelasticity. By 1935, the photoelastic method has reached within the range of ordinary
stress analysis laboratories. During this period various investigations on similar lines were being
carried out by Baud and Heymans in U.S.A., Mesnager in France, Schultz in Germany and Tuzi
in Japan.

Natural Double Refraction

When a ray of light is incident on certain crystals like Calcite or Iceland spar, it is split at
entry into two components which in general are transmitted through the crystal in different
directions with different velocities. This phenomenon is known as natural double refraction or
birefringence. One of the rays is called the ordinary ray, which is not deviated and the other the
extraordinary ray, which deviated from the original path. If the emergent rays are observed
through an analyzer, it is found that they are plane-polarized in mutually perpendicular planes.

Any line which is equally inclined to the concurring edges at the two obtuse corners of
the crystal is defined as the optic axis of the crystal. A plane normal to the optic axis is called
the equatorial plane. Crystals having only one optic axis are called uniaxial crystals. Many
crystals have two optic axes and as such are known as biaxial crystals.
Now refractive index
sin i
n=
sin R

where i = angle of incidence

R = angle of refraction

According to Brewster’s law of polarization

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n = tan i
Hence i + R = 90°

which is the necessary condition for polarization by refraction.

The angle of incidence i corresponding to an angle of refraction R = 90° is defined as the

critical angle. It is the limiting angle of incidence for which refraction will occur. Hence, the
critical angle,
ic = sin-1 n

Production of Plane-Polarised Light

The following methods may be used to produce plane-polarized light:

1. Blackened glass plate. By reflecting a ray of light from a blackened glass plate upon its
rear surface, plane polarized light may be produced. The angle of incidence i for glass is
57° for polarization.

2. Pile of plates. If ordinary light is made to pass through a pack of eight or ten thin plates
of glass, it will emerge nearly completely polarized and the intensities of refracted and
reflected beams will be nearly equal.
3. Calcite Crystal. Iceland spar or Calcite is a rhombohedral crystal bounded by six
parallelograms, the angles of which are 101° - 55’ and 78° - 5’ respectively (Fig). Solid
angles at A and C are all obtuse and remaining six angles are bounded by one obtuse and
two acute angle. The critical angle for Iceland is 69°-57’.

Figure: Iceland spar crystal

4. The Nicol Prism. This is also made out of Iceland spar crystal whose natural angle of
19° is increased to 22° by grinding. Then the crystal is cut along a diagonal plane AC
and cemented by Canada balsam after polishing (Figure).

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For ordinary ray,

sin 22
1.65 =
sin β
or sin β = 0.227
or β ≈ 13°-8’
hence R0 = 90° - (13° - 8’)
= (76° - 52’)
> (ic = 69° - 57’)

Therefore, the ordinary ray is totally reflected and is absorbed by black paint on the long surface
of Nicol. Extraordinary ray however passes through Canada balsam and is transmitted with no
loss in intensity.

Figure: Nicol Prism

5. The Glan Thompson Polarizer. It is made of calcite and its transparent faces are
perpendicular to its axis (Fig). It is free from lateral displacement of the rays. The
transmitted waves are parallel to the plane of the interface and the transmissibility is 40
percent

Figure: Glan-Thompson polarizer

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6. Ahrens Polarizer. This is essentially a double Glan-Thompson prism in which,

however, the ordinary ray is not stopped but emerges from the prism and is eliminated by
being diverted out of the regular cone of polarized rays. It has no lateral displacement.

Temporary Double Refraction

Many transparent non-crystalline materials that are optically isotropic when free stress
become optically anisotropic and display characteristic similar to crystals when they are stressed.
These characteristics persist while loads on the material are maintained but disappear when the
loads are removed. This behavior is known as temporary or artificial double refraction. This
phenomenon was observed by Sir David Brewster in 1816 and the method of photoelasticity is
based on this physical characteristic of transparent noncrystalline materials.

Since the state of stress at a point can be represented by a stress ellipsoid or the ellipsoid
of Lame, likewise, the optical anisotropy (temporary double refraction) which develops in a
material as a result of stress can also be represented by an ellipsoid, known as the index ellipsoid.
The similarity between these two ellipsoids suggests the presence of a relationship between
stresses and indices of refraction, known as the stress-optic law.

Stress-Optic Law

Maxwell reported in 1853 that the changes in the indices of refraction were linearly
proportional to the loads (thus to the stresses or strains for a linearly elastic material) and
followed the relationship:

n1 − n 0= C1σ1 + C 2 (σ2 + σ3 ) 

n 2 − n 0= C1σ2 + C 2 (σ3 + σ1 ) 
n 3 − n 0= C1σ3 + C 2 (σ1 + σ2 ) 

where σ1, σ2, σ3 = principal stresses at the point

n0 = index of refraction of material in the unstressed state.

n1, n2, n3= principal refractive indices of the material in the stressed state associated with the
principal stresses, σ1, σ2 and σ3 respectively.
C1, C2 = stress-optic coefficients, which depend on the material.

Equations are the fundamental relationships between stress and optical effect and are
known as the stress-optic law.

Eliminating n0 from equations, we get

n 2 − n1= (C 2 − C1 )(σ1 − σ2 =
) C(σ1 − σ2 ) 

n 3 − n 2= (C 2 − C1 )(σ2 − σ3 =
) C(σ2 − σ3 ) 
) C(σ3 − σ1 ) 
n1 − n 3= (C 2 − C1 )(σ3 − σ1 =

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where C = C2 – C1 is the relative or differential stress-optic coefficient expressed in terms of

Brewster’s (1 Brewster = 10-12 cm2/dyn = 10-12 m2/N).

Now the wave equation is,

2π
E= α cos (z − ct)
λ
= α cos φ

Angular phase shift between two waves,

∆ = φ2 - φ1

Since the stressed photoelastic models behaves like temporary wave plate, hence

2 πh
=φ1 (n1 − n 0 )
λ
2 πh
=φ2 (n 2 − n 0 )
λ
2 πh
∴ ∆ = φ=2 − φ1 (n 2 − n1 )
λ

Therefore, if a beam of plane-polarized light is passed through a slice of thickness h at

normal incidence, the relative retardation ∆ accumulated along each of the principal stress
directions becomes
2 πhC
= ∆12 ( σ1 − σ 2 )
λ
2 πhC
= ∆ 23 (σ2 − σ3 )
λ
2 πhC
= ∆ 31 ( σ 3 − σ1 )
λ

where ∆12, ∆23, ∆31 is the magnitude of the relative retardation developed between components of
light beam propagating in the σ3, σ1, σ2 directions respectively.

For two-dimensional or plane-stress problems (σ3 = 0) and we get

2 πhC
∆= ( σ1 − σ 2 )
λ
Nfσ
or σ1 - σ2 =
h
∆
where N=
2π
is the relative retardation in terms of a complete cycle of retardation and is termed the fringe
order.

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λ
fσ =
C

is a property of the model material for a given wavelength of light and is called the material
fringe value in terms of normal stress and h is the model thickness.

Equation may be written as

σ1 − σ 2 Nfτ
=τ =
2 h

where fτ is the material fringe value in terms of shear and is equal to one-half of fσ.

For a perfectly linear photoelastic material,

1
ε1= (σ1 − vσ 2 )
E
1
ε2 = (σ2 − vσ1 )
E

1+ v
Thus ε1 =
− ε2 ( σ1 − σ 2 )
E

Equation becomes

 E  (ε − ε ) = Nfσ
  1 2
 1+ v  h
Nfε
or ε1 − ε 2 =
h

 1+ v f
where fε =  σ
 E 

is called the material fringe value in terms of strain equation can also be written as

ε1 - ε2 = NFε
where f
Fε = ε isthe model fringe value in terms of strain.
h

Equation states that in a transparent and isotropic model in which the stresses are two-
dimensional, the angular phase difference between the two rectangular wave components
travelling through the model is directly proportional to the difference of the principal stresses.

At those points in a stressed model where σ1 = σ2, the fringe order is zero and permanent
black dots appear at these points. Such points are called isotropic points. If σ1 = σ2 = 0 then also
the fringe order is zero at these points and permanent black dots appear. Such points are called
singular points.

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Basic Elements of a Polariscope

The polariscope is an optical instrument containing polaroids that utilizes the properties
of polarized light in its operation. For photoelastic investigations two types of polariscopes are
used:

1. Plane polariscope
2. Circular polariscope.

In the plane polariscope, plane-polarized light is used and in the circular polariscope, circularly
polarized light is used. When the light is transmitted through the model then the polariscope is
called of the transmission type. The polariscope may also be either of the lens type or diffused
light type.

Plane polariscope

The basic arrangement of a lens type plane polariscope is shown in figure shows the set
up for a diffused light polariscope.

Figure: Lens type plane polariscope.

Figure: Diffused light plane polariscope.

The light source may be a mercury or a sodium vapour lamp, an incandescent filament
lamp or a bank of bulbs. Mercury or sodium vapour lamps are used as monochromatic light

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sources and incandescent filament lamp is used as a white light source, for the lens type in an
opaque box with a ground glass on one side to give diffused light. The filter F is generally a
 
Wratten filter No. 77 to give a particular wavelength of 5461 A (green) or 5893 A (yellow).

The first field lens (FL1) gives a parallel beam of light in the field of view.

The function of the polarizer (P) is to produce plane-polarized light. Polarizers are now-
a-days made from thin sheets of Polaroid.

The model M made out of a photoelastic material is loaded in a loading frame by which
various types of loads can be applied. The load is applied either by means of dead weight
through a level or by means of a screw and measured by a spring balance.

The analyzer (A) is similar to the polarizer and is used to combine the two beams coming
from the model. The polarizer and analyzer are generally coupled together by a flexible coupling
to achieve their simultaneous rotation.

The second field lens (FL2) is used to make the parallel beam of light converse on the
projection lens (PL), which finally projects the interference fringes onto the screen or camera
(C). The aperture of the projection lens may be controlled to obtain a part or full view of the
model.
Two types of set up are possible with the plane polariscope, i.e. bright, when polarizer
and analyzer are parallel and dark when polarizer and analyzer are crossed.

Circular polariscope

In addition to all the elements of a plane polariscope, the circular polariscope has two
more quarter wave plates (QWP), the first between the polarizer and model and the second
between the model and the analyzer as shown in figure. The fast and slow axes of the QWP’s
are inclined at 45° with the polarizer or the analyzer. The QWP’s are made of Polaroid film and
produces a path difference of λ/4 or a phase difference of 90° in the two light vectors passing
through them. Four different set ups are possible with the circular polariscope as depicted
below:

Set up Polarizer-Analyzer Quarter-wave plates Field

1 Crossed Parallel Bright

2 Crossed Crossed Dark
3 Parallel Crossed Bright
4 Parallel Parallel Dark

The crossed-crossed set up is called the standard set up of the circular polariscope. The
first QWP converts plane polarized light into circularly polarized light and the second QWP
converts circularly polarized light into plane polarized light.

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Figure:

Figure:(B) Circular Polariscope

The diffused light plane polariscope can be easily converted into a circular polariscope by
interposing two QWP’s as done for the lens polariscope. Diffused light polariscope is generally
used for preliminary or rough work and lens type polariscope is used for more accurate work.

Effect of a Stressed Model in a Plane Polariscope

Dark-Field set up

Consider the dark-field set up of the plane polariscope (Fig) when the polarizer and
analyzer are crossed. The plane polarized light beam emerging from the polarizer can be
represented by

E = α cos wt

The light vector on entering the two dimensional stressed model will be decomposed into
two vectors along the two principal directions, one along the fast (or σ1) axis and the other along
the slow (or σ2) axis. Light vector (electric) along the fast axis on entering the model

E1e = α cos wt cos θ,

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and along the slow axis

E2e = α cos wt sin θ

where θ is the angle between the axis of polarizer and maximum principal stress σ1 and the
subscript ‘e’ stands for entering.

Figure: Effects of a stressed model in a plane polariscope

Since the light vector E1e travels faster than E2e, therefore, on emerging out from the model they
develop a phase difference. Hence the light vector leaving along the fast axis of the model E1l
and falling on the analyzer becomes,

E1l = α cos(wt + ∆ ) cos θ

Whereas the light vector leaving along the slow axis of the model and falling on the analyzer will
be given by

E 2l =
E 2e =
α cos wt sin θ
where the subscript l stands for leaving.

Since the axis of the analyzer is oriented at right angles to that of the polarizer, the light
vector transmitted through the analyzer is

=
E t E1l sin θ − E 2l cos θ
= α cos(wt + ∆) cos θ sin θ - α cos ωt cos θ sin θ
= α sin θ cos θ[cos(ωt + ∆) − cos ωt]
∆ ∆
= -α sin 2θ sin  ωt +  sin
 2 2

Intensity of light I is proportional to the square of the amplitude Et. Hence

∆ ∆
I ∝ a 2 sin 2 2θ sin 2  ωt +  sin 2
 2 2
∆ ∆
= I 0 sin 2 2θ.sin 2  ωt +  sin 2
 2 2

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where I0 = maximum transmitted light intensity.

Light intensity I will be zero or extinction can be obtained in the following three ways:

(a) Effect of frequency

 ∆
When  ωt +  = nπ, n = 0,1, 2,.....
 2
 ∆
Then sin2  ωt +  = 0 and I = 0.
 2

However, the circular frequency ω for light in the visible spectrum is approximately 1015
rad/s and neither the eye nor any type of existing high speed photographic film can detect the
periodic extinction associated with the ωt term and thus this factor can be ignored.
Hence we are left with
∆
=I I 0 sin 2 2θ sin 2
2
(b) Effect of principal stress directions.

When 2θ = nπ, n = 0, 1, 2, …… sin2 2θ = 0 and I = 0

Therefore, when one of the principal stress directions coincides with the axis of the
polarizer, extinction occurs. When the entire model is viewed in the polariscope, a fringe pattern
is observed; the fringes are loci of points were the principal stress directions coincide with the
axis of the polarizer. The fringe pattern formed by the sin2 2θ term is known as the isoclinic
fringe pattern. These are the loci of points having constant stress directions. The isoclinic fringe
patterns are employed to determine the principal stress directions in the in photoelastic model.

