CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

The literature review primarily focuses on the independent variables, identified

parenting styles and challenges commonly faced by single mothers are presented and

explored with correlating consequences as suggested in the literature.

Profile of Single Mothers

In 2016 there were 2.9 million single parents in the United Kingdom, representing an

18.6% increase in single parents since 1996. Single parent families are one representation of

the range and diversity of family units in modern society and can be created through

circumstances, including divorce, separation, and death of a partner, donor insemination or

an unplanned pregnancy. In 2018, about 19.65 million children in the United States lived with

one parent, approximately 16.4 million of them with their mother only.

Another assumption about single moms is that most are unemployed. Again, that

notion is not true according to the Census data. 76% of custodial single mothers are gainfully

employed (53.2% work full time year-round, and 22.8% work part-time or part-year) and

85.1% of custodial single fathers are gainfully employed.

One single parent family in poverty is one too many, but according to the U.S. Census

data, poverty isn't the norm for most single-parent families. Custodial single mothers and their

children, unfortunately, are twice as likely to live in poverty as the general population.

According to the Census, in 2009 14.3% of the total U.S. population lived in poverty, 30.4%

of custodial single mothers and their children lived in poverty and 18.8% of custodial single

fathers and their children lived in poverty.

Another assumption about single moms is that "most" receive government assistance.

According to the actual data, in 2009, 41.3% of custodial mothers received some form of

government assistance, 32.3% received SNAP (Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program)

benefits, 6.8% of custodial single moms received TANF (Temporary Assistance for Needy

Families) and 20.9% of custodial fathers received some form of government assistance.

Age of Single- mothers

There are around 1.8 million single parents – they make up nearly a quarter of families

with dependent children. Around one per cent of single parents are teenagers. Around 90 per

cent of single parents are women and the average age of a single parent is 38 years. Women

account for 86% of single parents with dependent children, the average age of a single parent is

38 years of age, with approximately 60% of single parents caring for one dependent child. Also,

single moms are that "most" are young. According to the actual data, 37.2% of custodial single

mothers are 40 years old or older. In the study of Jamisola [Link] (2013), women becoming single

mothers in an early age tend to have positive outlook later in their lives, shaping their future with

their child leads these individuals to cope with their current situation as student-parents.

The younger the age of the single parents the bigger their tendency of growing maturely

without depending of the help of their spouses due to the reason that they’ve used to raised

their children on their own. There is a better-quality of coping since young single parents

experienced social discrimination, indecisiveness, financial constraints longer than older single

parents that the main reason of being single is that their spouses have died or they separated.

Being single parent for a long time developed a foundation on their own that is somehow

unshakable where they’ve learned how to manage their time, resources and developed

characteristics that is convenient on raising their children.

Marital Status

The percentage of children under the age of 18 in the United States living in single

parent households increased to 35 percent in 2014, according to the Annie E. Casey

Foundation. In some locations, the number is greater. Chicago has joined cities such as Fresno,

Indianapolis and Tucson where approximately half of children live in single parent households,

while Cleveland and Detroit lead the nation at 75 percent and 71 percent, respectively. The

typical American family structure has changed. According to the Pew Research Center, many

people are waiting to get married or not getting married at all. In 2012, the median age at first

marriage for women was 27 and for men was 29, up from 20 for women and 23 for men in 1960.

One in five adults age 25 and older in 2012 had never married, up from roughly one in 10 adults

in [Link] a result, the number of children in nontraditional households, especially single parent

households, has increased significantly. The Heritage Foundation reports that in 1964, 93

percent of children born in the United States were born to married parents. But in 2010, only 59

percent of children were born to married couples.

Social science research has found that single mothers tend to be viewed more

negatively than married mothers. However, single mothers are not a monolithic group, they can

vary in terms of their marital status. There are approximately 6.4 million families headed by

single mothers in the United States, a figure expected to increase by about 10-15% over the

next 20 years (McCue, 2014). As the number of single mothers continues to increase, so do the

disadvantages that single mothers’ face. For example, relative to single women without children

and married mothers, single mothers tend to be economically disadvantaged. The poverty rate

for single mother families in 2013 was 39.6%, compared to 7.6% for married families

(Entmacher, Robbins, Vogtman, &Frolich, 2013). Parents who are married in biological families

with children tend to be perceived as affectionate, supportive, and stable with strong

communication. In comparison to married parents, single parents are often perceived as

immoral and untrustworthy. In sum, it appears as though parents who have been married at

some points are evaluated more positively compared to single parents because they conform

more to the prescribed norms for family structure.

Roman (2011) investigated parenting styles of single and married mothers in South

Africa. He found that there were no significant differences between parenting styles of single

and married mothers. Likewise, Avison, Ali and Walters (2007) and Greitemeyer (2009) found

no significant differences parenting practices between single and married mothers in South

Africa. However, Aronson and Huston (2004) point out that compared with married mothers,

single mothers are more likely to engage in inconsistent, harsh, and unsupportive parenting

behaviors. They state that single mothers are less likely to interact with their children in a more

stimulating and nurturing manner. Literature reviewed show that most of the studies done to

investigate the influence of marital status on parenting styles mainly involved mothers. Some

researches stated that it is because of the stress that they are encountering while dealing with

their children. Most of them could cope well due to the reason of young age, unplanned future

and missed opportunity because of the obligations and responsibility they have as single

parents.

No. of Children

According to Amato’s research, sociologists warn that many children of single parents

are born into undesirable circumstances. These children have a higher likelihood of being poor,

committing crimes or using drugs. Many sociologists agree that childhood’s adverse effects

outlive youth. Amato has also found that children of single-parent families, whose current

lifestyles are due to parental death, have been found to fare slightly better than children from

other groups.

Children in single mother families typically have poorer outcomes, across a range of

measures, than those living with both parents. However, many studies have concluded that,

once factors such as low income and poor maternal mental health are accounted for, the impact

of family structure on cognitive outcomes is small (see Chapple, 2009, for a review). Yet it is

well known that children who grow up in single mother families have different socioeconomic

circumstances to those living with both parents and this is, at least in part, because they live
 20

with a single mother: single motherhood is linked to reduced income, a high risk of poverty,

worse maternal mental health, poor parenting practices, and a range of other disruptions, such

as home and school moves and multiple family transitions (Hill, Yeung, & Duncan, 2001;

McLanahan, 2009). Having numerous numbers of children that the single-parents has to raised

root to higher demand on resources, time and love. The tendency of this is that there will be

insufficient supply or budget to run the family that turns out economical poverty and emotional

deprivation. Emotional deprivation due to the reason that the lesser the income of the parent the

lesser their time for their children as they would focus their time more on acquiring jobs and

opportunity to support their family.

