Energy Engineering (18ME81) Module 1
Module 1: STEAM GENERATORS
STEAM GENERATORS: Coal and ash handling, Generation of steam using forced
circulation, high and supercritical pressures, LaMount, Benson, Velox, Loeffer, Schmidt
steam generators, Cooling towers and Ponds, Accessories such as Superheaters, De-
superheater, Economizers, Air preheaters.
1 FUELS FOR STEAM GENERATION
Steam power plant uses fossil fuels to generate steam; fuel may be in different form such as
solid, liquid, pulverized or gaseous. Selection of the type of fuel depends on availability of
fuels and economic conditions.
1.1 TYPES OF FUELS
The important fuels are as follows-
1. Solid fuels
2. Liquid fuels
3. Gaseous fuels
1) Solid fuels: Coal is the major fuel used for thermal power plants to generate steam. Coal
occurs in nature, which was formed by decay of vegetable matters buried under the earth
millions of years ago under pressure and heat.
The chemical substances in the coal are
a) Carbon: 50-95%
b) Hydrogen: 1-5.5%
c) Nitrogen: 0.5-7%
d) Oxygen: 2-40%
e) Sulphur: 0.5-3%
2) Liquid Fuels: All types of liquid fuels used are derived from crude petroleum and its by-
products. Petroleum or crude oil consists of 80-85% C, 10-15% hydrogen, and varying
percentages of Sulphur, nitrogen, oxygen and compounds of vanadium. The fractions from
light oil to heavy oil are naphtha, gasoline, kerosene, diesel and finally heavy fuel oil. The
heavy fuel oil is used for generation of steam. Use of liquid fuels in thermal power plants has
many advantages over the use of solid fuels.
SOME IMPORTANT ADVANTAGES ARE AS FOLLOWS:
1) The storage and handling of liquid fuels is much easier than solid and gaseous fuels.
2) Excess air required for complete combustion of liquid fuels is less
3) Fire control is easy and hence changes in load can be met easily and quickly.
4) There are no requirements of ash handling and disposal.
3) Gaseous Fuels: For purpose of generating of steam in gas fired thermal plants, either
natural gas or manufactured gaseous fuels are used. However, manufactured gases are costlier
than natural gas. Generally, natural gas is used for power plants as it is available in
abundance. Natural gas is generally obtained from gas wells and petroleum wells. Major
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constituent in natural gas is methane, about 60-65%, and also contains small amounts of other
hydrocarbons such as ethane, naphthene and aromatics, carbon dioxide and nitrogen. Natural
gas is transported from the source to place of use through pipes, for distances to several
hundred kilometers. Natural gas is colorless, odorless and non-toxic. Its calorific value ranges
from 25,000 to 50,000 KJ/m3, artificial gases are producer gas, water gas coke-oven gas; and
the Blast Furnace Gas (BFG). Generally, power plants fired with artificial gases are not
found. Gaseous fuels have advantages similar to those of liquid fuels, except for the storage
problems. The major disadvantage of power plant using natural gas is that it should be setup
near the source; otherwise, the transportation losses are too high.
2 Fuel feeding
Steam power plants use coal as fuel. since coal is the major source and also it is available in
abundance. Power plants with smaller outputs are using liquid fuels like diesel oil and heavy
fuel oils. All major steam power plants are run by burning coal, which is used either in solid
or powdered form. Economical working of a steam power plant depends upon efficient
combustion of fuel. Hence fuel feeding and firing system of furnace plays an important role
The solid fuels are fired into the furnace by the following methods:
1. Hand firing.
2. Mechanical firing
Pulverized fuel is fired in combustion chamber by following methods
1. Unit system
2. Bin or central system
2.1 Hand firing:
Though hand firing is simple and cheaper it is not generally used, because of the following
reasons:
1) It has low combustion efficiency.
2) Slow response to load fluctuations.
3) Combustion control is difficult.
4) Suitable only for small power plants.
2.2 Mechanical or stoker firing:
Even though it is costlier, generally they are used to feed the solid fuels in small and medium
size power plants, because of the following reasons:
1) Combustion is more efficient.
2) Fuel handling is automatic and combustion control is easier.
3) Faster response to load fluctuations.
4) Low quality fuels can be successfully burnt.
Stokers are classified as follows
1) Overfeed
a) Conveyor stoker
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i) Chain Grate stoker
ii) Travelling Grate stoker
b) Spreader stoker
2) Underfeed
a) Single Retort stoker
b) Multi Retort stoker
2.2.1 Over feed stoker
Figure 2.1: Over feed stoker
Figure depicts working principle of overfeed stoker in which, primary air enters the grate
from bottom, air while moving through grate openings gets, heated up and the grate is cooled.
