Chapter-2

Solar Radiation Fundamentals

Solar radiation reaches the Earth’s surface at a maximum flux density
(irradiance) of about 1.0 kW/m2 in a wavelength band between 0.3 and 2.5
μm. The spectral distribution is determined by the ~6000 K surface
temperature of the Sun; it is called shortwave radiation and includes the
visible spectrum. This solar irradiance at ground level varies from about 3
to 30MJ/(m2. day), depending on place, time, and weather.

2.2… EXTRA-TERRESTRIAL SOLAR RADIATION

The solar spectrum may be divided into three main regions:

1 Ultraviolet region (λ< 0.4 μm) ~5% of the irradiance
2 Visible region (0.4 μm < λ < 0.7 μm) ~43% of the irradiance
3 Near infrared) region (λ > 0.7 μm) ~52% of the irradiance.
The proportions given above are as received at the Earth’s surface with
the Sun incident at about 45 degrees. The contribution to the solar
radiation flux from wavelengths greater than 2.5 μm is negligible, and all
three regions are classed as solar shortwave radiation.

Fig. 2.1 (a) Spectral distribution of extraterrestrial solar irradiance, G* 0λ. Area under curve equals
1366±2 W/m2, (b) Different solar spectra: the blackbody spectrum of a blackbody at 6000 K, the
extraterrestrial AM0 spectrum and the AM1.5 spectrum.

A schematic structure of the sun is shown in Figure 1.1.1. It is estimated

that 90% of the energy is generated in the region of 0 to 0.23R (where R is
the radius of the sun), which contains 40% of the mass of the sun. At a
distance 0.7R from the center, the temperature has dropped to about
130,000 K and the density has dropped to 70 kg/m3; here convection
processes begin to become important, and the zone from 0.7 to 1.0 R is
known as the convective zone. Within this zone the temperature drops to
about 5000 K and the density to about 10−5 kg/m3.

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Figure 1.1.1 The structure of the sun.

Actual photo of the nuclear fusion reactions on the sun photosphere outer layer.

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THE SOLAR CONSTANT
Figure 1.2.1 shows schematically the geometry of the sun-earth
relationships. The eccentricity of the earth’s orbit is such that the distance
between the sun and the earth varies by 1.7%. At a distance of one
astronomical unit, 1.495 × 1011 m, the mean earth-sun distance, the sun
subtends an angle of 32”. The radiation emitted by the sun and its spatial
relation-ship to the earth result in a nearly fixed intensity of solar radiation
outside of the earth’s atmosphere. The solar constant Gsc is the energy from
the sun per unit time received on a unit area of surface perpendicular to the
direction of propagation of the radiation at mean earth-sun distance outside
the atmosphere.

Figure 1.2.1 Sun-earth relationships

2.3•… COMPONENTS OF RADIATION

Fig. 2.2 Origin of direct beam and diffuse radiation.

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Fig. 2.3 shows that:

where θ is the angle between the beam and the normal to the collector
surface. In particular,

where Ɵz is the (solar) zenith angle between the beam and the vertical.
The total irradiance on any plane is the sum of the beam and diffuse
components:

Gt =Gb +Gd (2.3)

Fig. 2.3 Techniques to measure various components of solar radiation. The detector is
assumed to be a black surface of unit area with a filter to exclude long-wave radiation.
(a) Diffuse blocked. (b) Beam blocked. (c) Total.

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2.4… GEOMETRY OF THE EARTH AND THE SUN

Fig.2.4 Definition sketch for latitude ɸ and longitude ψ.

Fig. 2.5 The Earth, revolving around the Sun, as viewed from a point obliquely above the orbit
(not to scale!). The heavy line on the Earth is the equator. The adjectives ‘autumnal, vernal
(spring); summer and winter’ may be used to distinguish equinoxes and solstices, as appropriate
for the season and hemisphere. Note that the summer and winter solstices are respectively the
longest and shortest days of the year, and in some years occur on the 22nd day of the month
rather than on the 21st.