(c) Effect of principal stress difference.

∆ ∆
When = nπ, n = 0, 1, 2, ...... sin 2 = 0
2 2
and extinction occurs. Therefore, when the principal stress difference is either zero (n = 0) or
sufficient to produce an integral number of wavelengths of retardation (n = 1, 2, 3….), extinction
occurs. When a complete model is viewed in the polariscope a fringe pattern is observed which
are the loci of points exhibiting the same order of extinction (n = 0, 1, 2, 3,…). The fringe
∆
pattern produced by the sin2 term is known as the isochromatic (same colour) fringe pattern.
2
2 πhC
Now = ∆ ( σ1 − σ 2 )
λ

∆ hC
Hence = ( σ1 − σ 2 )
2π λ
h
or n=N= (σ1 − σ 2 ), n = 0,1, 2,....
fσ

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when a model is viewed with white light the isochromatic fringe pattern appears as a series of
coloured bands. Thus we find that in a plane polariscope the isoclinic and isochromatic fringe
pattern are obtained, superimposed on each other.

Bright-Field set up

In the bright-field set up the axis of the analyzer is parallel to that of the polarizer. Hence

=E t E1l cos θ + E 2l sin θ

= α cos (ωt + ∆) + cos 2 θ + α cos ωt sin 2 θ
1 + cos 2θ   1 − cos 2θ 
= α cos(ωt + ∆)   + α cos ωt  
 2   2 
α α
= [cos(ωt + ∆) + cos ωt] + cos 2θ[cos(ωt + ∆) − cos ωt]
2 2
∆ ∆ ∆ ∆
=α cos  ωt +  cos − α cos 2θ sin  ωt +  sin
 2 2  2 2

∆ ∆
Et =
α cos 2 + sin 2 cos 2 2θ
2 2
∆
= α 1-sin 2 sin 2 2θ
2

∆
Hence I ∝ α 2  1 − sin 2 sin 2 2θ 
 2 
∆
= I 0  1 − sin 2 sin 2 2θ 
 2 
I = 0 when sin ∆/2 sin 2θ = 1 or the intensity I is maximum when sin2 ∆/2 sin2 2θ = 0.
2 2

Therefore, the conditions for maximum intensity of the transmitted light are now the same as
those for extinction for the dark field set up.

Effect of a Stressed Model in a Circular Polariscope

Dark-field set up

Consider the standard set up (crossed-crossed) of the circular polariscope as shown in

figure. The light vector leaving the polarizer can be written as

E = α cos ωt

Components of light vector on entering the first QWP become

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π α
E1e =
α cos ωt cos = cos ωt
2 2
π α
E 2e =
α cos ω[Link] = cos ωt
2 2

The first QWP produces a phase deference of π/2 and converts plane polarized light into
circularly polarized light. Components of light vector on leaving the first QWP become

α π  −α
=
E1l cos  ωt +
=  sin ωt
2  2 2
α
E=
2l E=2e cos ωt
2

If the principal axes of the model are inclined at angle θ with the axis of the first QWP, the
components of light vector along the principal axis of the model on entering are

=
E αe E1l cos θ − E 2l sin θ
α α
=- sin ωt cos θ − cos ωt sin θ
2 2
=
E be E1l sin θ + E 2l cos θ
α α
=- sin ωt sinθ+ cos ωt cos θ
2 2

The model introduces a phase difference of∆. Therefore, the components of light vector on
leaving the model and entering the second QWP become,

α
E αl = − [sin(ωt + ∆) cos θ + cos(ωt + ∆) sin θ]
2
α
=− [sin(ωt + ∆ + θ) cos θ − cos(ωt + θ) sin θ]
2
=
E 4e E bl cos θ − Eαl sin θ
α
= [cos(ωt + θ) cos θ + sin(ωt + ∆ + θ) sin θ]
2

The second QWP also produces a phase difference of π/2. Therefore, the components of light
vector on leaving the second QWP and entering the analyzer become

E 3l = E 3e
α   ωt + θ + π  cos θ + sin  ωt + ∆ + θ + π  sin θ 
=E 4l cos    
2   2  2 

α
= [− sin(ωt + θ) cos θ + cos(ωt + ∆ + θ) sin θ]
2

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Figure: Effect of a stressed model in a standard circular polariscope

The resultant light vector transmitted through the crossed analyzer become,

π π
=E t E 3l cos − E 4l cos
4 4
1
= (E 3l − E 4l )
2
α
= [cos(ωt + θ) sin θ − sin(ωt + ∆ + θ) cos θ
2
+ sin(ωt+θ) cos θ - cos(ωt+∆ +θ)sinθ]
α
= [sin(ωt + 2θ) − sin(ωt + ∆ + 2θ)]
2
∆ ∆
= α cos  ωt + 2θ+  sin
 2 2

Intensity of light I ∝ E2. Hence

∆ ∆
I ∝ α 2 cos 2  ωt + 2θ +  sin 2
 2 2
∆ ∆
=I I 0 cos 2  ωt + 2θ +  sin 2
 2 2

I = 0, i.e., extinction can be obtained in two ways.

(a) Effect of frequency

 ωt + 2θ + ∆=  (2n + 1) π
When  
 2 2
∆
then cos 2  ωt + 2θ +  = 0, n = 0, 1, 2,....
 2

Hence I = 0.

But the frequency ω is very high and any extinction produced by it cannot be detected by

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eye or any photographic equipment. Hence the isoclinics are automatically eliminated. Thus

∆
I = I 0 sin 2
2
(b) Effect of stress difference.

∆
When = nπ, n = 0, , 2,….
2

∆
Then sin2 =0
2

and I=0

This type of extinction is identical with that for the plane polariscope and referred to as
isochromatic fringe pattern.

∆ h
Thus n= = ( σ1 − σ 2 )
2π fσ
h
or n = N = ( σ1 − σ 2 )
fσ

Fractional Fringe Order Determination

1
We can determine the isochromatic fringe order to the nearest order by using both the
2
dark and bright-field arrangements of a polariscope. Further improvements on the accuracy of
the fringe order determination can be achieved either by using the mixed-field patterns or by
using Post’s fringe multiplication method. In order to achieve higher accuracy, as is desirable in
many applications, the following methods may be used:

1. Compensation techniques
2. Colour matching techniques
3. Equidensometry method

Compensation Techniques

Compensation is a technique in which partial modification of relative retardation either

by addition or subtraction is brought about so that the fractional fringe order at a point become
integral. Then by knowing the amount of relative retardation added or substracted the actual
fringe order at that point can be ascertained. The following methods for compensation
techniques are most commonly used:

1. The Babinet compensation method.

2. The Babinet Soleil compensation method.
3. Tension or compression strip method.
4. Tardy method of compensation.

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5. Senarmont method of compensation

6. Photometric method.

1. The Babinet Compensation Method. The Babinet compensator uses two wedges of quarts,
which is a naturally double refracting material. As shown in Figure, one of the wedges is fixed
in the instrument, while the other can be displaced relative to the first so as to alter combined
thickness by means of a fine micrometer screw with graduated drum head. With micrometer
screw at zero, the compensator is said to be in the neutral position. The compensator is placed in
the polariscope in between the model and second quarter wave plate. The optic axis of the two
wedges are orthogonal to each other. The polarized light beam in one and retarded in the other
wedge.

The relative retardation R produced when the two wedges have been displaced from their
neutral position is given by,

K
=
R (d − d0 )
λ
K
= (t + d0 − d0 )
λ
Kt K
=
= x tan α
λ λ

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Figure: The Babinet Compensator

where K = n1 – n2
α = angle of wedge
≈ 2.5°
x = horizontal displacement, which is equal to the micrometer reading

 K tan α  .x
R= 
or 
 λ 
= C. x

 K tan α  is a constant.
where C =  
 λ 
m Micrometer reading
thus R= =
m 0  Number of turns necessary to 
 
 produce a retardation of one 
 wavelength 

The Babinet compensator allows fringe orders, to be determined to within 0.01 fringe.

2. The Babinet Soleil Compensation Method. The Babinet-Soleil compensator shown in

figure is an improvement upon the Babinet compensator. This instrument consists of a quartz
plate of uniform thickness and two quartz wedges. The optical axes of the quartz crystals
employed in the plate and the wedges are mutually orthogonal. The birefringence exhibited by
the compensator can be controlled by adjusting the thickness of the two wedges by turning a
calibrated micrometer screw. When t1 = t2, no relative retardation takes place, however for
t 2 < t 1 , both positive and negative retardation can be produced over the whole area of the
>

compensator plate. This compensator is very useful for measuring boundary stresses.

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Figure: The Babinet-Soleil Compensator.

In practice, a point is selected on the model where the fringe order is to be established
precisely. Then isoclinic parameters are established for this point to give the direction to either
σ1 or σ2. The compensator is then aligned with the principal stress direction and adjusted to
cancel out the model retardation. The reading of the screw micrometer is proportional to the
fringe order at that point. Like this fringe order at a point can be ascertained to within 0.001
fringe.

3. Tension or Compression Strip Method. In a standard circular polariscope, at an

isotropic point the fringe order is always zero. Based upon this fact a method for the
determination of (σ1 - σ2) has been suggested by Wetheim and developed by Coker. In this
method a pure tensile or compressive stress is superimposed over an arbitrary system of σ1 and
σ2 in such a way as to convert the given stress system into one which is optically equivalent to an
isotropic point. White light is exclusively used in this method.

Figure shows how the plane stress system at a point can be converted to an isotropic
system plus a tension of (σ1 - σ2). A tension compensator may be placed parallel to the
minimum stress σ2 and the compression compensator must be placed parallel to the maximum
stress σ1. The value of (σ1 - σ3) equals numerically the stress in the compensator at extinction.
If the fringe order at a point by placing a tension compensator increases, then that point is having
tensile stress.

Figure: Superposition of retardation exhibited by model and compensator

4. The Tardy Method of Compensation. The Tardy method of compensator is

generally preferred over the Babinet-Soleil method since no auxiliary equipment is required and
the analyzer of the polariscope serves as the compensator. In this method the polarizer of the
polariscope is aligned with the direction of the principal stress σ1 at the point of interest and all
other elements of the polariscope are rotated relative to the polarizer so that a standard dark-field
polariscope exists. Then the analyzer alone is rotated to obtain extinction. The rotation of the
analyzer gives the fractional fringe order.

As shown in Figure, here θ = -π/4 and the light vector emerging out from the second

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QWP becomes (see Art).

 
a π  π  π  π 
E 3l =− sin  ωt + ∆ − 4  cos  − 4  − cos  ωt − 4  sin  − 4  
2 
a π π 
= - sin  ωt + ∆ −  + cos  ωt −  
2  4  4 

Figure: The Tardy compensation method.

a  π  π  π  π 
=E 4l sin  ωt − 4  cos  − 4  − cos  ωt + ∆ − 4  sin  − 4  

2 
a π π 
=  − sin  ωt −  − cos  ωt + ∆ −  
2  4  4 

Let γ be the angle through which analyzer should be rotated to obtain extinction, i.e. Et = 0, then

π π
=E t E 4l cos  − γ  − E 3l cos  + γ 
4  4 
a π π  π
= - sin  ωt −  + cos  ωt + ∆ −   cos  − γ 
2  4  4  4 
a π π  π
+ sin  ωt + ∆ −  + cos  ωt −   cos  + γ 
2  4  4  4 

Simplifying, we get

∆  ∆ 
E l a sin  ωt +  sin  −=
= γ   0
 2   2 

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∆
Hence sin  − γ  = 0
2 

∆
or − γ = nπ, n = 0, 1, 2, .......
2
∆
or = nπ + γ
2
∆ γ
or N= = n+
2π π

If the analyzer is rotated in the opposite direction then

γ
N = (n + 1) -
π

Thus the Tardy method of compensation can be accomplished in the following way:

1. Using a plane-polariscope set up, determine the principal stress directions at the point of
interest by rotating the crossed polarizer and analyzer until an isoclinic passes through
that point.

2. Now rotate only the quarter wave plates of a circular polariscope to obtain a standard
dark-field arrangement.

3. Rotate only the analyzer then until an isochromatic fringe coincides with the point.
Determine the angle γ that the analyzer has rotated.

4. If the Nth order fringe moves to the point as the analyzer rotates through the angle γ, the
fringe order N0 at the point is

γ
N= N+
π
0

If the (N + 1)st order fringe moves to the point as the analyzer rotates through the angle γ,
the fringe order N0 at the point is
γ
N0 = (N + 1) −
π

To account for the finite fringe width, the following procedure, as illustrated in fig, may be
followed:

1. The angle of analyzed ra = 0 [Fig (a)].

2. Rotate the analyzer until the fringe N just touches the boundary at the point of interest.
This is angle rb. [Fig (b)].

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Figure: Illustration of Tardy method of fringe order determination.

3. Continue to rotate the analyzer until N vanishes from the field of view. This is angle rc
[Fig.]

Then the fringe order at the point of interest of the free boundary is

rb + rc
N=
0 N+
360

This method is commonly referred to as the Tardy in-out method.

5. The Senarmont Method of Compensation.

(Friedel’s Method)

The following steps are involved for this method:

1. Remove first quarter wave plate.

2. Rotate system of polarizer and analyzer so that their axes make angles of 45° with the
principal directions in the modal at the point of interest.
3. Rotate second quarter-wave plate until one axis is parallel to the axis of the polarizer.
4. Rotate the analyzer until extinction is obtained at the point of interest.
The arrangements of the elements of the polariscope are shown in Fig.