Hot air that, moves through a layer of ash and picks up additional heat. Air then passes
through a layer of incandescent coke where oxygen reacts with coke to form CO, and water
vapours accompanying air react with incandescent coke to form CO 2, CO and free H2. The
gases leaving the surface of fuel bed contain volatile matter of raw fuel and gases like CO,,
CO, H,. N, and H2O. Then additional air known as secondary air is supplied to burn
combustible gases. Combustion gases entering the boiler consist of Ny, CO, O, and H,0 and
also CO if the combustion is not complete.
2.2.2 Under feed stoker.
In underfeed principle air entering through the holes in the grate comes in contact with raw
coal, and then it passes through incandescent coke where reactions similar to over feed
system take place. Gas produced then passes through a layer of ash. Required secondary air is
supplied to burn combustible gases. Underfeed principle is suitable for burning the semi-
bituminous and bituminous coals, figure below represents working principle of under feed
stoker.
Figure 2.2: Under feed stoker
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Comparison between over feed stoker and underfeed stoker
Over feed Underfeed
1. Movement of coal and air in opposite 1. Movement of coal and air in same
direction direction
2. Coal is fed to grate alone the air 2. Coal is fed to grate below the air
admission admission
3. Ash temperature is comparatively, less 3. Ash temperature is high.
2.2.3 Chain grate stoker
Figure 2.3: Chain grate stoker travelling great stoker
Chain grate stoker consists of an endless chain which forms the support for the fuel bed.
Chain is held over two sprockets as shown in above figure. and travels from one end of
furnace to the other end. The sprocket at the front end is driven by an electric motor. Coal is
fed at front end through a hopper which is carried by the chain to another end, hence into
furnace. Air required for combustion of fuel is supplied through air inlets below the traveling
grate. Secondary air is supplied through openings in the top roof as shown in figure. Rate of
fuel supplied to grate (hence the heat to boiler) can be controlled by two methods. First
method is to control the depth of coal bed on grate by controlling the feed to the hopper. In
second method, speed of chain grate can be adjusted to meet boiler operation requirements.
Chain grate stokers are widely used for burning non-caking free burning, volatile and high
ash content coals.
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[Link] Advantages of chain grate stokers
1) It is simple in construction and operation.
2) Its initial and maintenance costs very low.
3) It doesn't have ash cleaning problems.
4) Combustion control is simple, by control of feed or chain speed, along with
the air supply.
5) Its combustion efficiency is high.
[Link] Disadvantages of chain grate stokers
1. It is suitable only for small capacity plants.
2. Coal losses are high as the un burnt coal may also move with ash.
3. If caking coal is used ash clinker problems may rise.
2.2.4 Travelling great stoker
a. In the traveling grate stoker, the chain grate is replaced by grate bars that support the
burning fuel.
b. Also the grate is inclined towards the inlet of the furnace.
c. The fuel movement is accomplished and controlled by vibration of the grate.
d. The air supply similar to the chain grate stoker.
2.2.5 Spreader Stoker
Figure 2.4: Spreader Stoker
In this type stoker, coal from the hopper is fed on to a rotating feeder which in turn feeds the,
to a spreader or sprinkler, and feed according to the requirements. Feeder is a rotating drum
fitted with blades on its periphery. Other type of feeders such as reciprocations, endless belts
or spiral worms can also be used. The feeder continuously supplies the coal on to the
spreader, a fast-moving drum with blades, which in turn distributes and feeds the coal on to
the grate as shown in figure. The fuel feed rate and the supplied to the boiler can be
controlled by controlling the feed to the hopper or by controlling the spreader speed.
[Link] Advantages of spreader stoker
1. Its operation is simple and economical.
2. A wide variety of low-quality coals can be burnt successfully.
3. Preheated air can be used for improving the efficiency of operation.
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4. The fuel burns rapidly and hence the caking tendency is very low, even with the use
of caking coals.
5. It can respond quickly to load variations
[Link] Disadvantages of spreader stoker
1. It is not possible to burn varying sizes of coal and only crushed, sized coal can be
used.
2. A part of the charge is burnt in suspension and hence fly ash is discharged with flue
gases.
3. This necessitates a suitable dust (or fly ash) collector system.
4. Un burnt carbon particles may escape through the flues and reduce the combustion
efficiency.
2.2.6 Single retort stoker
Figure 2.5: Single retort stoker
The principle of construction of a single retort stoker is illustrated in figure above. In this
stoker, fuel is burnt on retort. Fuel is fed through a hopper and pushed on to retort by a piston
ram movement. With the feeding from the bottom, gradually the burning coat rises up. Above
the green coal an incandescent coke layer is formed, and above which the ash layer is formed.