The hour angle ω at P is the angle through which the Earth has rotated
since solar noon. Since the Earth rotates (360°/24h) =15°/h, the hour
angle is given by:

(2.4)

where tsolar and tzone are respectively the local solar and civil times
(measured in hours), is the longitude where the Sun is ‫آ‬overhead when
tzone is noon (i.e. where solar time and civil time coincide). ω is positive in
the evening and negative in the morning. The small correction term ω eq is
called the “equation of time”(it never exceeds ±15 o) .
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Fig. 2.6 The Earth, as seen from a point further along its orbit. Circles of latitude 0°, ±23.5°,
±66.5° are shown. Note how the declination δ varies through the year, equalling extremes at
the two solstices and zero when the midday Sun is overhead at the Equator for the two
equinoxes (equal day and night on the Equation).

Therefore (Fig. 2.6), δ varies smoothly from + δo =+23.45° at midsummer

in the northern hemisphere, to – δo =–23.45° at northern midwinter.
Analytically:
δ = δo sin[360°(284 +n)/365] (2.5)
where n is the day in the year (n =1 on January 1).

2.4. … Latitude, season, and daily insolation

The daily insolation H is the total energy per unit area received on a
surface in one day from the Sun:
H =∫Gt dt (2.6)
Fig. 2.7 illustrates how the daily insolation varies with latitude and
season. The seasonal variation at high latitudes is very great. The quantity
plotted is the clear sky solar radiation on a horizontal plane. Its seasonal
variation arises from three main factors:
1. Variation in the length of the day :
The sunrise hour angle is the negative of the sunset hour angle. It also
follows that the number of daylight hours is given by:
N = (2 /15). cos−1 {(−tan φ tan δ)} (1.6.11)
At latitude φ =48°, for example, N varies from 16 hours in midsummer
to 8 hours in midwinter. In the polar regions (i.e. where φ>±66.5°),

|tanϕ tan δ | may exceed 1. In this case N =24 h (in summer) or N =0

(in winter) (see Fig. 2.6).
2. Orientation of receiving surface: Fig. 2.8 shows that the horizontal plane
at a location P is oriented much more towards the solar beam in summer
than in winter.
3. Variation in atmospheric absorption and weather: The clear sky
radiation plotted in Fig. 2.7 is less than the extra-terrestrial radiation
owing to atmospheric attenuation and scattering.

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2.5.3… Optimum orientation of a collector
A parabolic concentrating collector (4.8.2) must always point towards
the direction of the solar beam (i.e. θ= 0). However, the optimum

direction of a fixed flat plate collector is not so obvious. The insolation

Hc received is the sum of the beam and diffuse components:

2.5.4… Hourly variation of irradiance

Some examples of the hourly variation of Gh are given in Fig 2.10(a) for
clear days and Fig. 2.10(b) for a cloudy day. On clear days the form of
Fig. 2.10(a) is:

where t’ is the time after sunrise and N is the duration of daylight for the
particular clear day (see (2.7) and Fig. 2.10(a)). Integrating (2.13) over
the daylight period for a clear day,

For example, at latitude±50° (i) in midsummer, if For example, at latitude

φ =50° (i) in midsummer, if Gh max ≈ 900 Wm–2 and N ≈ 16 h, then Hh
≈ 33 MJm–2 day–l; (ii) in midwinter at the same latitude, Gh max ≈ 200
Wm–2 and N ≈ 8h, so Hh ≈ 3.7 MJm–2 day–l.

Fig. 2.7 Variation with season and latitude of Hh, the solar energy (daily insolation) received
on a horizontal plane on a clear day. In summer, Hh is about 25 MJ m–2 day–1 at all latitudes.
In winter, Hh is much less at high latitudes owing to shorter day length, more oblique incidence,
and greater atmospheric attenuation. See also Fig. 2.15, which shows how daily insolation
varies with the slope of the receiving surface, especially for vertical surfaces such as windows.

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Fig. 2.10 (a) Irradiance on a horizontal surface, measured on three different almost clear days
at Rothamsted, UK (52°N, 0°W). (b) Typical variation of irradiance on a horizontal surface for
a day of variable cloud. Note the low values during the overcast morning, and the large,
irregular variations in the afternoon due to scattered cloud.

2.5•…_GEOMETRY OF COLLECTOR AND THE SOLAR BEAM

2.5.1•… Definitions
For the tilted surface (collector) shown in following figures:

Figure 1.6.1 Zenith angle, slope, surface azimuth angle, and solar azimuth angle for a tilted
surface and solar altitude angle.