Let the light vector from the polarizer be given by

E = a cos ωt

Since the polarizer is set as 45° to the principal directions in the model hence on entering the
model the light vector is resolved into two components, given by

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1
E1e =α cos ω[Link] 45 = α cos ωt
2
1
E 2e =
α cos ω[Link] 45 = α cos ωt
2

The model introduces a phase different of ∆. Therefore, on leaving the model, the components
of light vector become,

α
=
E1l cos(ωt + ∆)
2
α
E=
2e E=2e cos ωt
2

The fast axis of the QWP is set at 90° to the polarizer axis. Hence on entering the QWP, the
light components become
= Eac E1l cos 45 − E 2l cos 45
α
= [cos(ωt + ∆) − cos ωt]
2
= E bc E1l cos 45 + E 2l cos 45
α
= [cos(ωt + ∆) − cos ωt]
2

Figure: Senarmont compensation method

The QWP introduces a phase difference of π/2. Hence on leaving the QWP , the light
vectors become,

α π π 
=
Eal  cos  ωt + ∆ +  − cos  ωt +  
2  2  2 
α
= [− sin(ωt + ∆) + sin ωt]
2
α
E=
bl E=bc [cos(ωt + ∆) + cos ωt]
2

Now the analyzer is rotated through an angle γ to obtain extinction at the point of interest. Light
transmitted through the analyzer is

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=
E t Eal cos γ − E bt sin γ
α
= − [{sin(ωt + ∆) − sin ωt} cos γ + {cos(ωt + ∆) + cos ωt} sin γ ]
2
α ∆ ∆ ∆ ∆ 
=−  2 cos  ωt +  sin cos γ + 2 cos  ωt +  cos sin γ  =0
2  2 2  2 2 

∆ ∆
Hence sin cos γ + cos sin γ = 0
2 2

∆
sin  + γ  =0
2 

∆
or + γ = nπ, n = 0,1, 2,.... f
2
∆
= nπ − γ
2
∆ γ
N= = n−
2π π

Tardy and Senarmont compensation methods are called the ‘goniometric’ or ‘null location’
methods.

Three-dimensional Photoelasticity

Introduction

Many stress analysis problems are three-dimensional in nature for which the two-
dimensional photoelastic method cannot be employed. These problems, however, can be solved
either by locking in the stresses in the model or a multilayer reflection technique may be used to
determine the stresses at the inner layers of the body. Three-dimensional stress distribution in
the body can also be determined by the scattered light method. In this chapter we shall discuss
the locking-in method the stresses in three-dimensional models in detail and the multilayer
reflection technique in brief.

The stresses in a three-dimensional model can be locked-in either by stress-freezing, by

curing method, by creep method or by gamma-ray irradiation method. Out of these methods, the
stress-freezing method is most widely used. This method consists in loading the model at room
temperature (at which the primary secondary bonds break down), keeping at that temperature for
few hours and then cooling to room temperature at a slow rate. The stresses thus frozen in the
model can be analyzed by slicing and viewing in a polariscope.
Maxwell in 1853, and Filon and Harris in 1923 had both obtained the stress-frozen effect
accidentally, while Tuzi in 1927 and Solakian in 1935 both attempted to calculate the residual
stresses and to relate them to the applied loads. None of these, however, fully appreciated the
significance of the phenomenon, and it was Solakian who in 1935 and Oppel in 1936 first
produced a quantitative solution of a three dimensional problem, followed by He’tenyi, who in

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1938 first established the strict proportionality of stresses. This discovery opened the way to the
complete solution of the three-dimensional problems and resulted in a very sharp increases in
activity in photoelastic research. Hetenyi, O’ Rourke, Drucker and Mindlin, Drucker and
Woodward, Frocht and Mindlin developed methods of measurement of the frozen stresses and
Jessop in 1949 devised integration methods for determining the separate stresses. Jessop and
Stableford in 1953 published an extension to three dimensions of the Lame-Maxwell equations,
which made it possible to determine the principal stresses along a stress trajectory in a plane of
symmetry. The stress-freezing method of three-dimensional photoelasticity today is a practical
instrument of stress analysis, particularly in complex structures.

UNIT IV
BRITTLE COATINGS
Relation between stresses in coating and specimen
use of failure theories in brittle coating
Moire method of strain analysis

The brittle-coating or stress coat method is a qualitative whole-field technique where a

brittle-lacquer is sprayed on the part to be analysed, dried overnight, then loaded in static,
dynamic or impact mode. The brittle lacquer will crack perpendicular to the direction of
maximum principal stress first, in the most highly stressed area. As the load increases the crack
pattern enlarges as the coating the area of high stress becomes larger. By knowing the stresses in
the coating the stresses in the coating the stresses is the specimen can be ascertained. Stresses to
an accuracy of we shall study this method in detail.

The first brittle coatings to be employed were those coatings which naturally formed on
structural members, such as mill scale on hot-rolled steel and oxides on heated surfaces. These
brittle coatings failed by flaking or cracking when the base material yielded under load and
excessive strains were produced. To improve the visibility of the crack patterns, the structural
member were often coated coated with whitewash. The cracking and flaking of hr coating
produced dark dark lines which were readily visible against the white back ground.

Brittle coatings have been used on plastics, wood, paper, rubber, glass, bones and metals
to investigate stresses under static dynamic and impact loads. They have been used to test parts
in the laboratory as well as out-of-doors under field conditions. Stresses around weldments, on
pressure vessels, gas turbine blades, reactor head closure, and turbo-super charger impeller have
been successfully analysed.

Types of Brittle Coatings

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The following types of coating are available:

1. Resin based coating – ‘Stress Coat’. This consist of about one-third zine resinate as a base
dissolved in about two-third carbon disulphide with a small amount of plasticizer. Dibutyl
phthalate is used as a plasticizer to vary the degree of brittleness of brittleness of the coating,
which increase with its increase. The strain sensitivity of this coating varies from 0.0003 to
0.0030. It can be applied to the test specimen by a spraying method. This coating can be used
upto 60oC and absorbs water and oil. The thickness of this coating can be made varying from
0.10 to 0.15 mm and can be used for macro and micro applications. Stresscoat has been
employed in trichloroethylene or benzene and phenolic resin mixed with titanic white and
dissolved in a mixture of benzene, toluene and xylene have also been used as brittle lacquers.
2. Ceramic based coating – ‘All Temp’. It consist of finely ground ceramic particles
suspended in a solvent. It can be sprayed by conventional means onto the specimen.
Upon drying at room temperature the coating presents a chalklike appearance and is not
suitable for use. In order to make the coating effective, it must be fired at about 540oC
until the ceramic particles melt and coalesce. When fired, the coating is glasslike in
appearance and brown in colour. These coatings are relatively insensitive to minor
changes in temperature. They can be used upto 370oC and are not influenced by the
presence of oil and water. Their disadvantage include the high temperature of 537.7oC
required to fire the coating which produces detrimental effect on components fabricated
from aluminum, magnesium, plastic and highly heat-treated steels. Their visual
inspection for cracks is not possible and statiflux method must be resorted to. Strain
sensitivity of these coating range from 0.0002 to 0.0020. Porcelain enamel coatings are
also available, whose properties are similar to ceramic based coatings, but can be used at
all temperatures.
3. Tens-Lac Brittle Lacquer. This is a new, high sensitivity, non-flammable, odorless and
of low toxicity brittle lacquer. This lacquer can be applied by spraying on test specimens.
The nominal threshold strain for Tens-Lac is 500µ cm/cm. This lacquer requires a
reflective under coating if the test surface is dark. Tens-Lac is available in eleven grades
from TL-500-40 to TL-500-100, were 500 indicates the strain sensitivity and the last
number (e.g. 40 and 100) indicates the temperature of use in Fo to obtain the strain
sensitivity of 500µ cm/cm. The best thickness of the coating is 0.075 mm.

Table 10.1 gives the relative comparison of these lacquers.

S.
Property Stress-coat All-Temp Tens-Lac
No
Minor changes in
1. Very sensitive Insensitive Sensitive
temperature
37.7oC -45oC to 370oC 37.7oC
2. Limiting temperature
(100oF) (- 50oF to 700oF) (100oF)
Effect of oil and
3. Influenced Not influenced Influenced
water

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Very high
temperature of
4. Firing of coating Not required 537.7oC (1000oF) is Not required
required for 15
minutes
5. Visual observation Possible Not possible Possible
500µ m/m at
300 to 3000µ
6. Strain sensitivity 200 to 2000µ m/m the specified
cm/cm
temperature
Except those having
7. Suitable for All materials melting point less All materials
than 537.7oC

Evaluation of the Coating

The following characteristics are used to evaluate the coating
1. Strain sensitivity. This is the threshold strain which is defined as the minimum strain
necessary to crack the coating in a uniaxial state of stress. Coating sensitivity is the
inverse of strain sensitivity. Strain sensitivity of a coating can be determined by a
calibration technique.
2. Continuous crack. This is defined as the first crack extending from one boundary of
the calibration beam to the other boundary.
3. Crazing or failure by shrinkage and by thermal and humidity effects, without loading
the specimen.
4. Closing of cracks after unloading
5. Crack density.
6. Flaking.

Basic Brittle Lacquer Technique

The following basic steps are involved in the brittle lacquer method:

1. Preparation of the test specimen surface by cleaning and spraying with a reflective
coating like aluminum.
2. Selection of appropriate lacquer for the expected test conditions.
3. Application of the lacquer to the test specimen and calibration strip.
4. Curing the lacquer.
5. Loading the test specimen and observing the cracks.
6. Loading the calibration strip to determine the strain corresponding to incipient
cracking, i.e threshold strain.
7. Treating with dye etchants or statiflux for improved crack visibility when desired.
Variables Influencing the Coating Behaviour

There are many variables which influence the behaviour of the coating. For stress coat,
Durelli, Phillips and Tsao have listed 37 of these variables. However, the influence of these
variables can be minimized if proper precautions are taken as per the manufacture’s instructions.
Some of the important variables are discussed below:

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1. Number and type of coating. For stress coat and All-Temp brittle lacquers, the strain
sensitivity increases as the coating code number increase. However, the strain-sensitivity
of Tens-Lac is 500µ cm/cm at the specified temperature. If the quantity of plasticizer is
increased in stress coat then the threshold strain increases. Coatings made from old liquid
are more sensitive.
2. Effect of spraying unit. Water vapours in the spraying in the spraying air causes large
bubbles in the coating, which should be avoided by using a filter. The pressure of the
spraying unit should also be specified by the manufacturer. Greater the pressure, the
‘dustier’ is the appearance of the coating because there is more air to evaporate the
solvent in the liquid and consequently some of the lacquer reaches the surfaces of
specimen in solid form.
3. Effect of coating application method. The distance of the gun from the test specimen
should 75 to 100mm. The speed of spraying traverse should be applied by spraying
uniform thickness in a number of passes until the specified thickness is obtained. The
coating strain sensitivity decrease with coating thickness. It has been found that cross-
spraying gives a more uniform coating thickness that parallel spraying. The spraying
passes should be made after at least 5 seconds, and should not be more that about 40
seconds.
4. Influence of heat treatment. To improve the strain-sensitivity of the coating by a heat-
treatment technique, the time between spraying and heating should be at least 5 minutes.
Strain sensitivity of stresscoat at approximately 107oF is higher that that for the same
coating thickness at 75oF. At any given temperature over approximately 90oF, strain
sensitivity increases with decreasing thickness. At higher rate of cooling, crazing occurs.
Higher humidity during curing increases the strain sensitivity. As outer layers of the
coating dry first they have a higher modulus of elasticity that the inner layers.
5. Testing conditions. The strain sensitivity of all coatings increase with the increase in
testing temperature and decrease with the increase in relative humidity. The coating
should be tested within 48 hours after spraying. Virgin coatings have higher threshold
strain than coatings that have been loaded once or twice previously upto the same load.
Loads should be applied slowly enough. Static loads should be applied for 2 seconds or
more and dynamic loads for about 3 or 4 milliseconds. After 15 seconds the changes in
sensitivity are negligible. Therefore calibration and loading time for static tests should be
standardized at 15 seconds. Waiting time between successive applications of load should
be four times the loading time to eliminate the influence of creep.
6. Effect of stress conditions. If the strain gradients perpendicular to the cracks in the test
specimen are appreciably different from that of the calibration strip, then the corrected
strain sensitivity is given by,

2980(2 ×10−4 − x 2
(ε ) corrected=
d
ε −
d

(ε − 68 ×10−5 )
s s 1/ 9
d
s + 1.1
where x = strain gradient at the investigated point, cm/cm/2.54 cm.

The coating behavior is also influenced by the biaxiality of stress and hydrostatic
pressure. Near free boundaries the coating is thicker than inside the field. Residual stresses may
be produced by shrinkage in the coating, when it passes from the liquid to the solid state or by
change in temperature.

7. Effect of refrigeration and dye-etchant. The strain sensitivity of the coating decreases

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with a sudden drop in temperature. The coating sensitivity increases with the application
of dye-ctchant.

Advantages of Brittle Coatings

1. It provides whole field data for both magnitude and direction of principal stresses and
does not require a tedious point-by-point method.
2. It does not require the construction of a model and can usually be applied to a prototype
of the actual machine component being studied.
3. There is no load simulation problem.
4. The data analysis is simple.

However the accuracy of variables as discussed in the previous article, whose knowledge is very
essential.

Brittle Coating Applications

Brittle coating technique may be employed in the following applications:

1. Determination of residual stresses in conjunction with the hole-drilling method.

2. Determination of compressive strains by using relaxation technique.
3. Determination of dynamic strains.
4. Determination of strains at high temperature upto 370oC.
5. Determination of yield and plastic strains.
6. For outdoor operations.
7. For operations under water and hydrostatic pressure.
8. Determination of strains on very thin components.

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Suppose, I apply a very high load I would have lot of cracks formed that is not the issue, you have to
sequentially record the formation of cracks as a function of load. So, I want to see only few cracks at
a time. So, that is the success when I have the load increment appropriately decided upon and I also
said experimentally anticipate results before perform an experiment. So, you have done some
calculations, it is not that closing your eyes go and apply the load and then react to whatever the
pattern that you see. You anticipate in a particular fashion and that has to be look at very carefully.