Single parents could encounter difficulty in handling their children as her children’s

demand gets higher like education and things to support them. With the petite amount of their

monthly income, they could be challenge on providing the needs of family that caused their drop

to poverty.

Income of Single- mothers

Most single parent households earn significantly less than two parent households.

According to statistics compiled by Legal Momentum, the median income in 2012 for single

mother families was $25,493, 31 percent of the median income for two parent families

($81,455). Single father families earned a median income of $36,471, which is 45 percent of the

median income for two parent families.

Children in single parent households are much more likely to live in poverty. In 2012, the

poverty rate for children in single parent families was triple that of children in two parent families;

42 percent of children in single parent families were poor, compared to 13 percent of those in

two parent families.

Financial difficulties faced by many single parent households result in further challenges:

33 percent of single parent families in 2013 were “food insecure,” which measures the risk or

state of being hungry, and 13 percent used a food pantry, 11 percent of children in single parent
 21

families, and 27 percent of single parents, had no healthcare coverage in 2012 and 42 percent

of single parent households had at least one of nine hardships measured by the Census Bureau

in 2011, compared to 22 percent of the whole population.

At a given time in 2013, 69% of single parents were employed, compared to 85% of

fathers in two married parent families, and 62% of mothers in two married parent families. In

2012, 48% of single parents worked full-time all year long, and 24% were not employed at any

time in the year. Low wages are very common for U.S. single parents, and much more common

for single parents than for other U.S. workers. In 2009, 39% of employed single mothers were in

low-wage employment, with low wage defined as an hourly wage less than two-thirds of the

median hourly wage.

Single parents fall into poverty as they are the only one supporting their family. If the

reason behind being single parents is teenage pregnancy and they were not supported by their

family means they doesn’t finish their education that caused to low tendency of finding a job that

offers good salary. As to those whose spouse that are the breadwinner and died unexpectedly

or filed a separation or divorce, the one that left jobless and used to be dependent to their

partners will find it difficult to find a job and adjust to the new set up of handling their children.

Plus, there will be chaos in handling their children whose been used to get what they want. The

discipline manner will matter also. This might put up a challenge on the single parents as their

children was used to the life their been living with a complete family. Rebellious children may

rise and made the situation a lot harder but with the support of other family members children

could not find it hard to adjust in their new set up as well as to the parents.

Educational Attainment of Single- mothers

In Anglo-Saxon and Nordic counties, single mothers are significantly more likely to have

less education, while mothers in two parent families are more likely to have higher educational

levels. There are only two exceptions to this generalization. In the United Kingdom, the effect of
 22

tertiary education is not significant. In Denmark, lower education does predict single

motherhood, but not significantly.

The Continental countries have two patterns. In France, the Netherland, and Belgium,

less educated mothers are more likely to be single, but the relationship is not statistically

significant in Belgium. In contrast, in countries where German is spoken- Germany, Switzerland,

and Austria- more educated mothers are more likely to be single, though the relationship is not

significant in Switzerland. In Luxembourg, single mothers are distributed almost evenly across

the educational spectrum. There is no clear pattern in Mediterranean countries where more

educated mothers are more likely to be single in Portugal, Italy. And Greece (not significantly in

Greece), but in Spain like Denmark less educated mothers are significantly more likely to be

single mothers.

Overall, these findings indicate that in spite of the fact that there are still substantial

cross-national differences in the relationship between mother’s education and single-

motherhood, there is a general pattern toward a negative relationship between mother’s

education and single motherhood in most Western countries.

Tendency of single parents that are due to teenage pregnancy is that they could not

finish their education as they focus their time on finding a job to support their child/children.

They are stuck between choosing education and become a burden to their families or finding a

job and start supporting their child. Still, they have jobs that could not offer good salary because

of their qualifications. While single parents with higher educational attainment could have jobs

that offer better salary that they could support their family. Both single parents with different

educational attainment could experience social discrimination and difficulty in dealing with their

children. They face same struggles but there is no specific research that said that higher

educational attainment mothers are better in coping with their problems than those didn’t

finished their education. Coping mechanism doesn’t depend on the educational attainment of a
 23

person. Maturity could be one of the bases and it could be achieved on how we hard life be on

us and how we chose handle things.

Type of Support

Magna Carta of Women

The MCW is a comprehensive women's human rights law that seeks to eliminate

discrimination through the recognition, protection, fulfillment and promotion of the rights of

Filipino women, especially those belonging in the marginalized sectors of the society. It conveys

a framework of rights for women based directly on international law.

The Magna Carta of Women defines the marginalized sectors as those who belong to

the basic, disadvantaged, or vulnerable groups who are mostly living in poverty and have little or

no access to land and other resources, basic social and economic services such as health care,

education, water and sanitation, employment and livelihood opportunities, housing security,

physical infrastructure and the justice system. These include, but are not limited to women in the

following sectors or groups: small farmers and rural workers, Fisher folk, Urban poor, Workers in

the formal economy, Workers in the informal economy, Migrant workers, Indigenous Peoples,

Moro, Children, Senior citizens, Persons with disabilities, and Solo parents.

According to RA 8972, you are considered a solo parent if you are: (1) A woman who

has given birth (and has decided to keep and raise the child) as a result of rape and other

crimes against chastity even without a final conviction of the offender. (2) A parent left with the

sole responsibility of parenthood due to death of a spouse, a court or church declaration of

annulment or nullity of marriage and he or she is entrusted with the children custody, de facto

separation or legal separation from spouse for at least one (1) year so long as he or she is

entrusted with custody of the children (3) a public medical practitioner certifies the physical

and/or mental incapacity of a spouse (4) spouse serving a sentence for a criminal conviction for

at least one (1) year. An unmarried parent who has decided to keep his or her child or children
 24

instead of giving them up to a welfare institution or other caregivers. Any other person solely

providing parental care and support to a child or children. Any family member who assumes the

responsibility of providing parental care and support in place of the head of the family as a result

of prolonged absence, disappearance, abandonment, or death of the parents or solo parent.