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DIRECTION OF BEAM RADIATION
The geometric relationships between a plane of any particular orientation
relative to the earth at any time (whether that plane is fixed or moving
relative to the earth) and the incoming beam solar radiation, that is, the
position of the sun relative to that plane, can be described in terms of
several angles. Some of the angles are indicated in Figure 1.6.1. The angles
and a set of consistent sign conventions are as follows:
φ Latitude, the angular location north or south of the equator, north
positive; −90◦ ≤ φ ≤ 90◦.

δ Declination, the angular position of the sun at solar noon (i.e., when the
sun is on the local meridian) with respect to the plane of the equator, north
positive; −23.45◦ ≤ δ ≤ 23.45◦.

δ = 23.45 sin [ 360 (284 + n)/ 365] (1.6.1a)

β Slope, the angle between the plane of the surface in question and the
horizontal; 0◦ ≤ β ≤ 180◦. (β > 90◦ means that the surface has a downward-
facing component.).

γ Surface azimuth angle, the deviation of the projection on a horizontal

plane of the normal to the surface from the local meridian, with zero due
south, east negative, and west positive; −180◦ ≤ γ ≤ 180◦.

γs Solar azimuth angle, the angular displacement from south of the

projection of beam radiation on the horizontal plane, shown in Figure
1.6.1. Displacements east of south are negative and west of south are
positive.

ω Hour angle, the angular displacement of the sun east or west of the local
meridian due to rotation of the earth on its axis at 15◦ per hour; morning
negative, afternoon positive.

θ Angle of incidence, the angle between the beam radiation on a surface

and the normal to that surface. Additional angles are defined that describe
the position of the sun in the sky.

θz Zenith angle, the angle between the vertical and the line to the sun, that
is, the angle of incidence of beam radiation on a horizontal surface.
αs Solar altitude angle, the angle between the horizontal and the line to
the sun, that is, the complement of the zenith angle.

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There is a set of useful relationships among these angles. Equations
relating the angle of incidence of beam radiation on a surface, θ, to the
other angles are:
cos θ = sin δ sin φ cos β − sin δ cos φ sin β cos γ
+ cos δ cos φ cos β cos ω + cos δ sin φ sin β cos γ cos ω
+ cos δ sin β sin γ sin ω (1.6.2)
And
cos θ = cos θz cos β + sin θz sin β cos(γs − γ ) (1.6.3)
Example 1.6.1
Calculate the angle of incidence of beam radiation on a surface located at
Madison, Wisconsin, at 10:30 (solar time) on February 13 if the surface is
tilted 45◦ from the horizontal and pointed 15◦ west of south.
Solution
Under these conditions, n = 44, the declination δ from Equation 1.6.1 is
−14◦, the hour angle ω = −22.5◦ (15◦ per hour times 1.5 h before noon),
and the surface azimuth angle γ = 15◦. Using a slope β = 45◦ and the
latitude φ of Madison of 43◦ N, Equation 1.6.2 is:

cos θ = sin(−14) sin 43 cos 45 − sin(−14) cos 43 sin 45 cos 15

+ cos(−14) cos 43 cos 45 cos(−22.5)
+ cos(−14) sin 43 sin 45 cos 15 cos(−22.5)
+ cos(−14) sin 45 sin 15 sin(−22.5)
cos θ = −0.117 + 0.121 + 0.464 + 0.418 − 0.068 = 0.817
θ = 35◦ .

For vertical surfaces, β = 90◦ and the equation becomes:

cos θ = −sin δ cos φ cos γ + cos δ sin φ cos γ cos ω + cos δ sin γ sin ω
(1.6.4)
For horizontal surfaces, the angle of incidence is the zenith angle of the
sun, θz. Its value must be between 0◦ and 90◦ when the sun is above the
horizon. For this situation, β = 0, and Equation 1.6.2 becomes:
cos θz = cos φ cos δ cos ω + sin φ sin δ (1.6.5)

The solar azimuth angle γs can have values in the range of 180◦ to −180◦.
Thus γs is negative when the hour angle is negative and positive when the
hour angle is positive. The sign function in Equations 1.6.6 is equal to +1
if ω is positive and is equal to −1 if ω is negative:

(1.6.6)

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Sun Path Chart( Cairo/Egypt):
([Link]/polarsunchartprogram)

Fig. 2.18
Variation in estimated average daily insolation H on a surface at various slopes, β, as a
function of time of year. For latitude 45°N, with KT =0.50, γ =0°, and ground reflectance
0.20.