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And what is the important is like in optical techniques; here also I see whole field information by
looking at the crack patterns formed one can comment whether the stress field is uniaxial, biaxial or
isotropic. In fact, in some of the earlier studies even to identify zones of uniaxial, biaxial and then
isotopic was an issue, it was large problems. Suppose, I know in a particular region I have only
uniaxial state of stress, then I can reduced a strain gauge channel that is the advantage.

Here, we are not talking about you know laboratory size problems; you are talking about industrial
problems which are very large in size. And by knowing the failure strain of the coating, it is also
possible to quantitatively evaluate the magnitudes of stresses in critical

zones. See this is the possibility, but whether we want use it of a experimental is you have to take a
local decision based on your requirement and time availability.

I am always said, as experimental is people develop very complicated methodologies to extract as

much as possible from a experiment, but from a user point of view you will have to find out to what
extent you want use the experiment detail? My recommendation would be brittle coating is an ideal
technique where you can use the isostatic could decide how to paste strain gauge in a complex
structure? If I am able to reduced one channel per point a great (( )).

And that what is summarized here, you have if you have the knowledge of principal stress direction
using a two gauge strain rosette than a three gauge strain rosette is possible, if I know the principal
stress direction instead of a three gauge strain rosette I can go for a two gauge strain rosette. So, I
reduced one strain gauge per point and the great success of brittle coating is in conjunction with
strain gauge technique. The combination provides excellent results in a short time for industrial
problem, this is the key issue. So, that is what I always mixing industrial when it approaches you, it
wants result yesterday. They want thickness in finding out the source of error and in such
applications combination of brittle coating and strain gauges definitely helps.

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And now, we look at what kind of a crack patterns formed by directed way and what is shown here?
Suppose, I have sigma 1 is greater than 0 and sigma 2 is less than 0 and

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sigma 3 equal to 0. I have essentially biaxial loading situation and sigma 1 is greater than 0 so, you
have cracks formed perpendicular to the direction.

So, by looking at the cracks formed, I can comment that this is the combination of uniaxial stress
either I can have uniaxial stress or you have a tension compression and you have already seen an
example, of a cantilever beam. So, by looking at the cracks what you get? These cracks indicate the
principal stress direction of sigma 2 and the cracks represent stress trajectories or isostatics. Here, it
is shown for a tension compression whereas, here whatever the cantilever example, which you had
see earlier essentially gives a uniaxial state of stress sigma 1 is greater than 0; sigma 2 and sigma 3
are 0.

So, by looking at the crack pattern I can comment whether it is a uniaxial stress field, see we actually
go around and look at you have this white wash that is put on buildings and white wash is actually a
brittle coating. So, by looking at the crack pattern on the wall you can comment whether I have a
uniaxial loading, there whether I have biaxial loading or whether principal stress direction is same at
all directions, all those kind of comments you can make.

So, from that point of view also looking at the crack pattern, gives you an inside without solving the
problem what is a nature of stress field?

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Relation between stresses in coating and specimen

I have a prototype, I have a coating and on the coating, I select appropriately an axis, for convince I
take axis 1 and 2; they correspond to the principal strain direction at the point of interest. And what
we assume is, the coating strain is equal to the specimen strain at the point of interest. The adhesive
is properly used to transfer the strain without loss or amplification, that is what is important; you
should neither it should be amplified nor it should be a loss.

And then, we also looked at how to get the coating stresses; we have looked at stress strain relations
for the specimen; we have also seen this for the coating and you have also got the expression for
coating stress.

Now, look at these expressions very carefully. You know, I have always been saying Poisson’s ratio
place it spoils ports in all experimental techniques and in this case a very special thing happens.

Suppose I have a specimen is subjected to only a uniaxial state of stress, what do these expressions
indicate? The specimen stress is only uniaxial; sigma 2 s is 0, but what happens to the coating? By
looking at this expression, what you infer?

Suppose I have mu c is not equal to mu s, when you have uniaxial specimen stress, I will have biaxial
coating stress, very interesting. You know, I have always cautioned uniaxial stress is simpler,
whereas uniaxial strain is difficult to achieve in experiments and I also cautioned, when I apply a
uniaxial stress on the specimen, the strain would be either biaxial or triaxial depending on the
specific geometry of the specimen under consideration.

And now, what you see here is, because I have a coating applied on this specimen and the Poisson’s
ratio of the coating and this specimen are different, which is usually the case you find, I will have
sigma 1 c as well as sigma 2 c for a uniaxial specimen stress.

So, this makes your data interpretation complex. See, my interest is to bring out and also discourage
you from using brittle coating for quantitative evaluations. Because left to myself, I will use it only

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for finding out the principal stress direction and reduce the channel and you have to know what are
the difficulties.

So, you find for a uniaxial specimen stress, I have a biaxial coating stress in general. Suppose I make
the Poisson’s ratio equal, then I do not have this problem, but you have to appreciate this.

Now, let us look at how I do quantitative evaluation of stresses and this is what I emphasis again and
again. Brittle coating technique is elegant to find the principal stress direction thereby, reducing one
channel per point for strain gauge instrumentation.

And I have already indicated, to some extent the quantitative evaluation of stresses by brittle coating
is quite involved. On the other hand, suppose I have only a uniaxial stress field on the specimen, the
procedure is a lot more simpler and you have enough examples, where uniaxial stress need to be
evaluated.

On the other hand, if the specimen has a biaxial stress field, the estimation is quite complex. See, we
have seen in some of the examples, that you saw one sets of cracks and you saw another set of cracks
form perpendicular to it and when you want to find out the governing equations, what causes the
formation of second set of cracks, you have to bring in lot of approximations and also information

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from the actual experimental situation, that makes the quantitative evaluation involved; not only
involved, but doubtful in accuracy.

And I have already said brittle coating provides you plus or minus 20 percent; you are not
guaranteeing plus or minus 1 percent. So, you have to consider that it is an industrial friendly
technique, where the problem is very complex, even small information will go a long way in
improving your design. So, in a biaxial stress field, the estimation is quite complex mainly because of
the formation of second set of cracks.

And what kind of information you need from the experiment? First is, you need to make suitable
approximations. In addition, one may have to perform a strain gauge experiment at a few locations to
find the factor governing the formation of second set of cracks. Because in the initial case what we
say is, the coating is unperfurated you know, I have a uniform coating and you can say that coating
being a brittle material, it may fail by maximum stress theory or maximum strain theory, whatever
the theory that you want to have, then the cracks form.

But if you want to analyze the formation of second set of cracks, you do not have a uniform coating;
you have a coating with cracks. So, that is why you need to bring in additional approximation and
you have to say there must be some kind of factor which governs, which may not happen at the
actual failure strain of the coating; there will be a factor, and that factor has to be determined
experimentally; you need to make additional experiment using strain gauges otherwise, you will not
be in a position to do it.

See, my interest is, I am not going to get in to the mathematical details; I am going to skip that. But I
want to give you an idea that, when I get into a biaxial stress field, what kind of complexities are
involve in quantitative estimation of stress magnitudes, that is where the focus is.

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And what is the first step in the case of brittle coating? See, we have all along looking at in any of the
experimental techniques, you have to find out what is known as calibration constant. In transmission
photo-elasticity, you had sigma as the calibration constant that you need to find out; in photoelastic
coating, you need to find out k.

Once you come to brittle coating, I need to find out what is failure strain of the coating for the given
test conditions. This is the basic information that helps you to get the quantitative data and you need
to find out the failure strain and for our discussion, we will look at the direct loading.

So, in order to indicate that we are finding out for direct loading, the failure strain is indicated with
the super script d, the d denotes that it is the direct loading. And I have said cantilever beam is the
best choice of the specimen configuration that is used for calibrating the failure strain; whatever the
coating that you have, you find out the failure strain by coating a cantilever beam made of aluminum
and then estimate it.

And we have already seen, the calibration specimen has to be kept under the same test conditions as
the test part and sprayed with the same coating material and you apply the load and find out when do
the cracks form. And now, we have to bring in several cases; you know, you have to bring in… I may
do a calibration on an aluminium specimen so that becomes a specimen for calibration.

So, I will have Poisson’s ratio of the aluminium; so I will have mu a as a Poisson’s ratio of
aluminium, then I have a Poisson’s ratio of the coating, then I have a Poisson’s ratio of the specimen.

So, I am going to handle three different Poisson’s ratios; so that is how the expression will come.
And if you actually look at sigma 1 c and sigma 2 c expression which was seen earlier, it is a play of
that only. But what you need to keep in mind here is, because I use a calibration specimen, which is
made of aluminium and I have to do it on actual test path, which material may be different and I said
Poisson’s ratio mismatch is nuisance and lets us see how. This is interplay of all these values that is
what you are going to see.

And from whatever the expression that you have seen earlier, it is possible for you to write an
expression for coating stress sigma 1 c and I am having only a uniaxial specimen stress; the same
coating stress expression have two terms, one with sigma 1 x and sigma 2 x; since I am using
aluminium as the calibration specimen, instead of using s as your sub script or super script I use a.

So, what I have here is, the coating failure strain can be determined from this expression; the coating
stress is expressed as e c by e a 1 minus v c square multiplied by 1 minus mu c mu a into sigma 1 a.

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Moire’s methods

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UNIT V

NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING (NDT)

Introduction

The non-Destructive Testing (NDT) techniques include inspection, detection and

measurement of the parameters of any material, component of an assembly, without altering any
of its property of affecting its serviceability. In other words, the NDT techniques indicate
directly the ‘State of health’ of the system without interfering, in any way, with the working of
he system i.e., without causing any damage or destruction of the object under test.
Consequently, the awareness and the use of the NDT instrumentation is continually increasing
because of its ability to demonstrate the integrity and reliability of the components and the
operating systems. This thereby enhances the safety of the personnel involved int eh use of
materials and products and also ensures efficient operations of plants and machinery. A lot of
progress has been made in the recent years in their NDT techniques by application of
microelectronics, signal processing methods and computer processing of data. In addition, the
use of Artifical Intelligence (AI) techniques have resulted into implementation of smart and
automated types of NDT procedures. The following are some of the salient features of the NDT
techniques:

1. These techniques are quite simple and generally, do not require very skilled operations.
2. They are economical, both in time as well as money spent.
3. They ensure efficient material manufacturing, improved quality assurance, enhanced
safety in plane operations and increased reliability and availability of products and
services.
4. These techniques are suitable for both on-site and in-service testing of large number of
industrial systems/ components. Common examples are detection of flaws in oil and gas
pipelines, bridges and tall structures, pressure vessels of power plants and nuclear plants,
aircraft and refinery installation, etc.
5. These techniques can detect the onset of deterioration in the working of a plant or a
system and this way they provide sufficient advance warning for the repair or
replacement of the failure-prone components/ systems

However, non-destructive techniques the following limitations that must be taken into account
whenever these methods are used for the inspection/testing of the equipment.

1. Tests often involve indirect measurement of properties with no dire3ct significance in

serviceability. Consequently, correlation between these measurements and serviceability
sometimes may result in somewhat sub-optimal plant operations.
2. Tests are often qualitative in nature rather than quantitative. They do not usually measure
life to failure. Therefore, they usually reveal only the type of damage or expose the
mechanism of failure.
3. Tests usually require skilled judgment and service experience to interpret the NDT data
correctly. Hence, where correlations have not been proved or where experience happens to
be limited, observers may quite often disagree in evaluating the significance of the test
results.

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Types of Defects Detected by NDT Techniques

The types of defects detected by the various NDT techniques can be categorized into the
following three categories:

(a) Inherent defects: These defects generally get introduce during the various production
stages of the raw materials. The commonly observed defects of the is type are for
example, segregations inclusion, porosity , cavities, voids, surface and sub-surface
cracks.
(b) Processing defects: These defects creep in during the various processing stages of the
components/systems. Common examples are:
• Surface and sub-surface cracks may be developed during the mechanical,
thermal/heat treatment processes.
• Lack of penetration of weld materials may result in improper weldment.
• Porosity may be caused by a poor plating procedure.
• Shrinkage and porosity defects may be introduced due to poor quality of casting.
• Laps and folds may be formed in a typical forging process.
(c) Service defects: These defects get produced during the operating life of the components/
systems. Some common examples re defects such as surface and sub-surface cracks
caused due to fatigue, stress corrosion, hydrogen imbrittlement, intergranular corrosion,
pitting etc.

Types of Non-Destructive Techniques

A number of NDT techniques are available and the selection of a particular test method
depends on its suitability for a given situation and the experience of the test personnel.
Generally, these test techniques are classified in two broad categories. The first types are surface
inspection/test techniques, which are primarily suitable for the examination of the flaws on the
surface of the internal features of the materials. Visual inspection, physical inspection, dye
penetration, magnetic flux and eddy current techniques belongs to the first category, where
ultrasonic and radiographic techniques fall in the second category.

Visual (Microscopic) Examination Technique

This technique is very widely used in the industry. Almost all the manufactured/
assembled components/assemblies are initially visually inspected for ensuring good surface
finish, uniformity in texture and freedom from surface defects. In many cases, defects are visible
to the naked eye on the surface of the components. Sometimes visual optical methods may be
employed to facilitate convenient viewing of the surface defects by providing high-resolution
type of illuminated optical magnifiers. i.e., an optical microscope. Herein, the magnification
ranging from 1X to about 100x is employed. This technique enables to observe the gross
features of fracture, the presence or absence of cracks and the presence of any gross defect or any
corrosion or oxidation defects. During visual examination of failures, we sometimes come
across a fracture which is heavily corroded and oxidized type. This indicates that a crack existed
for a longtime, finally propagating to failure.