With the continuous feeding of green coal, the ash level rises that is removed by ash raker.
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2.2.7 Multi retort stoker
Figure 2.6: Multi retort stoker
It contains of a series of retorts (5 to 20) with tuyeres and pushers. It also consists of a fuel
hopper and a coal pusher at the hopper end as shown in figure. The coal fed through the
hopper is pushed by the main pusher driven by a ram. The distributing pushers in the retorts
push the coal and distribute it to all the retorts. The movement of the fuel bed by the pushers
helps in minimizing the clinker formation. The primary air enters the wind box below the
retorts, and flows through the retorts. An air damper is provided at the air inlet in the wind
box to control the airflow to the furnace. The airflow to the extension grate at its entry is
further control fed by another damper, since the extension grate requires small quantity of air
with less fuel burning on it. The ash formed from all the retorts falls into the ash pit.
[Link] Advantages of multi retort stoker
1. Since combustion rate is high, such a stoker is most suitable for high-capacity power
plants.
2. The combustion efficiency of this stoker is very high.
3. As the fuel is pushed off by the pushers, they perform the cleaning action as well.
4. Automatic combustion control can be adopted in this stoker.
5. This stoker can respond quickly to variations in demand.
[Link] Disadvantages of multi retort stoker
1. The operation and maintenance is expensive.
2. The initial investment is high.
3. Ash clinker problems may arise.
4. It needs a larger area for installation and operation.
5. Low grade, high ash fuels cannot be burnt successfully.
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3 Fuel handling
Three types of fuels can be burnt in any type of steam generating plant:
1. Solid fuel such as coal
2. Liquid fuel such as oil and
3. Gaseous fuel as gas.
Supply of these fuels to the power plants from various sources is one of the important
considerations for a power plant engineer. The handling of these fuels is an important aspect.
The following factors should be considered in selecting the fuel handling system:
1. Plant fuel rate.
2. Plant location in respect of fuel shipping.
3. Storage area available.
Fuel handling plant needs extra attention, while designing a thermal power station, as almost
50 to 60 percent of the total operating cost consists of fuel purchasing and handling. Fuel
system is designed in accordance with the type and nature of fuel. Continuously increasing
demand for power at lower cost calls for setting up of higher capacity power stations. Rise in
capacity of the plant poses a problem in coal supply system from coal mines to the power
stations. The coal from coal mines may be transported by the following means:
1. Transportation by sea or river,
2. Transportation by rail,
3. Transportation by ropeways,
4. Transportation by road, and
5. Transportation of coal by pipeline.
The pipeline coal transport system offers the following advantages:
1. It provides simplicity in installation and increased safety in operation.
2. More economical than other modes of transport when dealing with large volume of
coal over long distances.
3. This system is continuous as it remains unaffected by the vagaries of climate and
weather.
4. High degree of reliability.
5. Loss of coal during transport due to theft and pilferage is totally eliminated.
6. Manpower requirement is low.
3.1 Requirements of good coal handling plant
1. It should need minimum maintenance.
2. It should be reliable.
3. It should be simple and sound.
4. It should require a minimum of operatives.
5. It should be able to deliver requisite quantity of coal at destination during peak
periods.
6. There should be minimum wear in running of equipment due to abrasive action of
coal particles.
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3.2 Coal handling systems
Mechanical handling" of coal is preferred over "manual handling" due to the following
reasons:
1. Higher reliability.
2. Less labour required.
3. Economical for medium and large capacity plants.
4. Operation is easy and smooth.
5. Can be easily started and can be economically adjusted according to the need.
6. With reduced labour, management and control of the plant becomes easy and smooth.
7. Minimum labour is put to unhealthy condition.
8. Losses in transport are minimised.
3.2.1 Disadvantages:
1. Needs continuous maintenance and repair.
2. Capital cost of the plant is increased.
3. In mechanical handling some power generated is usually consumed, resulting in less
net power available for supply to consumers.