Services available for all Filipino solo parents are (1) rights against workplace

discrimination on account of solo parent status, with respect to terms and conditions of

employment, (2) flexible work schedule provided that individual and company productivity will

not be affected, (3) Take note that any employer may request for exemption from this on

specific grounds. (4) Parental leave of not more than seven (7) working days every calendar

year for solo parents who have rendered at least one (1) year of service.

In addition to the services mentioned above, solo parents below the poverty threshold

can also avail of these services (1) Medical Assistance. Solo parents can avail of a DOH-

developed health care program for solo parents and their children (2) Housing Benefits. Housing

benefits in the form of solo parent allocation in low-cost housing projects with liberal terms of

payment. (3) Educational Benefits. Solo parents can avail of scholarship programs for basic,

tertiary, technical skills/education, and other non-formal education programs for solo parents

and their children. This program is developed by DECS, CHED, and TESDA (4) Livelihood

Training. This includes training on livelihood skills, value orientation, business management,

seed capital provision, or job placement. (5) Parent Effectiveness Services. This teaches single

parents about early childhood development, health care, behavior management, and rights and

duties of parents and children. (6) Counseling Services. For individual, peer group, or family

counseling, focusing on the resolution of role conflicts and personal relationship. (7) Stress

Management Strategies. This involves stress debriefing assistance for solo parents with cases

of abuse and other crisis situations.

According to (Williams 2016) the main sources of support are represented by kinship

members and friends, who represent an extremely important part of the single mother’s survival
 25

strategy. Specifically, kinship networks continue to play a central role in meeting the basic

needs of single mothers, including looking their children, giving small sums of money and so on.

In many cases friends also share similar conditions of jobs and economic instability. They offer

emotional support and social companionship but not much else. Moreover, due to the fragility of

the social welfare system and the lack of income support schemes, social workers can support

single mothers by offering them emotional support and helping them to navigate the social and

health services available, giving advice or information. In many cases, however, they cannot

help them to improve their lives or to set up active rotes out of poverty. Single mothers are

occasionally supported by other professional caregivers, such as those in parishes, or

volunteers in non-profit organizations, but this support is patchy and does not represent an

efficient means of coping, This implies that these single mothers risk being entrapped in

hardship not only because family resources are poor in quality, but because the support

provided by the immediate family has often been exchanged for a higher investment by single

mothers in domestic and in-kind services which hinders their social relationships and their

chances of better employment opportunities increasing the risk of that their condition in life will

decline overtime. However, in the absence of immediate family, specifically the mother, the

degree of perceived social isolation increases, and life conditions become harder for single

mother.

Types of Parenting Style

Authoritarian Parenting. Authoritarian parents are often thought of as disciplinarians.

They use a strict discipline style with little negotiation possible. Punishment is common.

Communication is mostly one way: from parent to child. Rules usually are not explained.

Parents with this style are typically less nurturing. Expectations are high with limited flexibility.

Permissive Parenting. Permissive or Indulgent parents mostly let their children do what

they want, and offer limited guidance or direction. They are more like friends than parents. Their

discipline style is the opposite of strict. They have limited or no rules and mostly let children
 26

figure problems out on their own. Communication is open but these parents let children decide

for themselves rather than giving direction. Parents in this category tend to be warm and

nurturing. Expectations are typically minimal or not set by these parents.

Uninvolved Parenting. Uninvolved parents give children a lot of freedom and generally

stay out of their way. Some parents may make a conscious decision to parent in this way, while

others are less interested in parenting or unsure of what to do. No particular discipline style is

utilized. An uninvolved parent lets a child mostly do what he wants, probably out of a lack of

information or caring. Communication is limited. This group of parents offers little nurturing.

There are few or no expectations of children.

Authoritative Parenting. Authoritative parents are reasonable and nurturing, and set high,

clear expectations. Children with parents who demonstrate this style tend to be self-disciplined

and think for themselves. This style is thought to be most beneficial to children. Disciplinary

rules are clear and the reasons behind them are explained. Communication is frequent and

appropriate to the child’s level of understanding. Authoritative parents are nurturing.

Expectations and goals are high but stated clearly. Children may have input into goals.

In addition to Baumrind's initial study of 100 preschool children, researchers have

conducted other studies that have led to a number of conclusions about the impact of parenting

styles on children. Among the findings of these studies:

Authoritarian parenting styles generally lead to children who are obedient and proficient,

but they rank lower in happiness, social competence, and self-esteem. Authoritative parenting

styles tend to result in children who are happy, capable, and successful. Permissive parenting

often results in children who rank low in happiness and self-regulation. These children are more

likely to experience problems with authority and tend to perform poorly in school. Uninvolved

parenting styles rank lowest across all life domains. These children tend to lack self-control,

have low self-esteem, and are less competent than their peers.
 27

Type of parenting could also depend on how the single parents was raised by their

parents. We tend to copy how our parents disciplined us even we are unconscious of it. Parents

who were raised in an authoritative family set up has a great tendency of applying it to their own

family same as to other types of parenting. It is part of our environmental factors that affects our

character as a person.

Having different types of parenting could affect our coping mechanism. As a single

parent one of our main concerns is our children. If we have chosen a type of discipline that

doesn’t align with the attitudes of our children their only resort is become rebellious so they

could show us that they are against our mindset. To solve such things, we should be open for

changes. Open communication could really be a big help in such problem. Listening to the

concern of our children and letting them vent out with us while we are open to hear them and

change for the in betterment of the family then it could help us understand them and them

understand us.

Common Challenges of Single Mothers

Single mothers according to recent data are more than 1.8 million single parent

households in the UK alone and more than 13 million in the US. There seems to be a rise in the

number of single parent households on a worldwide scale. These families have one thing in

common. They face the same struggles and hardships. Unique challenges that people might

have heard from single-mom friends but never thought about in detail. (Foster, 2015) Being a

single parent can be challenging. Single parents can face several issues, including the following

that are highlighted by the American Academy of Pediatrics: financially supporting one’s family,

physical and emotional fatigue due to commitments at work and home, lack of time for personal

pursuits, feelings of being overwhelmed with the responsibilities of raising a child, childcare,

complications with the relationship/involvement of the other parent and changes in children’s

behavior
 28

These stressors can cause depression in single parents. According to Child Trends Data

Bank, single parents in 2013 were twice as likely to be depressed as parents living in two parent

families. While 5 percent of all parents reported two or more symptoms related to depression,

11 percent of single parents reported two or more symptoms related to depression.