For the periodic or troubleshooting inspections of the difficult and inaccessible areas in
boilers, heat exchangers, turbines and for hazardous locations like nuclear or offshore locatins,

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devices like light pipes which are known as optical fibers are commonly used. Optical fibers are
flexible type of fine strands of glass, fused silica, or plastic that are capable of transmitting light
radiation at considerable distances (several hundreds of meters or more). The diameter of optical
fibers ranges from 0.05 µm to as large as 0.6 cm. for the transmission of images, bundles of
fibers fused at the ends are employed with a provision of focus control. Such a device is known
as high resolution type ‘Flexible Fibroscope’ (FF). The other major application of NDT
technique using FF is in the area of medical diagnosis where the flexibility of the fiber permits
transmission of images of organs through tortuous pathways to the physician. Light pipes are
used only for observation but also for illumination of objects. Herein, the ability to illuminate the
objects under study without heating is often of considerable importance. Sometimes the
miniature television cameras that are coupled with video recorders can be used for recording of
inspection results after the test.

The main advantages of the visual examination techniques are:

1. Low cost and economic in operation

2. Its suitability while the work is in progress,
3. Capability of early detection/correction of the system detects.
4. Timely indication of the incorrect procedures
5. Early warning about the faults when the system in use

However, this method has a limitation that it can be applied only to detect the defects on the
surfaces of the objects or through the surface openings or in the transparent materials.

Physical Inspection Techniques

‘Hammer Testing’ and ‘Fluid Pressure Testing’ are the ‘Physical Inspection Techniques’.
Hammer Testing is an old technique in which the inspector often determines the integrity of
pipes and vessels by the quality of he metallic ringing sound obtained when struck with a light-
Weight hammer. Basically this technique is used to provide quick indications of the areas that
require more thorough inspection by a more accurate technique.

On the other hand, in the ‘Fluid Pressure Testing’ technique, the defects are revealed by the
flow of a gas or a liquid into or through the defects. Herein, the simplest and most commonly
used procedure is a ‘Hydrostatic Pressure Test’. In this case, a liquid, usually water, is used to
build up the pressure within a system. The presence of leaks due to defects is indicated by a drop
in the pressure or seepage/weeping of the liquid. This traditional NDT method is suitable for
revealing only larger defects, such as centerline cracks in welds or pinholes, etc. further, it may
be noted that ‘Hydrostatic Pressure Testing’ is quite often mandatory for very high-pressure pipe
lines, seamless type of high-pressure gas cylinders, high pressure boiler components, etc.

Gas (usually air) pressure testing is often used on welded vessels or welded transfer lines.
The system is pressurized and leaks due to defects are indicates by changes in pressure.
Sometimes the leaks are located by means of soap solutions applied to the outside of welds.
Techniques based on pressuring with helium, halogens or radioactive materials are commonly
used in refinery inspection work for leak detection of hydrocarbons and other inflammable gases.
However, caution must be employed in pneumatic testing since failures resulting from such tests
are usually more catastrophic than those that occur hydrostatic tests due to the compressible
nature of the gases.

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Dye Penetrant Method

Sometimes the surface defects are not immediately apparent during the visual inspection.
Their presence can be enhanced by the use of colored or fluorescent type of dye penetrants. The
test surface is first cleaned and dried and then a liquid containing penetrating dye is applied on
the material surface. The dye is generally either bright red type, which is observable in white
light, or fluorescent type, which is visible under ultraviolet light. Due to the wetting and surface
tension properties of the liquids, the liquid penetrates into the find openings like cavities, cracks
and discontinuities’, due to the capillary action. The liquid is allowed to penetrate for
sometimes, say 10-15 min or so, which is known as the “Dwell” time of the dye penetrant. After
that the excess penetrant is removed by washing and a developing agent is applied over the
surface. The penetrant remaining in the discontinuities is drawn by the blotting action of the
developer. This will cause a stain on the developer to form a visible indication on the edges of
the discontinuity/crack. This way it highlights the apparent width of the crack. The steps
followed in the dye penetrant technique are shown in figure.

Procedure in dye penetrant technique for the surface crack inspections.

After the dye penetrant surface has been developed, it is examined visually for detection of
the flaw under good white light. Further, the dye penetrants of the fluorescent type are examined
in ultraviolent light.

The main advantages of the dye penetrant examination technique are:

1. It is simple technique , which is fast as well as economical.

2. It is sensitive to small surface flaws.
3. It is applicable to components of all size.
4. It is applicable to all types of materials i.e. metallic or non-metallic

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The major limitation of this technique is that it can detect flaws that are open to the
surface and further, the depth of the defect cannot be determined. In addition, it is not helpful in
case of the porous type of materials.

This technique finds wide application in the testing of turbine blades for cracks and porosity.

Magnetic Flux Method

When the material under test is of ferromagnetic type, then the test piece can be magnetized
conveniently by means of an electric coil. Below the magnetic saturation level, the magnetic
flux lines tend to confine within the material surface. A discontinuity, surface or near-surface
crack or non-metallic inclusion in the test sample causes distortion in the magnetic flux lines due
to the difference in the permeability between the map and the ferromagnetic material
surrounding it. If the discontinutity is at or on the surface of the test piece, the field distortion
produces a leakage of flux directly above the discontinuity. The flaw (for example, a crack)
becomes visible by sprinkling of finely divided magnetic particles (generally ferric oxide, either
dry or suspended in liquid) which concentrate on the site around which the flux leakage has
occurred. Further, the addition of the fluorescent dye enables the indication of the crack to be
easily seen under ultraviolet light. Further, the orientation of the discontinuity in a magnetized
object is a major factor in the strength of the leakage field that is formed. This applies to both
the surface and the internal discontinuities. The strongest leakage field is formed when the
discontinuity is perpendicular to the magnetic flux flow. If the discontinuity is not
perpendicular, the strength of the leakage field is reduced to a large extent when the discontinuity
is parallel to the magnetic flux lines. Figure illustrates the effects of the orientation of
discontinuities on the strength of the magnetic leakage field.

The main advantages of this technique are its low cost, simplicity and reliability in finding
the surface or near-surface cracks in ferromagnetic materials of any size and shape. The
indication of the defect is produced directly on the object and non auxillary read-out devices are
required. In fact, this technique can be learned easily without lengthy or highly technical
instructions. This technique is usually adapted to production line usage as it is capable of
detecting on-line the discontinuities, which are filled with non-permeable foreign materials.

The main disadvantages of this technique is that it is applicable only to ferromagnetic

materials. Further sometimes excessively high currents may be required for inspecting large or
heavy sections, and in such cases, extreme care is necessary to avoid heating and/or burning of
highly finished surfaces. Lastly, post-inspection demagnetization of the test sample may be
required. In addition, surface irregularities and scratches can also give misleading indication.
Therefore, it is necessary to ensure careful preparation of the surface before magnetic particle
testing is undertaken.

The applications of this technique are inspection of incoming materials, during process and at
final stage as well as during the maintenance period. In addition, this technique is also used in
the inspection of castings, forgings, rolled products and welded joints.

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(a) Surface defect perpendicular to the magnetic flux lines

(b) Surface defect inclined to the magnetic flux lines

(c) Surface defect parallel to the magnetic flux lines

Eddy Current Method:

This technique employs electromagnetism principle for accessing the material properties as
well as the presence of defects in the materials, which are electrically conducting in nature. In
this technique, a time-varying magnetic field is produced in the probe, which consists of a coil.
Herein, a probe consisting of an energized coil with a high excitation frequency, usually in the
range of 100 kHz to 10 MH, is brought near the surface of the component under test. The probe
induces weak electrical currents in the test sample which are sensitive to the test material
conductivity and permeability. The changes in the conductivity of the material are caused by the
changes in the material composition as well as the structural changes like crystal imperfection
caused by voids, stress conditions or work hardening, etc. Further presence of any discontinuity
in the form of crack, etc, would disturb the eddy current flow patterns and would in turn cause
changes in the permeability of the test sample.

The eddy current probe, which has an ac current excitation, produces an ac magnetic field
within the materials. This is turn produces eddy currents in the material, which have its own
magnetic field. This eddy current generated magnetic field cuts across the coil of the probe and

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induces a small current to flow through the coil in a direction opposite to that of the applied
current, thus weakening the applied current. This weakening in current is caused by the change n
the inductive component (due to the change in the permeability produced due to the presence of a
crack, etc.) as well as in the resistive component (due to changes in the composition/ structural
changes, etc). of the coil. This in turn is related to the eddy current loses. It may be emphasized
again that the conductivity changes are reflected in the changes of coil resistance where the
permeability changes affect the coil inductance. We normally begin flaw detection by
calibration the equipment. This simply means that we make our instrument insensitive to
conductivity by setting a Wheatstone bridge circuit output as zero on its meter, using a known
sound specimen made of the same material as the piece to be tested. The variation of the current
in the test coil due to the change in its impedance caused by the presence of cracks. Etc. as well
as changes in the composition/structure generates a deflection in the Wheatstone bridge circuit as
shown in figure.

Figure: A schematic diagram of the eddy current flaw detection method

The major advantages of this technique are that it is fast and it involves moderate cost.
Further, it has the feasibility of very high rates of inspection. The inspection can be automated
so that defective parts are identified by the test equipment. It is portable or semi-portable type.
Lastly, it is free from the use of consumable material, personnel danger or hazard and
contamination of parts.

The main disadvantage of this technique is that it is applicable only to electrically conductive
materials and has limited penetration depth.
The applications of this technique are sorting of the components to ensure proper
composition, heat treatment and hardness or dimensions, and the detection of surface or near
surface defects during high-speed inspection of rods, bars, extruded tubing and welded tubing or
pipes (especially, the heat exchanger tubes). This technique is also very useful in the measuring
of the thickness of non-conducting coatings on metallic substrates and metallic sheet materials.
In addition, this technique is used for the inspection of rods, bars, extruded tubes and spherical
ball bearings for the detection of laps, seams, radial cracks, alloy and dimensional variations as
well as non-uniformity of heat treatment,etc.

Ultrasonic Method
The ultrasonic method makes use of low-energy sound waves of short wavelengths(which are
associated with high frequencies to measure wall thickness and also to detect defects in the
materials. Ultrasonic waves are beamed into the test material and these are reflected back from
the geometric boundaries as well as from the detect boundaries. Based on the time of reutnr of
these echoes, metal thickness can be measured and also the location of the defects can be

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identified.
This NDT method employs the piezo-electric crystal type of transducer for the generation of
sound signals of high frequency that is far in excess of the upper limit of audibility of the human
ear, i.e. more than 20 kHz. The testing frequencies in this technique lie in the range of 0.5-2.5
MHz. When an oscillating voltage is applied to a piezo-electric crystal, it vibrates with the same
frequency and vice versa. An ultrasonic flaw detector is shown in figure. The transmitter has a
built-in pulse generator, which emits ultrasonic pulsed wave and this simultaneously triggers the
transmitter transducer and the time base generator. Generally both the transmitter and the
receiver are housed in a single probe. The pulse of the ultrasound generated from the transducer
travels through the test specimen. When a flaw is encountered, a part of the ultrasound is
reflected. The reflected sound travels back and reaches the receiver crystal, which converts it
into electrical voltage. The voltage passing through the amplifier is fed to the CRT and a signal is
observed on its screen. The CRT screen would display three echo signals, which are shown in
the figure. These signals are namely, one from the top of the surface of the specimen, another
from its bottom, and the third in between two which is known as the defect echo signal.

Fig(a) Schematic diagram of pulse-echo system (Transmitter- Receiver method) for

detecting depth of flaw

(b) Typical display on CRT

Figure: A schematic diagram of ultrasonic flaw detection method

Ultrasonic technique is very widely used in the areas of detection, location and measurement
of surface and internal voids such as cracks, slag inclusion, lamination, lack of fusion, lack of

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weld penetration, inclusions in welded and brazed structure, etc. In addition, it is employed in
the determination of bond integrity of adhesive assemblies such as honeycomb and composite
structures. The main advantages of this method are high sensitivity, fast response and its
capability of automation. Further, very small defects and their sizes can be detected and their
location can be determined accurately. In addition, this technique has great penetration power
and defects up to 10 m thickness in steel can be inspected.

The limitation of this technique is that it requires coupling of the test material either by
contact to the surface or immersion in a fluid such as water. Further, the micro-level defects of
the order of half the wavelength of the ultrasonic beam cannot be detected by this method.

The technique has been successfully employed in the studies of stress corrosion cracking and
fatigue failure in aircraft structures, monitoring of flaws in the weldments, pressure vessels,
railway rolling stock, gas turbine blades, etc.

X-ray/Radiographic Technique

In this technique, the objet is exposed to X –rays on one side and a sensitive photographic
plate or film is placed on the other side of it. The intensity of the –rays is reduced by the passage
through the material and also by the defects/ imperferctions that may be present in the material
thickness and chemical composition of the X-rays is dependent on the change in density,
material thickness and chemical composition of the material. More radiation would pass through
the voids than through the surrounding area. The photographic film measures the amount of
radiations absorbed by , or conversely, passed through the material under test. Darker spots due
to increased radiation reaching the film would indicate voids or thinner section of materials.
Thus the radiograph is really a shadowgraph. The darker areas on the film represent more
penetrable and less denser areas of the sample. The radiograph is often used for the
interpretation of the results.

The advantages of this technique are that it can be used for a wide range of materials and the
exact nature of the defects can be determined from the visual images. Further, a permanent film
is obtained which shown the defects in relation to significant features of the component. For
example, defects in a weld such as cracks, porosity and lack of penetration have their distinct
images and therefore, are easily recognizable. Furthermore, it is the best and the most reliable
method for determining the extent of internal porosity in that part.

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Figure: A schematic diagram of radiography technique

The main limitations of this technique are the need to incorporate safety measures as well as
to take proper precautions in respect of harmful radiations to the operating personnel. More over
high investment in equipment and facilities are involved. Lastly radiography is inaccessible to
detect small, tight, randomly oriented cracks.

The radiography technique is applied for the inspection of the incoming material,
manufactured components, final products and maintenance. Further, it is widely used for the
inspection of castings for shrinkage, micro-shrinkage, gas pockets, inclusions and blowholes. In
addition, it is also used in forging for tear, bursts, internal cracking, welded and brazed joints for
porosity, lack of fusion and / or lack of penetration and the detection of the presence of the
inclusions.