Unloading Equipment’s: Car shakers, rotary car dampers unloading towers and bridges,
self-unloading boats, lifts trucks, cranes and buckets
Preparing Equipment’s: Crushers, sizers and driers
Transfer Equipment’s: Belt conveyor, Screw conveyor, bucket elevator, skip hoist, flight
conveyor
Storage Equipment’s: Bulldozer, scrapper,
tramways, cranes and conveyor system
Covered Storage Equipment’s: Bins, Bunkers
Weighing devices: Scales, coal meters and
samples various steps of coal handling
Figure 3.7: Various steps of coal handling
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3.3 Coal transfer equipment
"Transfer' means the handling of coal between the unloading point and the final storage point
from here it is discharged to the firing equipment. The following equipment may be used for
transfer of coal:
1. Belt conveyors
2. Screw conveyors
3. Bucket elevator and conveyor
4. Pivoted bucket conveyor
5. Grab bucket conveyor
6. Flight conveyers (or scrapers)
7. Skip hoists 8 Mass flow conveyor
8. Chutes.
3.3.1 Belt conveyor
Figure 3.8: Belt conveyor
It is basically an endless moving belt over which the coal is moved; the belt is connected to a
pair of drums at the ends, and supported at the upper portion by a series of rollers (idlers) at
regular intervals, as illustrated in figure above. The belt is usually made of strong and flexible
materials such as rubber or canvas. Belt conveyors are useful for transportation of large
quantity of coal over long distances in power plants. The belt is inclined at about 15-20
degrees from the charge end to the discharge end. The average speed of belt conveyors is in
the range of 50 to 100 m/minute.
[Link] Advantages of Belt conveyor
1. It is simple in construction and operation.
2. The operation is smooth and clean.
3. It requires less power compared to other systems.
4. Large quantities of coal can be conveyed quickly and continuously.
5. It is comparatively cheaper in maintenance and operation.
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3.3.2 Screw conveyor.
Figure 3.9: Screw conveyor
It consists of an endless helicoid screw fitted to a shaft. The driving mechanism is connected
to one end of the shaft and the other end of the shaft is supported in an enclosed ball bearing.
The screw while rotating in a trough/housing transfers coal from one end to the other end.
3.3.3 Bucket elevator
Figure 3.10: Bucket elevator
In this type of elevator, steel V-shaped buckets are rigidly fastened to an endless chain going
round sprockets. Buckets are equally spaced on chain, and receive their load by dipping into
coal pocket at lower end of system. The material elevated in V-buckets is discharged either
by centrifugal force at top of the elevator or by drawing back the buckets on the discharged
side.
[Link] Advantages of Bucket elevator
1. Less power is required for operating the equipment.
2. Coal can be discharged at elevated places.
3. Less floor area is required.
4. Coal can be discharged at elevated places
5. Less floor area is required
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[Link] Disadvantages of Bucket elevator
Its capacity is limited and hence not suitable for large capacity stations.
3.3.4 Grab bucket elevator
It consists of a crane which can lift the coal and move circumferentially in a given location.
This system is most suitable for handling coal at the coal store yard. Thus, used to load coal
from the yard to the wagon tippler, which then moves inside the plant. This elevator has the
unique advantage 8f operating as a crane as well as moving in all directions. This helps in
lifting the coal using the, grab bucket from the yard, change its direction, move to the
required distance and unload it onto the wagon tippler. The grab bucket with bottom closed
condition picks up the coal from the heap and when moved to the wagon opens its split
opening bottom, thereby dumping the coal onto the wagon.
3.3.5 Flight conveyor (or scraper).
it is generally used for transfer of coal when filling of number of storage bins situated under
the conveyor is required. It consists of one or two strands of chain, to which steel scrapers are
attached. The scraper scraps the coal through a trough and the coal is discharged in the
bottom of the trough as shown in figure below. Capacity of a conveyor of this type may range
from 10 to 100 tons per hour. It is used extensively for conveying coal horizontally and for
inclinations up to 35°.
Figure 3.11: Flight conveyor (or scraper)
[Link] Advantages of Flight conveyor
1. It has a rugged construction.
2. Requires little operational care.
3. It can be used for transfer of coal as well as ash.
4. Its speed can be easily regulated.
5. It needs small headroom
[Link] Disadvantages of Flight conveyor:
1. Excessive wear due to dragging action.
2. High maintenance cost.
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3. The speed is limited to 30 m/min. to reduce the abrasive
4 Ash handling
A huge quantity of ash is produced in central stations, sometimes being as much as 10 to 20%
of the total quantity of coal burnt in a day. Hundreds of tons of ash may have to be handled
every day in large power stations and mechanical devices become indispensable. A station
using low grade fuel has to deal with large quantities of ash.
Handling of ash includes:
1. Its removal from the furnace.
2. Loading on the conveyers and delivery to the fill or dump from where it can be
disposed of by sale or otherwise. Handling of ash is a problem because ash coming
out of the furnace is too hot. it is dusty and irritating to handle and is accompanied by
some poisonous gas. Ash needs to be quenched before handling due to following
reasons:
(i) Quenching reduces corrosion action of the ash.
(ii) It reduces the dust accompanying the ash.
(iii) It reduces temperature of the ash.