There is a lot of challenges to single parents it might be because of their age, reason

why they become single parents, their income, type of parenting and education attainment could

be a big influence in those challenges. These could affect them physically, emotionally, socially

and intellectually. And most of the time their type of coping mechanism doesn’t align to solve the

problem but made it worse. They put so much time on work to forget things, indulge in vices and

others choses to give up by causing suicide. They tend to forget the welfare of their children

while others was so worried about the welfare of their children that they do anything even it

means that they couldn’t have time for their self. But most of single parents survive things on

their own and produces successful children. Though the struggle is real but their perseverance

is higher and could be shaken for the sake of those they love.

Psychological Challenges

With all the responsibilities placed under the shoulder of a single mother, it is apparent

that each of them experiences burdens in all aspects. One of them is the psychological

challenges that may affect their health and their functioning as the sole provider of the house.

According to the 2015 Single Parent Household Survey in Korea, which involved the

participation of 2,552 single parents, the share of single-parent households created as a result

of divorce was 77.1%, while the share of those created through spousal death was 15.8%,

indicating that divorce is the predominant cause of single parenthood in Korea. The survey also

found that, at 43.7%, the majority of single-parent households consisted of a mother and child

(Ministry of Gender Equality and Family, 2015). Households headed by single mothers typically

have reduced income, because in Korea fathers tend to be the primary economic providers.

Furthermore, as the single parent family structure forces such parents to seek employment
 29

outside the home, single mothers are more likely to experience increased economic hardship

and parenting stress Park SK.2005), which also leads to an increased risk of employment and

housing insecurity. Furthermore, for these women, the difficulty of finding appropriate childcare

exacerbates the already challenging task of finding reliable and satisfactory employment. Of all

single-parent households, those headed by mothers have the lowest monthly income.

Moreover, 48.2% of single mothers who manage to find employment have been found to spend

10 hours or more at work every day and to receive insufficient holidays, which leaves a rather

large void in childcare during which their children are alone without adult supervision.

Compounding the economic and parenting difficulties hampering single mothers is weak social

support, which increases the severity of various issues for both mothers and their children

(Ministry of Gender Equality and Family, 2015).

According to Crosier et al. (2007), single-parent households headed by mothers are

more likely to experience poor mental health than two-parent households; and the most

significant contributors to such mental health issues are economic hardship and a lack of social

support. Furthermore, Cairney et al. (2003) reported that single-parent families are more likely

to suffer from depression than two-parent families, and that single-parent families have an

elevated level of chronic stress, experience weak social support, and have infrequent contact

with friends and families. The 2015 Single Parent Household Survey found that 20.2% of single

parents experience depressive symptoms, with 54% coping with the symptoms on their own and

a mere 5.7% seeking professional help (Ministry of Gender Equality and Family, 2015). On the

other hand, a study by Wang et al. (2004) reported a contrasting finding to that of other previous

research; according to their study, depressive symptoms are only significantly more prevalent in

households headed by single mothers who are 25–50 years of age, and reported that economic

hardship and weak social support are not correlated with depressive symptoms in these

families.
 30

It really does take a village to raise kids, and the number of single-parent homes in the

U.S. has almost doubled in the past 50 years (Anderson, 2013).   Without support, single moms

can be left feeling tired, overwhelmed, guilty, depressed, and even resentful of their children and

the world, in general.  Parenting is a full-time job that can be emotionally overwhelming, with no

paid vacation or sick time to ease the stress.  Appreciation is hard to come by, and single moms

can feel alone and stressed. Research also tells us that single mothers are also more

susceptible to developing mental illnesses like depression (Carpenter, 2011).

A number of factors can cause single mothers to be more at risk of depression and other

mental illnesses, as compared to mothers with partners to share the burden. Sleepless nights,

frustration and distress were common. The emotional life of the single mother was also affected

by their single status. Majority of the single mother reported that they felt lonely, helpless,

hopeless, lack of identity and lack of confidence.

Single parents have higher levels of mental health problems, which could result partly

from the stress of trying to balance the needs of employment, home responsibilities, child

rearing, and interactions with the child's school with limited time, personal, and social support

(Cairney, 2003).

Being a single mother can be incredibly stressful, and stress can contribute to the

development of mental illness, or aggravate existing mental health problems.  In one study,

single mothers were found to have more incidences of moderate to severe mental disability than

women who had partners to help with parenting.  Financial hardship and lack of social support

were two factors thought to contribute to the increased incidence of mental illness (Crosier,

Butterworth, & Rodgers, 2007).

Another study echoes these findings and shows that both single mothers and single

fathers are more at risk for mental illness, with single mothers being the most at-risk.  They also

reported significantly more stress than parents with partners.  Factors leading to the increased

stress include unemployment, lack of financial resources, and having pre-school aged children.
 31

Single mothers seem to be worse off financially than single fathers, with 46% of mothers

reporting financial hardships, compared with 23% of single fathers. (Pelzer, 2013).  

Single parent families face various challenges. Some challenges of single parenthood

include; childcare and training needs, child support enforcement, loneliness, and psychological

problems (Mayer, 2009).

The risk for psychopathology in single mothers and their children is increased, but the

mechanisms for this are not known. In a Swedish study, children of single parent households

(90% women) were found to be at increased risk for childhood psychopathology, suicide

attempts and drug addiction (Weitoft, Hjern, Haglund, Rosén, 2003). As noted earlier single

mothers may face not only the non-shared care of a child but also economic problems resulting

from discriminatory wage levels and the absence of a second income from a partner (Goodrum,

Jones, Kincaid, Cuellar, 2012). Moreover, negative parenting behaviors have been shown to be

more common in single-mother households (Daryanani, Hamilton, Abramson, Alloy, 2016). The

increased risk for mental health problems in children of single-mother households has also been

attributed to increased experience of stressful life events (Daryanani, Hamilton, McArthur,

Steinberg, Abramson, Alloy, 2017). While these factors add to the total burden of risk, single

motherhood stays significantly associated with youth psychopathology after controlling for

poverty and maternal psychopathology.