Acoustic Emission (AE) Monitoring Technique

The acoustic Emission (AE) monitoring technique is a highly sensitive type of Non-
Destructive Technique for detecting a variety of defects and even the dynamic movement of
defects like, for example, a typical initiation about the “State of Health” of the system on-line
i.e., in the real time. This technique basically involves the analysis of sound signals emitted by
the materials, structures or machines which are in use in the fully loaded working conditions.
Further, these sound signals are typically in the range of 0.1-0.4 MHz and are beyond the range
of human hearing.

Acoustic emissions are generated by high-frequency stress waves in solids which are
caused by sudden defect-related movements in the stressed materials. For example, the initiation
and growth of crack in a stressed material brings about rapid released of strain energy giving rise
to stress induced acoustic waves. In the loaded materials, structures or machines. These waves
radiate into the structures and are conveniently picked by a piezo-electric type of transducer in
the form of acoustic emissions. If may be noted that the source of acoustic emission energy is the

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energy is the elastic stress field in the loaded machines/components. In other words, without
stress in the material, there are no acoustic emissions. Hence, the acoustic emission inspection
technique can be used only in the loaded structure, so structure, so that we have a stress field for
the generation of stress waves caused due to the defect-related deformations.

The common sources of acoustic emissions due to system defects in the stressed fields
are as follows:

 Initiation and propagation of crack growth caused due to fatigue, creep or fatigue, creep
or complex loading. Such a defect causes slippage/sudden changes in the orientation of
grain boundaries leading to large plastic deformations.
 Large plastic deformation caused by impact loads, shock waves caused by explosions or
sudden loading on fluid flow structures due to water hammer phenomenon caused by the
sudden closure of calves.
 Turbulence noise caused in fluid flow leakages past gaskets, valves, screwed fittings or
hogh-pressure vessels developing cracks.
 Cavitation phenomenon in hydraulic machines or stalling and surge phenomenon in aero-
compressors.
 Chatter phenomenon caused by loose parts like mismatched gears or loose particles in the
loaded machines like a broken ball debris in the ball bearings.
 Material property changes due to corrosion, chemical reactions, liquid-solid
transformations or phase transformations.
The following ate the advantages of the AE inspection technique:
1. The whole structure can be monitoring on-line (even at high temperatures) form few
locations both reliably and economically and without taking it out of service.
Further, continuous monitoring with suitable alarms I possible.
2. Microscopic changes in the defects can be detected as sufficient energy in the form
of stress waves is released form the defect source.
3. The exact location of the defect can be location by using multiple sensors and
employing triangulation technique.
4. The signature analysis of signal is employed to identify the nature and type of
defects in the initial stages before they become serious. Thus appropriate corrective
action can be taken at that stages, to reduces the growth of the that particular defect.
5. The evaluation of the nature, type and quantum of defect in AE inspection technique
is based on the objective type of criteria based on the signature analysis of the defect
signal. There-fore, it is less prone to subjectivity or operator’s interpretation as is
common in the other NDT methods.
6. Acoustic emissions is a non-intrusive method and its piezo-electric transducer is also
self-generation type i.e., it requires no external power supply as is the case in
ultrasonics and radiography.

The following are the limitations of the AE inspection method:

1. Non-stressed areas in a test sample do not emit any AE signal. Therefore, acoustic
emission test require an increase in stress during a test. Further, the test stresses must
reach the maximum operating values and preferably stresses should be exceeding the
maximum operating values so that stronger AE signals are generated by the defect-
related stress waves in the test materials.

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2. The AE signal for detecting a particular type of defects has cross-sensitivity to other
defects simultaneously present in the stressed test sample, which constitute unwanted
noise. For example AE monitoring technique when used for detecting cracks or
corrosion would simultaneously pick up unwanted AE signals due to the presence of
friction in some bearings as well as defects of loose parts like mismatched gears, etc.
Therefore, precise discrimination of the information of the desired defects becomes
feasible only after accounting for accounting for the effects of noise signals.
3. Background noise caused due to steam trap, flow in pumps, rain and wind blown
cables striking the structures tend to obscure the genuine AE signals. In addition,
radio and electro magnetic interferences may also introduce errors in the acoustic
emissions.

AE signal processing parameters: The following arte the AE are the AE signal processing
parameters of the signals of the test sample which are shown figure. These may be either of
continuous type or may be in the form of discrete pluses or bursts.
(a) Peak Amplitude It is the highest value of the AE signal and is directly
related to the magnitude of the source event.

(b) Ring Down Count (RDC) It is the number of times the AE signal
crosses the threshold value. The threshold value is set t account for the
background noise in the signal. RDC is obtained by incorporation a comparator
circuit and pulse counter circuit in the AE signal. The value of this parameter is an
indicator of the magnitude of the source event and the acoustical properties of the
test sample.

(c) Integrated Event Energy Integrated energy is the area under the curve in the
rectified signal envelope i. e. the energy associated with the ring down count. This
parameter is dependent on the amplitude and duration of the defect in the test
sample and is less dependent on the threshold settings.

(d) Event Duration It is the time elapsed form the first threshold crossing to the
last. It is measured in micro-seconds. This parameter depends on the source
magnitude, structural acoustics, etc.

(e) Rise Time: It represents the time duration from the first peak crossing to the
signal peak. This depends on the dynamic characteristics between the source and
the sensor

(f) Spectral Amplitude Analysis The frequency and amplitude count of the AE signal
in the ultrasonic range i. e. between 0.1 and 0.4 MHz when considered along with
other AE parameters identifies the type of defect and its severity/magnitude.

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Fig:A typical acoustic emission signal showing the signal processing

Parameters

Results of a study on the application of acoustic emission (A.E.) technique to new and
old ball bearing of same size, are shown in figure. The plots in each case give distribution of A.
E. event counts against peak amplitudes and A.E. even counts against ring down counts. It is
seen that both peak amplitudes and ring down counts are in higher ranges for the old used
bearings,

(a) Plats of AE events against peak amplitude distribution

(b) Plots of AE events against ring down-count distribution

Acoustic emission studies on rolling bearings
Compared to those for new ones, even though the event counts are in the lower ranges for the
formers cases of bearing viz. the old ones.

Applications of AE Monitoring Technique

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The following are some of the proven applications where AE method is routinely used:
 Periodic and continuous monitoring of pressure vessels, oil pipelines and storage vessels
(both above and below the ground) to detect and locate active discontinuities.
 In service and on-line detection of initiation and propagation of fatigue cracks in the
rotating machinery, aerospace and engineering structures.
 Evaluation of material behaviour with respect to different types of failure mechanisms.
 Monitoring of fusion or resistance weldments during welding and during the cooling
period.
 Detection of stress corrosion cracking and hydrogen embrittlement susceptibility of test
samples.
 Condition monitoring of machinery to detect faults like loss of lubrication, presence of
cavitation, bearing failure, seal failure, gear discontinuities etc.
 Detection of loose particles impact noise generated in the integrated circuits used for
critical applications.
 Detection of defects like cracking of fibers/matrix or delaminations between the fibre and
matrix in real time for providing indications of structural problems before a critical
damage occurs.

CONCLUDING REMARKS
The main purpose of non-destructive testing is to determine whether a material or a piece
of equipment will satisfactorily perform its intended function. There, the driving force for the
improvements and developments in the area of non-destructive testing techniques is continually
increasing on order to ensure the integrity of the engineering materials, products and plants.
Efficient material manufacture, the assurance of product quality and re-assurance of plant
operation at regular intervals represents the salient contributions the non-destructive testing.

There is no universal non-destructive test applicable to all situations. Only through the
under standing of the basic principles of each technique, one can specify the correct test. Hence,
by carful consideration of the inspection problem and careful application of the correct non-
destructive technique, it should be possible to determine the fitness of component/system to
provide the desired service.

MODEL QUESTION PAPER

TIME – 3 Hours MAXIMUM : 100 Marks

PART A (10 X 2 = 20 Marks)
ANSWER ALL QUESTIONS

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1. Distinguish between accuracy and sensitivity.

2. What is null balancing wheat stone bridge circuit?
3. Based on Principal of operation, classify the extension meters.
4. What are the master grating and model grating of morie technique.
5. What are the requirement in selection of Photo elastic materials?
6. How will you obtain dark and light field in a circular polariscope?
7. Enumerate the various Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) methods ?
8. What is a stress gauge?
9. In what way three dimensional photo elasticity is different from two-dimensional
photo elasticity?
10. Briefly explain Acoustic emission Inspection.
PART B
11. Derive an expression for change in output voltage of wheat stone bridge circuit in
terms of the changes in resistances.
12 a. Explain in detail the working principle and measurement of strains from an
Acoustical strain gauge with neat sketch.
( OR )
b. Derive an expression for output voltage of whetstone bridge circuit for strain gauges.
Calculate the sensitivity when all the gauges are active.
Given Rg = 120 ohms, Ig = 50 mA, Sg = 2. 16

13 a. What are strain rosettes? What are their uses? For a rectangular rosette on a
steel Specimen ɛA = -600 x 10-6, ɛA = 300 x 10-6, ɛC = 400 x 10-6, Determine the principal
strains, principal stresses and directions Esteel = 210 Gpa.
( OR )
b. Explain with necessary equations how isoclinics are eliminated in circular
polariscope setup. What are the properties of isochromatics?

14a. i. Explain Fringe sharpening.

ii. Explain Fringe multiplication technique used in Photoelasticity.
( OR )
b. Explain any two compensation techniques used in Photoelasticity.

15 a. i. Why do we require separation? Explain any two-separation techniques in

detail.
ii. Explain in detail how stress-freezing technique is employed in three dimensional
Photoelasticity?
( OR )
b. Explain
i. Ultrasonic testing in NDT and their applications.
ii. Radiography

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Question Bank
UNIT - I

PART – A

1. Define Precision of a Measuring instrument.

2. Define Accuracy.
3. Define Sensitivity.
4. Define Gauge factor.
5. State the difference between Accuracy and Precision.
6. Define Range.

PART – B

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1. Explain in detail the Principles of Measurements.

2. Write short notes on:
(a) Accuracy (4)
(b) Sensitivity (4)
(c) Range (4)

UNIT - II

PART – A

1. Define a strain gauge.

2. List the various types of strain gauges.
3. What are the basic characteristics of a strain gauge?
4. What are the various factors to be considered before selecting a gauge?
5. Define strain sensitivity of a gauge.
6. List the various limitations of a mechanical strain gauge.
7. Write the advantages of Foil type strain gauge over Wire type strain gauge?
8. What is a Strain rosette?
9. What are the advantages of an acoustical gauge?
10. What are the limitations of an optical gauge?

PART – B

1. Write a short account of the various types of strain gauges. Give their special advantages
and limitations.
2. What are the basic characteristics of a strain gauge? Which factors should be considered
3. What are the various types of Mechanical strain gauges? Explain Huggenberger
tensometer in detail.
4. What are the various types of optical strain gauges? Explain the Tuckerman gauge in
detail.
5. Explain the construction and working of Acoustical strain gauge.
6. What are the different types of electrical strain gauges? Describe a capacitance strain
gauge and give its uses and limitations.

UNIT - III

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PART – A

1. Name the different types of electrical strain gauges.

2. Name the different types of electrical resistance strain gauges.
3. Differentiate between bonded and unbounded gauges.
4. What is a weldable gauge? What are its advantages?
5. Name the materials used for material gauges.
6. What is meant by Temperature compensation?
7. Why Wheatstone bridge circuits are preferred over potentiometer circuits in static strain
measurements?
8. What are the requirements of strain gauge materials?
9. What are the limitations of potentiometer circuit?
10. Define a strain rosette.

PART – B

1. Write short notes on the following :

(i) Electromagnetic strain gauge (6)
(ii) Weldable strain gauge (6)
2. What is the necessity of temperature compensation? How this can be achieved?
3. What do you understand by a strain rosette? What are the different types of strain rosette
configurations currently in use? Discuss their uses and limitations.
4. Discuss the various methods of calibrating a strain gauge.
5. What are the essential requirements of a balancing technique? Discuss the different ways
in which you can balance a bridge.
6. Discuss the associated instrumentation for measuring
(a) Strain strains
(b) Dynamic strains
UNIT - IV

PART – A

1. What is the photoelastic effect?

2. Differentiate between ordinary and monochromatic light.
3. Define Stress optic law.
4. Define isoclinics and isochromatics.
5. What do you mean by compensation?
6. What is a stress trajectory?
7. Define sensitivity index and figure of merit of a photoelastic material.
8. What is the necessity of calibration of a photoelastic material?
9. Why Tardy method of compensation is preferred over all other methods?
10. Who discovered the photoelastic effect and when?

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PART – B

1. Sketch a circular polariscope. Explain the effects of a stressed model and the fringes
obtained in it
2. Sketch a plain polariscope. Explain the effects of a stressed model and the fringes
obtained in it.
3. Describe in detail how fringe sharpening is obtained using partial mirrors.
4. Explain any two compensation techniques used in photo elasticity.
5. What are the important properties of an ideal photoelastic material? Discuss the important
photoelastic materials.
6. Explain the Tardy’s compensation method in detail. Why this method is preferred over
other methods?

UNIT - V

PART – A

1. List down various NDT Techniques used to detect the damages in the materials.
2. State the importance of NDT methods in Aviation Industry.
3. What are the advantages of Ultrasonic method over X-ray method?
4. What are the advantages in magnetic particle inspection method?
5. What is the necessity of the refrigeration technique?
6. What is the effect of dye-etchant on strain-sensitivity of the coating?
7. What is a grating?
8. Differentiate between a model and master grating.
9. Define Holography.
10. What is Thermograph?