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Example 1.6.2
Calculate the zenith and solar azimuth angles for φ = 43◦ at a 9:30 AM on
February 13 and b 6:30 PM on July 1.

Solution

Useful relationships for the angle of incidence of surfaces sloped due

north or due south can be derived from the fact that surfaces with slope β
to the north or south have the same angular relationship to beam radiation
as a horizontal surface at an artificial latitude of φ − β. The relationship is
shown in Figure 1.6.2 for the northern hemisphere. Modifying
Equation 1.6.5 yields:

cos θ = cos(φ − β) cos δ cos ω + sin(φ − β) sin δ (1.6.7a)

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Figure 1.6.2 Section of earth showing β, θ, φ, and φ − β for a south-facing surface

Air Mass Ratio (m):

The distance traveled by the direct beam through the atmosphere
depends on the angle of incidence to the atmosphere (the zenith angle)
and the height above sea level of the observer (Fig. 2.14). We consider
a clear sky with no cloud, dust or air pollution. Since the top of the
atmosphere is not well defined, of more importance than the distance
traveled is the amount of atmospheric gases and vapors encountered.

For the direct beam at normal incidence passing through the atmosphere
at normal pressure, a standard amount (‘mass’) of atmosphere is
encountered. If the beam is at zenith angle θz, the increased path length
compared with the normal path is called the air–mass ratio (or ‘air mass’)
symbol .
The abbreviation AM is used for air–mass ratio. AM0 refers to zero
atmosphere, i.e. radiation in outer space; AM1 refers to m=1, i.e. Sun
overhead; AM2 refers to m =2; and so on. From Fig. 2.14, since no account
is usually taken of the curvature of the Earth,

m = sec θz (2.15)
The differing air–mass ratio encountered owing to change in atmospheric
pressure or change in height of the observer is considered.

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Fig. 2.14 Air–mass ratio m =sec θz.

1.8 RATIO OF BEAM RADIATION ON TILTED SURFACE TO THAT

ON HORIZONTAL SURFACE
For purposes of solar process design and performance calculations, it is
often necessary to calculate the hourly radiation on a tilted surface of a
collector from measurements or estimates of solar radiation on a horizontal
surface. The most commonly available data are total radiation for hours or
days on the horizontal surface, whereas the need is for beam and diffuse
radiation on the plane of a collector.
The geometric factor Rb, the ratio of beam radiation on the tilted surface to
that on a horizontal surface at any time, can be calculated exactly by
appropriate use of Equation 1.6.2. Figure 1.8.1 indicates the angle of
incidence of beam radiation on the horizontal and tilted surfaces. The ratio
Gb,T /Gb is given by:

Figure 1.8.1 Beam radiation on horizontal and tilted surfaces.

Rb = Gb,T / Gb = [Gb,n cos θ / Gb,n cos θz] = cos θ / cos θz (1.8.1)

and cos θ and cos θz are both determined from Equation 1.6.2 (or from
equations derived from Equation 1.6.2).

Example 1.8.1
What is the ratio of beam radiation to that on a horizontal surface for the
surface and time specified in Example 1.6.1?

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Solution
Example 1.6.1 shows the calculation for cos θ. For the horizontal surface,
from Equation 1.6.5,
cos θz = sin(−14) sin 43 + cos(−14) cos 43 cos(−22.5) = 0.491
And from Equation 1.8.1
Rb = cos θ /cos θz = 0.818 / 0.491 = 1.67

The optimum azimuth angle for flat-plate collectors is usually 0◦ in the

northern hemisphere (or 180◦ in the southern hemisphere). Thus it is a
common situation that γ = 0◦ (or 180◦). In this case, Equations 1.6.5 and
1.6.7 can be used to determine cos θz and cos θ, respectively, leading in
the northern hemisphere, for γ = 0◦, to:

Rb =[ cos(φ − β) cos δ cos ω + sin(φ − β) sin δ] / [cos φ cos δ cos ω + sin

φ sin δ] (1.8.2)
In the southern hemisphere, γ = 180◦ and the equation is
Rb = [cos(φ + β) cos δ cos ω + sin(φ + β) sin δ] / [cos φ cos δ cos ω + sin
φ sin δ] (1.8.3)

Example 1.8.2
Calculate Rb for a surface at latitude 40◦ N at a tilt 30◦ toward the south
for the hour 9 to 10 solar time on February 16.
Solution
Use Figure 1.8.2(c) for the hour ± 2.5 h from noon as representative of
the hour from 9 to 10. To find cos θz, enter at a latitude of 40◦ for the
north latitude date of February 16. Here cos θz = 0.45. To find cos θ,
enter at a latitude of φ − β = 10◦ for the same date. Here , cos θ = 0.73.
Then.
Rb= cos θ/cos θz= 0.73/ 0.45 = 1.62
The ratio can also be calculated using Equation 1.8.2. The declination on
February 16 is −13◦:
Rb ={ cos 10 cos(−13) cos(−37.5) + sin 10 sin(−13)}/
{cos 40 cos(−13) cos(−37.5) + sin 40 sin(−13)} = 0.722/0.448 = 1.61

2.8•… SITE ESTIMATION OF SOLAR RADIATION

2.8.1â•… Meteorological Station Requirements (Climate& Solar
Irradiance): All solar devices utilize shortwave solar irradiation; thus solar
development and use depend on measuring and predicting both the instant
and‫آ‬€ integrated insolation at the place of use. Satellites may be used within
distance variation of at least 100 km and possibly 1000 km, as determined
by the synoptic weather patterns. However, to test a device, specialist
instruments are needed to measure solar irradiation at point of use.

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Fig. 2.16 Photographs of various solar instruments. (a) Kipp & Zonen pyranometer
(solarimeter) with two quartz domes for standardized global insolation; (b) such pyranometers,
used to measure global insolation on a solar panel; (c) collimated pyroheliometer for
measurement of direct irradiance; (d) modern online sunshine duration recorder.

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CHAPTER SUMMARY
Solar radiation reaches the Earth’s surface at a maximum flux density of about 1.0
kW/m2 in a wavelength band between 0.3 and 2.5 m, which includes the visible region
from 0.4 to 0.7m. For inhabited areas, this flux varies from about 3 to 30 MJ/ m2 day,
depending on place, time, and weather. The spectral distribution is determined by the
6000oK surface temperature of the Sun, so it is an energy flux of very high
thermodynamic quality. The most important factors are summarized in Fig. 2.7 (daily
insolation on a horizontal surface Hh). There are ‘global’ databases of precision
meteorological measurements of solar irradiation, but these are mostly only of Hh. The
spread of measurement sites is erratic, so satellite observations have great potential.
Cheaper instruments (e.g. those based on photovoltaic solar cells) are useful for field
applications and for monitoring a device’s relative performance.
Geometric formulae accurately calculate the effect of inclination on beam irradiation
(i.e. direct from the Sun), but estimating diffuse radiation (the component scattered by
clouds, etc.) is uncertain. The Earth emits long-wave radiation (10m) to maintain
thermal balance with the incoming solar shortwave irradiation. ‘Greenhouse’ gases in
the atmosphere absorb much of this long-wave radiation, thereby keeping the Earth
warmer than it would otherwise be. Human activity (especially burning fossil fuels) has
increased the amount of such gases in the atmosphere, thereby measurably raising
the average temperature of the Earth’s surface. This is one reason of more general
climate change.

QUICK QUESTIONS
1. What is the approximate maximum flux density of solar radiation (insolation)
in W/m onto a collector facing the Sun on the Earth’s surface on a sunny day?
[Link] solar spectrum is said to be divided into three regions. Name these
regions and explain their significance.
[Link] between beam, diffuse, and total radiation.
[Link] briefly why it is more difficult to predict diffuse irradiance than beam
irradiance.
[Link] does a pyranometer and a pyrheliometer measure?
[Link] is the greenhouse effect and why is it important?

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