In the study of Agnafors, Bladh, Svedin&Sydsjo (2019) on mental health in young

mothers, single mothers and their children found that women who were single at childbirth did

not report emotional or behavioral problems in their children to a greater extent than

cohabitating mothers. Increased rates of depression and anxiety have been shown earlier in

school-aged children of divorce, however, the separation in itself might be the stress triggering

behavioral and emotional problems. Likewise, an association between single motherhood and

externalizing problems have previously been reported in older children. Almost 2/3 (n = 22) of

the women who were single at baseline, reported cohabitation at the 3-year follow-up, which
 32

has to be taken into account when interpreting the results. These families are maybe less likely

to experience lower SES due to the structural inequalities of one parent households, however,

the children might be subjected to a major life event of family restructuring.

Moreover, in a study of GaEun Kim, Hee-Yeon Choi &Eui-Jung Kim (2018) on impact of

economic problems on depression in single mother, it was found out that stress level was

significantly higher among the single mothers than among the married mothers. For the single

and married mothers alike, stress level was higher among the depressed individuals. A higher

alcohol-use score was found among the single mothers than their married counterparts. When

based on the AUDIT-K cut-off of 12 points, the rate of estimated alcohol use disorders was

significantly higher in single mothers (25.6%) than in the control group (8.4%). Focusing on the

single mothers, a higher alcohol use score was found among the depressed than the non-

depressed. Based on the AUDIT-K cut-off point, 38.5% of the depressed single mothers had

suspected alcohol use disorders compared with 28.6% of the depressed married mothers. In the

non-depressed group, 6.9% of the married mothers were found to have alcohol use disorders,

compared with 19.2% of the single mothers. This result indicated that alcohol use problems

were more prevalent among the depressed single mothers. Alcohol use in women is highly

correlated with emotional factors, and it has been reported that for many women with alcohol

abuse problems, a traumatic event such as marital stress, divorce, or the death of a loved one

tends to be a trigger (Kim HR, Choi YH, Choi JK., 2003). Furthermore, because many women

with a drinking problem tend to have begun to use alcohol as a way of escaping from negative

emotions, it appears that for many, depression contributes to secondary alcohol addiction (Dixit

AR, Crum RM., 2003). It can be expected that single mothers are more likely to abuse alcohol to

obtain relief from negative feelings such as loneliness and depression stemming from conflicts

with ex-spouses, divorce, or spousal death, and that the more depressed the mother is, the

more severe the alcohol-abuse problem is likely to be.

The greater the economic hardship among poor single mothers, the higher the likelihood

of poor mental health. Stress-related mental health issues brought on by economic hardship are

important in an age of time-limited, reduced public assistance support. Casey et al. (2004)

reported a relationship between reduced or time-limited stipends and depression, while

Huddleston-Casas, Charnigo, and Simmons (2009) found a recursive relationship between food

insecurity and depression. Seifert, Bowman, Heflin, Danziger, and Williams (2000) found that

more than a quarter of the women on welfare met the diagnostic criteria for major depression,

and Cairney, Boyle, Offord, and Racine (2003) reported that the impact of life events on

depression was stronger for single women than for married women. Coiro (2001) studied

welfare recipients with young children and found that 40% of poor black mothers reported

symptoms of major depression.

Economic Challenges

Financial security is the condition of having regular income or other resources to

maintain a standard of living now and in the foreseeable future. The stability of money with the

predictability of future cash flow of the individual and work status stability. Financial security

often refers to individual and family financial practices (Hayes & Finney, 2013). Meanwhile,

financial vulnerability indicates how difficult households are finding to simply meet their existing

financial commitments with equivalent difficulties in planning for the future.

Women are less confident than men when their financial futures, knowledge of

retirement needs, on-going financial situations (Hira & Lobi, 2009) are concerned. This gives

rise to an important question on the effect of financial strains, self-coping mechanism and the

financial security among women, especially among single mothers.

A life changing event such as separation from the spouse can cause single mothers to

lose the financial resources if they are not working and rely on the husband for financial support

(Fazah, 2013). Single mothers with a number of children have to sustain their previous level of
 34

life consumption and are more likely to fall into poverty. The ability of single mothers to maintain

living standards after divorce depends on the self-coping mechanisms taken by single mothers.

(Verick, 2014). It is the strategies established by single mothers to reduce the financial

vulnerability (Corman, Noonan &Reichman, 2012).

For poor single mothers, poverty-related stress includes worries related to work,

housing, food insecurity, discrimination, stigma, exposure to violence, victimization, and illness.

Jobs with benefits are scarce; neighborhoods are deteriorated and unsafe; and community,

family, and personal support are scarce. In short, low-income single mothers are a vulnerable

population who are more likely than their married counterparts to suffer from mental and

physical health disorders. Their stressors tend to be chronic, severe, and long term. They have

reported more early childhood adversities, more threatening events throughout their lives, and

higher levels of chronic stress and deprivation than have members of the general population

(Broussard, 2010; Cairney, Boyle, Offord, & Racine, 2003). They are more likely to have

experienced unemployment, low levels of social support, domestic violence, and separation or

divorce (Turner, 2007). There is a higher Broussard et al. 191 Downloaded from

[Link] at University of South Australia on July 6, 2015 likelihood of disability (Parish,

Magan˜a, &Cassiman, 2008) and anxiety and substance-use disorders (Crosier, Butterworth, &

Rodgers, 2007; Wang, 2004). Unfortunately, help has not been readily available. In 2009, Cook

et al. (2009) expressed concern over the lack of treatment for psychiatric and substance use

disorders for single mothers who have reached their Temporary Assistance for Need Families

(TANF) lifetime eligibility limit.

The single parent families are influenced to a great extent by the financial challenges

which seem to have a replicable effect on other aspects of the family such as education. The

study also established that the socialization of children is not necessarily influenced by the

single parenthood family. Similarly, the study established that education attainability of the

children from single parents might be poor but it cannot be as a result of the single parenthood.
 35

It was also established that the children’s self-esteem might not be really because they come

from single parent families but it might be as a result of their factor not discussed. The study

concluded that single parent families are mainly faced by financial challenges and that the

socialization of the children, their educational attainment and their self-esteem might not be

attributed to the single parenthood. (Awuor, 2017)

Economic strain also has a significant effect on single parent families’ physical and

mental well-being. In fact, 20.8% of single parents report feeling chronically unwell yet being

unable to see a doctor, with 53.4% of these citing “economic strain” as the primary reason for

not seeking medical advice, which is a higher percentage than the national average (Ministry of

Gender Equality and Family, 2015).