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PART – B

1. State the uses and advantages of Non-Destructive Testing procedures. Explain in detail
any one of the NDT procedure for evaluating a given specimen.
2. Write short notes on the following:
a. Eddy Current Testing
b. Radiography
3. Explain the process of Magnetic particle inspection with a neat sketch.
4. With a suitable sketch explain the process of Fluorescent penetrant technique.
5. Explain the brittle coating method in brief. What are the advantages and limitations of
this method?
6. Briefly explain the following which are used in the experimental analysis:
a. Fibre – optic sensors
b. Thermography
c. C – Scan

AE8605/ EXPERIMENTAL STRESS ANALYSIS

Short Questions (2 MARKS)

1. Define precision of a measuring instrument?

It is the performance of the instrument. It is the repeatability of
measuring process. It refers to the group of measurement for the same
characteristics taken under identical condition.
2. Define accuracy?
Accuracy is the degree to which the measured value of the quality
characteristics agrees with the true value. The difference between the true
value and measured value is known as error of measurement.

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3. Define sensitivity?
It is defined as the rate of displacement of the indicating device of an
instrument with respect to the measured quantity. Sensitivity of an
instrument with respect to the measured quantity.
4. Define gauge factor?
Gauge factor is defined as change in resistance per unit resistance per
unit strain. The gauge factor ranges from +4 to -12mm. Most common value
used for approximately 2 for the material generally used for strain gauge
construction.
5. Define range?
The range of instrument is defined as the difference between the
largest and smallest reading of the element.
1. Range=Xmax-Xmin

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6. Name most popular optical strain gauges?

Single mirror system or marten’s mirror
extensometer Tucker’s man optical gauge.
7. What are the basic characteristics of strain gauge?
Gauge should be of extremely small size.
Strain sensitivity and accuracy of the gauge should be efficiently high.
The gauge should be unaffected by the temperature, vibration,
humidity, or other ambient condition.
The gauge should be capable of indicating both static and dynamic
strain.
8. What is process of measurement?
Sequence of operation necessary for the execution of measurement.
The three important elements for the measurement are
1. Measurand
2. Reference
3. Comparator.
9. What are the factors affecting the measuring system?
Accuracy evaluation is in the five elements of a measuring system.
Factors affecting calibration standard
Factors affecting work piece
Factors affecting person
Factors affecting environment
Factors affecting the inherent characteristics of the instrument.
10. What is direct method of measurement?
In which the value of quantity to be measured is obtained directly
without any calculations. eg. Scale, vernier calliper, micrometer.
11. What is static sensitivity?
The static sensitivity of an instrument of an instrument or an
instrument system is the ratio of the magnitude of the output quantity to
the magnitude of the input quantity.
12. What is static correction?

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It is defined as the difference between the measured value and the

true value.
13. What is static error?
It is defined as the ratio between the static correction and the true
value.
14. What are the factors affecting the characteristics of
instrument? a. There are four factors.,
Scale error
Effect of friction
Deformation in handling

Calibration error.

15. What is indirect method?

The value of quantity to be measured is obtained by measuring other
quantities which are functionally related to the required value.

16. What are the basic requirements for measurement?

The standard used for comparison purposes must be accurately
defined & should be Commonly acceptable
The standard must be of the same character as the measure and (ie,
the unknownquantity or the quantity under measurement)
The apparatus used and the method accepted for the purposes of
comparison must be provable.
17. What are the uses of measuring instruments?

Measurements involve the use of ‘instruments’ as a physical means of

determining quantities (or) variables. In simple cases, an instrument consists of
a single unit which gives an output reading or signal according to theunknown
variable (MEASURAND) applied to it.
18. What are the ‘STANDARD’S for the measurement of an angle?

The primary standards of angle may be taken either as angle subtended by

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a circle at its centre ie, 360° or as angle between two straight line intersecting in
a manner such that all four angles so formed are equal, ie, each angle is 90°.

19. How we can measure the temperature changes?

Temperature is not measured directly, but is measured through indirect

means; change of temperature of a substance causes a variety of effects. These
effects may be physical, chemical, electrical (or) optical and they may be used
for the measurement of temperaturethrough use of proper temperature sensing
devices.
20. Give the Type of errors in measurements?
(i) Gross errors
(ii) Random errors
(iii) Systematic errors
2. -Instrumental errors
3. -Environmental errors
4. -Observational errors

21. Define Measurement:

The measurement of a given quantity is essentially an act or result of

comparisonbetween a quantity whose magnitude (amount) is unknown,
with a similar quantity whosemagnitude (amount) is known, the later
quantity being called a standard.
22. What are the basic requirements for measurement?
(i) The standard used for comparison purposes must be accurately defined
& should becommonly acceptable.
(ii) The standard must be of the same character as the measure and (ie, the
unknownquantity or the quantity under measurement)
(iii) The apparatus used and the method accepted for the purposes of
comparison must beprovable.

23. What are the methods of measurements?

(i) Direct Method: In these methods, MEASURAND is directly compared
against aSTANDARD.

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(ii) Indirect Method: Measuring systems are used in indirect methods for
measurementpurposes

24. What are the uses of measuring instruments?

Measurements involve the use of ‘instruments’ as a physical means of
determiningquantities (or) variables. In simple cases, an instrument consists
of a single unit whichgives an output reading or signal according to the
unknown variable (MEASURAND)applied to it.

25. What is dimensional measurement?

Dimensional Measurements are characterized as determination of size
of an [Link] are the measurements of dimensions of an object.

26. Explain the measurements of length and displacement

A displacement means the movements of a point with respect to
another point. Generallylength (or change in length) means it referring a
distance between two reference [Link] measurement of length includes
both the dimensional measurement and thedisplacement measurement.

27. What are the ‘STANDARD’S for the measurement of an angle?

The primary standards of angle may be taken either as angle subtended by a
circle at itscentreie, 360° or as angle between two straight line intersecting in a
manner such that allfour angles so formed are equal, ie, each angle is 90°

28. How we can measure the Area of survey plats?

Measurement of area of regular and standard geometrical figures can
be obtained fromthe dimensions using standard mathematical
[Link] are many engineering applications which require the
measurement of plane [Link] determination of the area of survey
plots form maps, the integration of functionto determine the area enclosed
by a curve analysis of experimental data may require theuse of measurement
of plane area.

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29. Give any two methods for measure an unknown force

An unknown force may be measured by the following methods,
1. Balancing the unknown force against the known gravitational force either
directly(or) indirectly using a system of levers.
2. Transferring the unknown force to a fluid pressure and then meaning the
resultingfluid pressure. Hydraulic and Pneumatic load cells are used for
transferring theforce into pressure.

30. How we can measure the temperature changes?

Temperature is not measured directly, but is measured through indirect
means; change of temperature of a substance causes a variety of effects. These effects
may be physical, chemical, electrical (or) optical and they may be used for the
measurement of temperature through use of proper temperature sensing devices.

31. Tell something about ‘static characteristics’ and ‘static calibration’ in

Measurements:
‘Static characteristics’ of a measurement system are in general those that must
beconsidered when the system or instrument is used to measure a condition
not varying with time. All the static performance characteristics are obtained
in one form or another by a process called’ static calibration’

32. What is accuracy and tell about point accuracy?

Accuracy is the closeness with which an instrument reading approaches the true
value of the quantity being measured. Thus accuracy of a measurement means
conformity to truth. ‘Point Accuracy’ is the accuracy of the instrument only at one
point on it scale.

33. What is extensometer?

Extensometer is an instrument used to measure minute deformation of
material while it is subjected to a stress.

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34. Classify the extensometers depending upon the magnification systems.

1. Mechanical Extensometers
2. Optical extensometers
3. Acoustical (Vibrating wire) extensometers
4. Electrical extensometers
5. Pneumatic extensometers

35. What are the Basic Requirements of extensometer?

1. Very high magnification:The magnification required is usually greater than 1000:
2. Sensitivity: The relation between input and output should not be affected by the
reversal in the direction of input and this requires that the movement should
not have any friction.
3. Low input force: The input force required to cause displacement should be
extremely small thus there is no defamation of the component due to the
process of measurement.

36. Give the disadvantages of a simple mechanical lever magnification

For strain measurements on inner surfaces of small structures, the clearance may
be inSufficient for the gauge and all its auxiliary equipment.

37. Give the magnification capacity &gauge length of Huggen-Berger tensometer

The magnification may vary from 300 to 2000 depending upon the model. The
gaugelength varies from 12.5 to 25 mm.

38. Give the advantages of scratch gauge

1. Compact in size
2. It can be attached to almost any surface with clamps or screws & adhesive bonding
3. It can measure scratch under all types of loading (static, shock, fatigue)
4. It can be used to record stress in all types of environments.

39. Tell something about the magnification capacity of Marten’s extensometer

This instrument is extremely sensitive and by using telescope, regarding may be
estimated to 1/10 mm which corresponding to a length charge of approximately 0.0002m.

40. What is the sensitivity of Tuckerman gauge?

The sensitivity of tucker man gauge is 2 micro strains

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41. Give the classifications of Electrical strain gauges

(a) inductance (or) magnetic strain gauges
(b) Electrical resistance strain gauges
(c) The capacitance strain gauges.

42. How strain can be measured by using Electrical strain gauges?

Electrical strain gauge is a device in which a change in length produces a
change in someelectrical characteristics of the gauges.

43. Give the working principle of inductance strain gauges?

An electrical inductance gauge is a device in which the mechanical quantity
to bemeasured produced a change in the magnetic field, and hence in the
impedance of a current carrying coil.

44. Give the working principle of variable air gap gauges

In these types of gauges the reluctance of the magnetic field is varied by
changing the airgap.

45. Give the working principle of movable core solenoid gauges

In this type of gauges the reluctance of the magnetic circuit is varied by
changing theposition of the iron core in the coil.

46. Give the working principle of eddy- current gauges

In these types of gauges the losses in the magnetic circuit are varied by
changing thethickness or position of the high- loss element inserted in the magnetic
field.
47. How the displacement of material structures can be measured by using
electrical resistance strain gauges?

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In the electrical resistance strain gauges the displacement (or) strain is

measured as a function of the resistance change produce by the displacement in the
gauging circuit.

48. What is known as bonded strain gauges?

A thin paper sheet or metal sheet with strain gauge wire is bonded with an
adhesivematerial to the structure under strictly.
49. What is the use of gauge factor in strain gauge measurements? Gauge

factor is used to determine the sensitivity of strain gauges.

50. Give the requirements for strain gauges?

Gauge factor should be high

Wires used in a strain gauge should have high resistance.

The wires should have a linear relationship between strain & resistance of
the wire.

51. What is the resistance of material?

Resistance is the property of a material that restricts the flow of charges
through the material.

52. What is known as foil strain gauges?

The foil strain gauge has metal foil photo- etched in a grid pattern of the
electric insulator of the thin resin and gauge leads attached.

53. What is the basic principle of unbonded metallic strain gauges?

The principle of unbonded metallic gauges is based on change in electrical
resistance of a metallic wire due to change in tension of the wire.

54. What is photo-etching?

Photo etching is the act of producing grid configuration on metal foil with
the help ofphoto effect.

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55. What is known as strip gauges?

The number of strain gauges are arranged in a particular manner is called
strip gauges.
56. What is known as strain rosettes?
An arrangement of strain gauges in particular orientation or angle is known
as strainrosettes
57. Give the quantities required for a good gauge
material? High gauge factor
High resistance
Low temperature sensitivity
High electrical stability
Good corrosion resistance
High yield point stability
58. Give some arrangements of strain gauges to obtain strain rosettes
1. Two gauge rosette
2. Rectangular rosette
a) Three element
b) Four element
3. Delta (or) Equiangular rosette
4. T. Delta rosette

59. Give the formula for strain measured by a strain gauge in particular angles
=½( x+ y) + ½ ( x- y) cos2 + ½ xysin2
Where is the strain value in direction
60. Give the relation on between principal stress and principal
strains 1=[E/(1-v²)]( 1+v 2) and 2=[E/(1-v²)]( 2+v 1)

Where 1 and 2 are principal stresses

1 and 2 are principal strains
[Link] are the methods are available for computing the strain rosette datas?
1. Analytical Solutions

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2. Graphical Solutions
3. Semi – graphical (or) vectorial layout method
4. Nomographic Solutions
5. Geometrical Computers.

62. Give the advantages of strain Rosette analysis.

(i)Extreme simplicity and speed of application.
(ii)Possibility of allowing for transverse effects.
(iii)No requirements for additional equipments.
(iv) The possibility of training relativity unskilled persons to use the method.

[Link] the type of strain gauge circuits.

1. Wheat stone bridge circuits for static strain measurements.
2. Potentiometer circuits for dynamic strain measurements.

64. Define sensitivity of potentiometer:

Sensitivity of the potentiometer circuit is defined as the ratio of the output
voltage divided by the strain.
65. Define Light
Light is usually defined as the radiation that can affect the human eye.

66. Define White light:

Light from a source that emits a continuous spectrum with equal energy for
every wavelength is called white light.

67. Define monochromatic light:

Light of a single wave length is called monochromatic light.
Example: sodium vapour lamp, Hg arc lamp.

68. What is wave front?

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The focus of points on different radial lines from the source exhibiting the
samedisturbance at a given instant of time, in a surface known as a wave front.

69. Define Ray?

A line normal to the wave front, indicating the direction of propagation of
the waves is called a ray.

70. What are longitudinal waves?

The waves in which vibration are along the direction of their travel is known
aslongitudinal waves.

71. What are transverse waves?

Transverse waves are waves in which vibrations are perpendicular to the
direction ofwave travels.
72. What is polarized light?
The light having vibration only along a single straight line perpendicular to
thedirection of propagation of light is said to be polarized.
73. What is plane of polarization?
The plane containing the direction of propagation of light, but containing
novibrations is called the plane of polarization.
74. What are the methods are available to obtain plane polarized light?
(i) Refraction and Reflection for glass plate.
(ii) By using Nichol Prism.
75. What are the disadvantages are available in Nichol prism when we use that to
obtain plane polarized light?
1. Costly
2. Intensity is Poor.
76. What is the basic principle for photo elasticity?