(iv) Ash forms clinkers by fusing in large lumps and by quenching clinkers will
disintegrate.
4.1 Ash handling equipment
A good ash handling plant should have the following characteristics:
1. It should have enough capacity to cope with the volume of ash that may be produced
in a station.
2. It should be able to handle large clinkers, boiler refuse, soot etc. with little personal
attention of the workmen.
3. It should be able to handle hot and wet ash effectively and with good speed.
4. It should be possible to minimize the corrosive or abrasive action of ashes and dust
nuisance should not exist.
5. The plant should not cost much.
6. The operation charges should be minimum possible.
7. The operation of the plant should be noiseless as much as possible.
8. The plant should be able to operate effectively under all variable load conditions.
9. In case of addition of units, it should need minimum changes in original layout of
plant.
10. The plant should have high rate of handling.
The commonly used equipment for ash handling in large and medium size plants may
comprise of:
(i) Bucket elevator (ii) Bucket conveyor (iii) Belt conveyor (iv) Pneumatic conveyor (v)
Hydraulic sluicing equipment
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4.2 Ash handling system
Figure 4.12: General layout of ash handling and dust collection system
The ever-increasing capacities of boiler units together with their ability to use low grade high
ash content coals have been responsible for the development of modern ash handling systems.
The general layout of the components used in modern ash handling and dust collection plant
is shown in figure.
The modern ash-handling systems are mainly classified into four groups:
1. Mechanical handling system.
2. Hydraulic system.
3. Pneumatic system.
4. Steam jet system.
4.2.1 Mechanical Handling System.
The mechanical handling system is generally used for low-capacity power plants using coal
as fuel. The arrangement of the system is shown in figure
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Figure 4.13: Mechanical ash handling system
The hot ash coming out of boiler furnace is made to fall over the belt conveyor through a
water seal as shown in figure. The cooled ash falls on the belt conveyor and it is carried
continuously to the dumping site or overhead bunker. The ash is carried to the dumping site
from the ash bunker with the help of trucks. Control valve is opened and closed manually to
load the truck. The life of this system is 5 to 10 years. The maximum capacity of this system
is limited to 5 tons per hour. The major advantage of this system is low power consumption.
4.2.2 Hydraulic Ash Handling System
The hydraulic ash handling system carries the ash with the flow of water with high velocity
through a channel and finally dumped to the sump. The hydraulic system is subdivided as
1. low velocity system
2. high velocity system
[Link] Low velocity system
Figure 4.14: Low velocity system
In this system a trough or drain is provided below the boilers and water the is made to flow
through the trough. The ash directly falls into the troughs and is carried by water to sumps. In
the sump the ash and water are made to pass through a screen so that water is separated from
ash; this water is pumped back to the trough for reuse and ash is removed to the dumping
yard. The ash carrying capacity of this system is 50 tones/hour and distance covered is 500
meters.
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[Link] High velocity (Water Jetting) system.
Figure 4.15: High pressure ash handling system
The hoppers below the boilers are fitted with water nozzles at the top and on the sides. The
top nozzles quench the ash while the side one provides the driving force for the ash. The
cooled ash is carried to the sump through the trough. The water is again separated from ash
and recalculated. The ash carrying capacity of this system is as large is 120 tones per hour
and the distance covered is as large as 100 meters.
[Link] Pneumatic system
The arrangement of the system is shown in figure. This system has been developed for
handling abrasive ash as well as fine dusty materials such as fly-ash and soot. This is more
suitable to the boiler plants from which ash and soot must be transported some considerable
distance for final disposal. The ash and dust from all discharge points are picked up by a high
velocity air stream created by an exhauster at the discharge end. The ash collected in the ash
hopper is passed through the ash crushers shown in figure. The ash carried by the air is
separated into the primary and secondary separators working on cyclone principle and is
collected in ash hopper as shown in figure. The clean air is discharged from the top of the
secondary air-separator into the atmosphere through exhauster. The exhauster used may he
mechanical as I.D. fan or stream jet type or water jet type. If the mechanical exhauster is
used, then it is necessary to use filter or air-washer before the air enters into the exhauster to
ensure the clean air exhaust to atmosphere. The mechanical exhauster is preferred where
large tonnages of material are to be conveyed. The power requirement of mechanical
exhauster is approximately 3 kW per ton of material. The steam-jet exhauster is commonly
used for small and medium-sized plant. The steam consumption of this system is
approximately 120 kg per ton of material discharged. The water-jet exhauster may be used
more economically where large quantities of water are easily and cheaply available. The ash
carrying capacity of this system varies from 5 to 30 tons per hour.
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Figure 4.16: Pneumatic ash handling system
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