The most serious problem among families with one parent, especially if that parent is a

woman, is poverty.” This view is reverberated by many commentators on this issue. With the

cost of living, especially for the common man, far exceedingly today’s wages, except one is born

with a silver spoon in the mouth, it takes two people to provide adequately for a family. Single

mothers are thus financially challenged and are at higher risk of poverty than coupled mothers

(Olurounbi, 2011).

According to the results, single-parent families experienced a decrease in consumption

in activities such as going to the cinema, theatre, and concerst (62.2%), participating in ticketed

sporting events (52.9%), and eating out (47.9%) because of economic reasons.

In a 2012 article for The Nation, Greg Kaufmann cited a report that shows that “single

mothers in the United States—most of whom are either separated or were previously married—

are employed more hours and yet have much higher poverty rates than their peers in other

high-income countries. “Single moms are working harder, but still experiencing very high rates

of poverty (Van Ewijk & Sleegers, 2010).

In a study of Stack & Meredith (2018) it was found out that single parents described high

levels of stress, psychological distress and anxiety, which were related to their position of sole
 36

responsibility and concerns about finances. Some levels of distress were particularly

concerning, including rumination, sleeplessness, and suicidal thoughts. A particular concern,

and one which should be addressed by healthcare professionals and policy makers, was that

single parents in this study suggested that mental health distress was normal, and that

psychological difficulties were a natural consequence of their social circumstances. This finding

is concerning as it indicates that single parents are less likely to seek help or support for mental

health difficulties. Furthermore, when help was sought the causal beliefs associated with their

mental distress affected their ability to engage with psychological interventions. In addition,

stress related health concerns were also described, however, many parents the option to rest

and recover was removed due to parental duties.

In the Philippines the study of Abing (2018) on familial, educational, and economic

values and experiences of single parents revealed that single parents view familial, educational

and economic values as moderately important values. However, they consider familial values as

the most pressing among the three. Single parents also have fair and balanced experiences in

terms of child rearing practices, time management, financial management and self-image

perception. Among the four, the highest rated experience where they struggle the most is on

financial management and self-image perception. Their usual coping mechanism is spending

quality time with their children followed by keeping themselves busy at work or at home. 

Social Challenges

Single mothers face discrimination, rejection and blackmail from the society, culture and

religion. Although single motherhood is not appreciated in the major religions in the study area,

this study discovers that single motherhood has come to stay. Understanding, tolerance,

acceptance, economic aids towards single mothers are highly recommended. There is need for

the entire society to focus more on the attitudinal change and social orientation towards single

mothers. (American Journal of Social Issues & Humanities, 2012)

Stigmatization, discrimination and rejection do come from culture, society and religion.

Single mothers are often demonized as being promiscuous. However, not all single mothers are

whores. Impurity is independent of one’s state of life. (Myer, 2012)

In social sphere majority of single mothers tried to avoid attending social gatherings and

had changed their dressing style due to depression they had develop poor food and eating

habits. Majority of the single mothers found it hard to maintain discipline among the children due

to absence of male members. The mothers complained about loneliness, traumatic and

depression and found it difficult to handle the responsibility of childcare and to establish a

routine for her children. (Shah and Waller, 2006)

Single parent participants also suggested that financial hardship had a negative impact

on their social interactions. Social isolation, loneliness and withdrawal were suggested to

corrode their psychological wellbeing and mental health. Not having enough money to

participate in social activities was suggested to be a physical barrier, however, the

embarrassment of having little money was a social and psychological barrier which was

suggested to underlie their tendency to withdraw socially. This meant that social withdrawal and

social isolation were often associated with financial stress and financial hardship.

The study revealed that single parent families are vulnerable to social abuses such as

being looked down upon, approached by any man, not being fit to appear at social gathering,

not socially approved and do not wear a cheerful look. Again, the study showed that raising up

children alone could be burdensome, they could be economically unstable, face financial crises;

though they tend to attract more benevolence.

The lack of social support leads to poor mental and physical outcomes, and worry about

support heightens stress. Single mothers lack several forms of support. Poor single mothers are

more socially isolated, receive less emotional and parental support, and have more unstable

social networks than do married mothers. Cairney et al. (2003) found that single mothers

perceived that they had less social support, reported less contact with family members and
 38

friends, and were less socially involved than were married mothers. Crosier, Butterworth, and

Rodgers (2007) found that the perceived lack of social support and financial hardship were the

most important factors contributing to poor mental health among single mothers. Sometimes,

even when a potential supporter’s actions are well intended, the mother perceives the situation

as unsupportive, so these actions can be classified as harmful to the mother (Campbell

Grossman, Hudson, Keating-Lefler, & Fleck, 2005). Since poor single mothers tend to hold low-

paying jobs with inflexible schedules and little, if any, personal time for emergencies, they are

not in a position to turn down informal support. However, some forms of support (such as

transportation and child care) are unreliable and carry a stress inducing price for mothers who

need help on short notice or during irregular hours (Harknett, 2006; Henley, Danziger, & Offer,

2005). Moreover, given that single mothers’ friends and family members are likely to be similarly

disadvantaged (Henley et al., 2005), the support that is offered often requires financial or other

compensation, such as reciprocation (Lein, Benjamin, McManus, & Roy, 2005)

Positive Aspect of Single Motherhood

Mothers can be a positive influence in their children's lives, whether or not they are

single parents. A new multiethnic study at Cornell University has found that being a single

parent does not appear to have a negative effect on the behavior or educational performance of

a mother's 12- and 13-year-old children. What mattered most in this study, Cornell researcher

Henry Ricciuti says, is a mother's education and ability level and, to a lesser extent, family

income and quality of the home environment. He found consistent links between these maternal

attributes and a child's school performance and behavior, whether the family was white, black or

Hispanic (Lang, 2004)

Research studies and popular accounts of parenting document the joys and strains of

raising children. Assessing mothers’ emotions in a broad set of parenting activities while

controlling for a rich set of persons- and activity-level factors, we find that mothering
 39

experiences are generally associated with high levels of emotional well-being, though single

parenthood is associated with shifts in the emotional valence. Single mothers report less

happiness and more sadness, stress and fatigue in parenting than partnered mothers. This is

concentrated among those single mothers who are not employed. Employed single mothers are

happier and less sad and stressed when parenting than single mothers who are not employed.