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When polarized light enters a loaded transparent component, it is split into two
beamsboth beams travel along the same path, but each vibrates along a principal
direction and travels at a speed proportional to the associated principal stress.
77. What is Refractive index?
The ratio of the velocity of light in air to the velocity in the medium is called
therefractive index of the medium and is denoted by ‘n’.
78. What is wave length?
The wave length of any given frequency in the distance travelled during one
completevibration.

79. Define Amplitude?

Amplitude is a magnitude of the disturbance, the intensity of light may be
taken as directly proportional to the square of the amplitude of the vibration.

80. Define phase

The phase of vibration at any instant defines the stage of the cycle reached at
that instant.

81. Give the general equation of motion of a transverse light wave propagating in
Zdirection.
E = a cos( -wt)
Where E = magnitude of light
vector t = amplitude of the wave.

82. What do you mean by Polariscope?

Polariscope is an optical instrument that utilizes the properties of polarized
light in itsoperation.

83. Give the types of polariscopes used in experimental stress analysis?

(i) Plane Polariscope
(ii) Circular Polariscope

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84. What is the standard setup in circular Polaris cope?

The crossed – crossed setup is called the standard setup of the circular
Polariscope.
85. State Stress optic law:
The relative change in index of refraction is proportional to the difference of
principalstresses.
86. What are the properties of photo elastic materials?
1. Transparent to light used in the Polariscope.
2. Easily machinable by conventional means.
3. It should be force form residual stresses
[Link] should have both mechanical and optical isotropy and homogeneity.

87. Give the most commonly used methods for compensation techniques
1. Babinet compensation method.
2. Babinetsoleil compensation method
3. Tension or compression stop method.
4. Tardy method of compensation.
5. Senarment method of compensation
6. Photometric method.

89. What are the techniques used to determine the stresses at the inner layers of
the body in 3D photo elasticity?
1. Locking in the stresses in the model
2. Multilayer reflection technique.
90. Define Non – destructive testing
Non –destructive testing is a technique for revealing flaws and defects in a
material or device without damaging as destroying the test sample.
91. Give some advantages of NDT:
1. Can be done directly on production items without regards to part cost
orquantity available.

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2. Can be done on 100% of production of on representative samples.

92. Give the limitations of NDT:

1. Results often must be interpreted by a skilled. Experienced technician.
2. In absence of contact with each other, different observers may disagree
onmeaning & significance of test results.

93. What is neutron Radiography?

Radiographic inspection using a stream of neutrons known as neutron
Radiography.

94. Give the advantages of Radiographic inspection.

- The ability to detect internal flows
- An ability to detect significant variations in composition.
- Permanent recording of raw inspection data’s.

95. Give some advantages of Brittle coating method.

- Provides nearly whole field area
- Is non-destructive if the coating is sensitive enough.
- Is simple to analyse
96. Give some advantages by using fibre optic sensors.
- Light weight (very small in size)
- Low power requirement
- Resistant to electromagnetic interference
- High sensitivity
97. What are the properties of photo elastic materials?
1. Transparent to light used in the Polariscope.
2. Easily machinable by conventional means.
3. It should be force form residual stresses
4. They should have both mechanical and optical isotropy and homogeneity

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98. Give some advantages of NDT:

1. Can be done directly on production items without regards to part cost or
quantity available.
2. Can be done on 100% of production of on representative samples.

99. Give the limitations of NDT:

1. Results often must be interpreted by a skilled. Experienced technician.
2. In absence of contact with each other, different observers may disagree on
meaning & significance of test results.

100. Give the limitations of NDT:

1. Results often must be interpreted by a skilled. That is experienced technician.
2. In absence of contact with each other, different observers may disagree on
meaning & significance of test results.

101. Define temperature compensation?

The ideal strain gauge would change resistance in accordance with the
stress-producing deformation in the structural to which it was bonded and for no
other reason. Gauge resistance is affected by the many factors out of which
temperature compensation is very important one.

102. Define the photo elastics method?

The photo elastic method depend up on the property of certain transparent
solid by which they become doubly refractive under the action of the stresses, the
magnitude of the optical effect of the bearing the definite relation to that of the
stress.
103. Define the core method?
When surface stresses are required at a specific point are along a successions
of points, core method is used. This method consisting of a cylindrical specimen
containing the required surface point cut at the three-dimensional model.
104. Define photo elastic coating?

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The method of photo elastic coating is also called as the method of birefrigent
coatings or photo stress extends the well-known photo elastic method to the
measurement of the surface strains in opaque body like steel, rock. etc.

PART – B (6 marks)

1. Explain in detail the Principles of

Measurements. Measurement
Process of comparison
Result(numerical value)

2. Write short notes on:

a. Accuracy
b. Sensitivity
c. Range
3. Differentiate environmental and systematic errors
factor affecting the measurements (see notes)

4. What absolute static error? Give example

Ratio between the static correction and true value

5. Detail about accuracy with example?

The purpose of measurement is to determine the true dimension of a
part
6. What are the advantages of an acoustical gauge?
7. What are the limitations of an optical gauge?

8. What are the various factors to be considered before selecting a gauge?

1. Gauge material.2. Carrier material. 3. Grid geometry. 4. Grid
configuration. 5. Gauge factor.6. Gauge resistance.

9. Write the advantages of Foil type strain gauge over Wire type strain gauge?

10. Detail strain sensitivity of a gauge.

It is the smallest value of strain which can be read on the
scale associated with the strain gauge.
1) Deformation sensitivity
2) Strain sensitivity

11. Explain any two compensation techniques used in photo elasticity.

12. Explain the construction and working of Acoustical strain gauge.

13. What is the necessity of temperature compensation? How this can be
achieved?

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Compensating dummy gauges,

self-temperature compensation,
compensation by dissimilar gauges,
compensation by similar gauges
And compensation by computation.

14. Derive an expression for the sensitivity of a potentiometer circuit?

15. Write short notes on the following:Eddy Current Testing

Eddy-current testing uses electromagnetic induction to detect flaws in
conductive materials. There are several limitations, among them: only
conductive materials can be tested, the surface of the material must be
accessible, the finish of the material may cause bad readings, the depth of
penetration into the material is limited by the materials' conductivity, and
flaws that lie parallel to the probe may be undetectable.

16. State the uses and advantages of Non-Destructive Testing procedures.

17. Discuss the important photo elastic materials.

Visual inspection is a very cost-effective method and it does not

require complicated equipment.
The limiting factor with visual inspection is the resolution ability of
the human eye. It has difficulty determining porosity diameters less
than 0.25 mm or cracks less than 0.025 mm wide.
The penetrant test can be used on a variety of different materials

18. What are the advantages and limitations of brittle coatings method?
19. Discuss the various methods of calibrating a strain gauge.
20. Explain the process of Magnetic particle inspection with a neat sketch.
Magnetic particle inspection (MPI) is a non-destructive testing (NDT)
process for detecting surface and slightly subsurface discontinuities in

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ferroelectric materials such as iron, nickel, cobalt, and some of their

alloys. The process puts a magnetic field into the part. The piece can
be magnetized by direct or indirect magnetization.
The magnetic lines of force are perpendicular to the direction of the
electric current which may be either alternating current (AC) or some
form of direct current (DC) (rectified AC).

PART – C (10 marks)

1. Write a short account of the various types of strain gauges. Give their special
advantages and limitations.
Mechanical
Optical
Electrical
Capacitance
Magnetic
Acoustical
2. What are the basic characteristics of a strain gauge? Which factors should be
considered?
1. Gauge length
2. Sensitivity
3. Range
4. Accuracy of repeatability

3. What are the various types of Mechanical strain gauges? Explain

Huggenberger tensometer in detail.
4. What are the various types of optical strain gauges? Explain the Tuckerman
gauge in detail
5. Explain the construction and working of Acoustical strain gauge.

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6. What are the different types of electrical strain gauges? Describe a

capacitance strain gauge and give its uses and limitations.
7. Write a short account of the various types of strain gauges. Give their special
advantages and limitations.
• Mechanical
• Optical
• Electrical
• Capacitance
• Magnetic
• Acoustical
Because of their design and construction, these types of gauges are
very sensitive to any vibrations that may occur in the structure under test.
The natural frequency of these gauges is rather low, hence almost any
structural vibrations renders the readings questionable. Size of these gauges
also limits their application

8. What are the basic characteristics of a strain gauge? Which factors should be
considered
The following factors must be evaluating the strain gauge

1. Readability
2. Ease of mounting
3. Required operator skill
4. Weight
5. Frequency response
6. Cost

9. What are the various types of Mechanical strain gauges? Explain

Huggenberger tensometer in detail.
10. What are the various types of optical strain gauges? Explain the Tuckerman
gauge in detail.
11. What are the different types of electrical strain gauges? Describe a
capacitance strain gauge and give its uses and limitations.

12. Calculate the principal stresses and strains and their directions and the
maximum shear stress in a steel plate for the rectangular rosette case: E=70
Gpa, υ=0.32, εa =285µm/m, εb=65µm/m, εc=102µm/m.

13. The strain readings as measured by a T-delta rosette at a point in a stressed

body are given by εa==225µm/m, εb=305µm/m, εc=-294µm/m. determine the
principal strain, principal stresses and maximum shear stress. Take
E=200Gpa, υ=0.30
14. Derive an expression of the two element rosette of strain computation data
in detail.
15. Write short notes on the following:
16. (i) Electromagnetic strain gauge

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17. (ii) Weldable strain gauge

Operation
The strain gauge, with its tensioned wire inside, is welded to the
structural member, so that an increase in tensile strain increases tension
in the wire, and a decrease in tensile strain decreases tension in the wire.
A strain gauge sensor is mounted on top of the strain gauge.

On flat surfaces, the sensor is typically held in place by weld-down

straps. On reinforcing and tieback bars, the sensor is often secured by
cable-ties and tape.

The strain gauge sensor uses an electromagnet to pluck the strain

gauge and then returns a frequency signal to the readout or data
logger, where it is converted to units of microstrain or period. The
VW strain gauge sensor also incorporates a temperature sensor,
which supplies data for temperature compensation.
18. What do you understand by a strain rosette? What are the different types of
strain rosette configurations currently in use? Discuss their uses and
limitations.
19. What are the essential requirements of a balancing technique? Discuss the
different ways in which you can balance a bridge.
20. Discuss the associated instrumentation for measuring
a. Strain strains
b. Dynamic strains

21. Sketch a circular polariscope. Explain the effects of a stressed model and the
fringes obtained in it

22. Sketch a plain polariscope. Explain the effects of a stressed model and the
fringes obtained in it.

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23. What are the important properties of an ideal photoelastic material?

Data Acquisition for principal stress magnitude and direction
Coating material and process for damp concrete-problem from bond
failure and unknown shrinkage stress effects in concrete
The difference between thermal coefficient in coating material and
concrete leads to errors to field investigation
Too sensitive to the Young Modulus and Poisson’s ratio ( local effect
from coating process)

24. With a suitable sketch explain the process of Fluorescent penetrant technique.
The selection of a liquid penetrant system is not a straightforward task.
There are a variety of penetrant systems and developer types that are
available for use, and one set of penetrant materials will not work for all
applications.
Many factors must be considered when selecting the penetrant
materials for a particular application.
These factors include the sensitivity required, materials cost, number
of parts, size of area requiring inspection, and portability.

25. Explain the brittle coating method in brief. Briefly explain the following
which are used in the experimental analysis:
a. Fibre – optic sensors
A fiber optic sensor is a sensor that uses optical fiber either as
the sensing element ("intrinsic sensors"), or as a means of relaying
signals from a remote sensor to the electronics that process the signals
("extrinsic sensors"). Fibers have many uses in remote sensing.
Depending on the application, fiber may be used because of its small
size, or because no electrical power is needed at the remote location,
or because many sensors can be multiplexed along the length of a
fiber by using different wavelengths of light for each sensor, or by
sensing the time delay as light passes along the fiber through each
sensor. Time delay can be determined using a device such as an
optical time-domain reflect meter.

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b. Thermography
Infrared thermography, thermal imaging, and thermal video
are examples of infraredimaging science. Thermal imaging cameras
detect radiation in the infrared range of the electromagnetic spectrum
(roughly 9000–14,000 nanometers or 9–14 µm) and produce images of
that radiation, called thermograms.

c. C – Scan

The test area is fully scanned with an ultrasonic transducer. A

video camera tracking the transducer or an X-Y encoder is used to plot
the movement of the transducer.

The ultrasonic signals from the geometric features and any flaws that
may occur are recorded with each movement of the transducer.

Signal processing is used to convert this information into a coloured

image similar to that shown below.

The various colours of the image represent a range of thickness values

resulting in a topographic map of the test item.

The signals, processed image, calibration parameters and other

relevant information are stored electronically and can be recalled
whenever required.

26) Explain the Electrical resistance strain gauge.

Automatic strain measurement is usually done with an electrical resistance

strain gauge (or gage). It looks like this: A thin plastic base supports thin ribbons of
metal, joined in a zig-zag to form one long electrically conductive strip. The entire
device is typically 10 mm long, with 16 or more parallel metal bands. When the
plastic is stretched the wires become longer, and thinner. The electrical resistance

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therefore increases. The % increase is about twice the % extension, because if the
wire is stretched to twice its original length the electrons have to struggle twice
as far through a conductor of half the original cross section.

27) Explain Radiographic Testing

Radiographic Testing (RT), or industrial radiography, is a nondestructive

testing (NDT) method of inspecting materials for hidden flaws by using
the ability of short wavelength electromagnetic radiation (high energy
photons) to penetrate various materials.

28) Explain Magnetic Particle Inspection

Magnetic particle inspection (MPI) is a non-destructive testing (NDT) process

for detecting surface and subsurface discontinuities in ferrous materials.
The process puts a magnetic field into the part. The piece can be
magnetized by direct or indirect magnetization.

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