Contrary to common assumptions about maternal employment, we find overall few negative

associations between employment and mothers’ feelings in time with children, with the

exception that employed mothers report more fatigue in parenting than those who are not

employed (Meier [Link], 2016).

Moreover, not all children who come from a single parenthood family structure present

poor performance in school. In a study conducted by Amato, Patterson and Beattie (2015) on

single-parent household and children’s education achievement, it points out that although many

studies have examined associations between family structure and children’s educational

achievement at the individual level, few studies have considered how the increase in single-

parent households may have affected children’s educational achievement at the population

level. We examined changes in the percentage of children living with single parents between

1990 and 2011 and state mathematics and reading scores on the National Assessment of

Educational Progress. Regression models with state and year fixed effects revealed that

changes in the percentage of children living with single parents were not associated with test

scores. Increases in maternal education, however, were associated with improvements in

children’s test scores during this period.

Impact of Single Parenthood to Children of Single Mothers

Parenthood is challenging enough even under the best of conditions. So, being a single

parent in our society is tasking to say the least. This is because, with one parent, the challenges

are multifaceted. Single parenting in our society has been the focus of much interest and

research in recent years. (Chiemelie Ezeobi, 2011). According to Funmilayo Oriyomi (2011), a
 40

communicator, “The effect of single parenting are far reaching because it does not only affect

the parents, it also affects the children. In fact, the effects are more devastating on the part of

the children because single parenthood leaves them with deep scars. Being a single parent is a

very tough and challenging task.

Many of the problems that single parents have, are similar to those of two parents family,

but these problems seems more difficult to bear or manage when the home is being tutored by

only one person. For example, all children feel hostile towards their parents as they grow-up

and try to be independent. But in a situation, where the anger and rebellion are all directed

towards one person, it may seem worse, if there is only one to bear it, not for the two to share

(Ekpenyong Nkereuwem & Udisi, 2016).

Theoretical explanations about the impact of single motherhood on wellbeing of

dependent children have changed over years. In 970s, the dominant model researches on

single motherhood followed was the Family Deficit Model. The Family Deficit model views “the

nuclear or two-parent family (otherwise known as intact family) as the ideal family structure.

According to this model, single-parent families have a negative impact on children simply

because they do not have a nuclear family structure. It is therefore considered an aberration,

which lacks the capacity to produce a psychologically balanced offspring” (Azuka-Obieke,

2013).

According to the Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family Statistics Forum

([Link]), nearly 30 percent of children were part of a single-parent family in 2006. In the

bulk of those single-parent families, primary caregivers were mothers. Certain studies show that

black children do not seem to suffer as greatly from the effects of single-parent families than

white children do. This result could be due to a higher percentage of children born to single

black women than to single white women. Therefore, most of the black children surveyed were

born into single-parent families while most white children entered the lifestyle due to a traumatic

loss (such as divorce).

The forum on [Link] declares that children born to a single mother are at greater

risk for adverse consequences than those born to a two-parent household.

The forum concludes that the consequences are a result of more limited social, emotional and

financial resources. These findings are reinforced in Growing Up with a Single Parent: What

Hurts, What Helps, a book written by Sara McLanahan and Gary Sandefur. According to

McLanahan and Sandefur, children of single-parent households are at increased risk of

dropping out of high school. In the book’s findings, boys tended to be idle and teenage girls had

a greater risk of pregnancy. Overall, the chances of these children going to college were greatly

diminished.

Single parents have many responsibilities to deal with alone. These can be work,

nurturing, or educational responsibilities to name a few. For this reason, single parents

experience a high rate of stressors. This, according to research, decreases parental warmth,

involvement in a child's life, and support (Jackson et al., 2010; Taylor, Larsen-Rife, Conger,

Widaman, &Cutrona, 2010). In some studies, it has even been reported that parental warmth

significantly decreases the effects of poverty, physical discipline and parental depression

(Pittman &ChaseLansdale, 2001). Parental warmth has also been shown to increase self-

esteem, coping abilities, and decrease anxiety among older children (Hipwell et al., 2008).

Researchers have found children from single-parent-homes depend more upon friends

and friend's opinions than children growing up in dual parent-homes (Hilton et al. 2001).

Children in single-parent-homes who have influence from both parents display fewer negative

behaviors, even when accounting for socioeconomic factors (Blackwell, 2009; Jackson et al.,

2010).

In Nigeria, the number of children in single-parent families has risen significantly over the

past four decades, causing substantial concern among policymakers and the public.

Researchers have identified the rise in single-parent families (especially mother-child families)

as a major factor driving the long-term increase in child poverty in Nigeria. The effects of
 42

growing up in single parent households have been shown to go beyond economics, increasing

the risk of children dropping out of school, disconnecting from the labor force, and becoming

teen parents. Although many children growing up in single-parent families succeed, others will

face significant challenges in making the transition to adulthood. Children in lower-income,

single parent families face the most significant barriers to success in school and the work force.

The study therefore focuses on the experiences of single parents in Amassoma Community of

Bayelsa State, Nigeria. (Ekpenyong Nkereuwem & Udisi, 2016).

Children are increasingly socialized by influencers outside the immediate family. As a

result of poor parental care and guidance caused by divorce, separation or death of a partner,

children are exposed to potentially damaging situations (Olaleye, Y.L and Oladeji David, April

2010). When a mother is out of a home, leaving the children under the charity and mercy of

step-mother, these children are prone to many problems such as poor feeding, negligence, not

inspired to study or learn diseases and sicknesses, emotional disturbance (fear, insecurity) as

such, they are not likely to perform up to expectation in school. Step parents do not show much

love and affection to their step children. Thus, these children suffer from mental retardation,

personality disorders and are miserable. They show behavioral response like lying, stealing, and

playing truant in school. There is increase in domestic work and redistribution of household

chores, which leave the children with little or no time for their studies (Adelani Tijani and

Ogunbanwo B, 2008).

Coping Strategies

Utilizing behavior management techniques, engaging in activities which have the

potential to prevent stressful situations, utilizing self-calming, engaging in self-nurturing

activities, developing and maintaining social supports, utilizing inappropriate parenting

strategies, and engaging in activities that result in immediate self-gratification for the mother.

Included is a discussion about these coping strategies as well as recommendations made

regarding implications for social work practice, policy, and future research with this population.
 43

Coping The participants reported an array of coping methods, including emotional

support from family members and friends, faith-spirituality, pets, exercise, internal strength, and

resourcefulness, hope, neighborhood supports, humor, therapy, creative endeavors (such as

drawing), volunteering, and combinations of these methods. Some participants noted that they

had little relief from stress or said that they did not know how to cope with stress.

The voices of the poor are ignored in policy debates and in social work research,

practice, and the development of interventions. This article reviews the literature on stress and

coping for single mothers in the context of poverty and uses narrative interviews to capture the

lived experiences of 12 women who raised their children alone. The results showed that these

single mothers’ stress and coping experiences tend to reflect the findings of research except

that the low-income women in the study relieved stress and empowered themselves through

volunteer work with other low-income individuals. In their model, primary control coping

incorporates problem solving, emotional expression, and emotional regulation; secondary

control coping includes acceptance, cognitive restructuring, distraction, and positive thinking;

and disengagement coping is characterized by avoidance, denial, and wishful thinking.

Lazarus (1966) defined three stress processes: (1) primary appraisal or perceiving a

threat; (2) secondary appraisal or forming a potential response to the threat; and (3) coping or

applying the response. Individuals oscillate among these processes. This conceptualization of

coping as a process that implies efforts to manage stress that are distributed over time is

consistent with the systems framework. Folkman and Lazarus (1980) differentiated two types of

coping that they called problem- and emotion-focused coping. The former is aimed at problem

solving to alter the source of the stress, and the latter is aimed at reducing or managing

emotional distress that is related to a stressful situation. Most stressors elicit both types;

however, problem-focused coping tends to prevail when people believe they can change the

situation, while emotion-focused coping tends to prevail when people believe that the stressor is

beyond their control. Research has suggested that growing up with poverty-related stress
 44

hinders the development of effective coping abilities (Wadsworth & Santiago, 2008). Since poor

single mothers are more likely to have experienced multiple adversities during childhood

(Cairney et al., 2003) and children learn coping strategies within the family, the strategies they

use as adults may not alleviate their stress. In fact, Coyne, Aldwin, and Lazarus (1981) linked

this learned component of coping to learned helplessness and depression in their study of

individuals who tried to assert control in situations over which they had no control.

Hamilton, Shobe, Murphy-Erby, and Christy (2012) reported that the heads of household

had engaged in several short and long-term strategies to help make ends meet. The strategies

used, including borrowing money, and thus creating long-term financial burdens; other

approaches include taking a second job and tightening their budget that offers fewer long-term

difficulties. This is contrary to what has been reported by the United Nations (2001) on the type

of coping strategies by single women which involve manipulative informal sector work, including

pushing children into child labor, begging and worse, sex work. Despite the mushrooming of

studies on antecedents of financial security (Haines et al., 2009; Lange et al., 2012b; Mahal et

al., 2012; Miron-shatz, 2009; Suwanrada, 2009). The health and psychological aspect of self-

coping mechanisms and financial security as the outcome have not been studied before.

Synthesis

Parents play a significant role in shaping the emotional and personality development of

their children. However, single parents encounter double major roles, i.e., the parenting role and

the role of a sole breadwinner for their family. This double role, leads a single working mother

into having social and psychological problems. Previous studies reported occurrences of

depression and emotional distress among children of single parents, high risks of school drop-

outs, substance abuse, premarital sex and teenage pregnancies as well as neglected children.
 45

Single parents were found physically, mentally and emotionally unprepared which led to a

collapse of the family structure.

Single parents may be “stretched thin” financially and emotionally, and this can have a

direct and indirect impact on their children. Children in single parent families are more likely to

experience accidents, suggesting lower levels of child supervision, and to see a physician, to

receive medical treatment for physical illnesses, and to be hospitalized than children from two

parent families. Single parents have higher levels of mental health problems, which could result

partly from the stress of trying to balance the needs of employment, home responsibilities, child

rearing, and interactions with the child's school with limited time, personal, and social support. A

number of factors can cause single mothers to be more at risk of depression and other mental

illnesses, as compared to mothers with partners to share the burden.

The number of single-parents in today’s society is increasing yearly. Many children are

being reared by single mothers, who seem to struggle to make ends meet while teetering below

the poverty line. Perhaps single mothers and fathers do not have as much time to participate

fully in their child’s schooling, thus adding to the challenges for children of single-parent families.

As this study is conducted in public and private school in Roxas City with single parents

working as teachers, it provides an alternative atmosphere and setting for a study pertaining to

coping mechanisms of single parents with the challenges they faced on a daily setting and with

different profiles. Because of the fact that the economy and culture of Roxas City is unique in its

own way, the research provides data about its people socio-economic status and various

norms, customs, and traditions.

Many researchers have discovered increasing number of single parents in our

community. Single parents that are under pressured and toiling to provide for their family’s daily

need. Single parents that facing challenges in all aspects of their life and are still fighting for the
 46

sake of those they love. And single parents that are efficacious in playing their roles and the

roles of the one who got away.

These studies also reveal that single parents are recommended to be given constant

therapy sessions because they still do poorly arrange their lives, are full of weariness, are

lacking in confidence and are still weak in resisting social pressure. But through the help and

support of those who surround and love them they are step by step moving forward with a better

prospective in life. With a good foundation and support they were able to perform better coping

mechanism that benefits their family and as well as their selves.

The single parents attained something positive from their experience and discovered

that there are other important things in life and became renewed beings. But they still

moderately use confrontive coping, distancing, escape avoidance and self-controlling. In some

instances, they detached themselves from the experiences to avoid being severely hurt, left

behind and dependent on anybody else. They focused more on the optimistic part which is they

are with their children and they were able to provide their needs single handedly with the moral

support of their parents and as well as their child/children.