MOTHERBOARD COMPONENTS
1. The CPU - Also known as microprocessor. It is the brain of the computer and it executes
program instructions as well as performing mathematical and logical calculations.
2. BIOS– The BIOS performs the following routines and functions
a) It inspects the computer to determine what hardware is fitted and then
conducts some simple tests to check that everything is functioning normally.
b) If any of the peripherals are plug and play devices, the BIOS recognizes them
and assigns their resources.
c) Allows the PCs set up configuration TO BE Viewed and edited.
3. CMOS - The CMOS prevents reconfiguration when the PC is powered on. Its also used to
store basic information about the PC configuration.
4. Math co-processor - Are microprocessors that are optimized to execute complex
mathematical calculations.
5. Cache memory -It enhances PC performance by pre loading information from the main
memory and passing it to the processor on demand.
6. Expansion buses - Buses carry signals, such as data, memory addresses, power and control
signals from component to component.
7. Chipset - It is a group of small circuits that coordinates the flow of data to and from key
component of a PC. It also controls data flow to and from hard disks, and other devices
connected to the IDE channels.
8. Cpu clock - The clock synchronizes the operation of all parts of the all parts of the PC and
provides the basic timing signal for the CPU.
9. SWITCHES AND JUMPERS - They are used to store configuration settings of a specific
component.
10. Main memory (RAM) - Random access memory is the working space for all programs and
data.
Motherboard Form factor
Describes the physical size and shape, physical layout, size of casing and the type of power
supply of a device. It is often used to describe the size of circuit boards. There’s one important
consideration we need to be aware of when choosing the case size and that is the size of the
motherboard. They need to match. The size of the motherboard is often called the Form Factor
and there are several standards. The form factor identifies the size of the circuit board, the
location of the slots as well as the location of the faceplate that comes out the back of the
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computer. The form factor also identifies the location of the holes that are used to mount the
motherboard into the system case. For example, the full tower has more than enough room to fit
an ATX motherboard. Mid-tower case can also accommodate an ATX motherboard in most
cases.
AT
Short for advanced technology, the AT is an IBM PC model introduced in 1984.
Baby AT
The form factor used by most PC motherboards prior to 1998.
ATX
The modern-day shape and layout of PC motherboards.
ATX Form Factor (Full ATX)
Probably the most common form factor for a motherboard is the ATX form factor. The board is
approximately 12″ x 9.6″ (30cm x 24cm).
ATX Form Factor
Mini ATX
A mini-ATX motherboard is a slightly smaller variation of the full ATX size that measures 11.2″
x 8.2″ (28cm x 21cm). The main difference between ATX and mini-ATX is the number of buses
and possibly memory slots on the motherboard. Mounting holes for both are located in the same
place, making them interchangeable in most cases. A case that supports an ATX motherboard
can also support mini-ATX motherboard.
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Micro ATX
The micro-ATX form factor is an even smaller version of the ATX standard, with a maximum
size of 9.6″ x 9.6″ (24cm x 24cm). The faceplate line up to the exact same position as in all other
versions of ATX. System case that can hold an ATX motherboard can also hold micro ATX
motherboard. The smaller mid or mini tower cases would likely be too small for a full ATX
motherboard but should accommodate micro ATX motherboard. The terms mini-ATX andmicro-
ATX are often used interchangeably.
Micro ATX Form Factor
Flex ATX
The size of Flex ATX is 9” x 7.5” (22,9 cm x 19,1 cm). It is derived from Micro ATX and is
used in small computer cases.
Flex ATX Form Factor
BTX
The BTX specification provides new tools and design space for developers to lay out desktop
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systems, whether designing small, compact systems or very large, expandable systems. There are
a few main differences with the BTX form factor. Notice that the faceplate is on the opposite
end. Another difference is that the hole positions are different. Also, the processor socket is
slightly rotated so that it is at an angle to the system board. This rotation is to aid in the airflow
across the processor to assist in cooling the processor. The BTX motherboard will only fit within
a system case that is designed for a BTX motherboard. In many cases this means that an ATX
system case will not work with a BTX system board, although there are system cases that are
able to accommodate both the ATX and the BTX form factors. The BTX form factor has not
been widely adopted despite its improvements over ATX and related standards. As a result, the
availability and variety of BTX-compatible components is limited.
BTX Form Factor
From AT to BTX: Motherboard Form Factors
You've probably heard the term motherboard a thousand times, but do you know what it really
means and how it relates to the rest of your computer?
The form factor of a motherboard determines the specifications for its general shape and size. It
also specifies what type of case and power supply will be supported, the placement of mounting
holes, and the physical layout and organization of the board. Form factor is especially important
if you build your own computer systems and need to ensure that you purchase the correct case
and components.
The Succession of Motherboard Form Factors
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AT & Baby AT
Prior to 1997, IBM computers used large motherboards. After that, however, the size of the
motherboard was reduced and boards using the AT (Advanced Technology) form factor was
released. The AT form factor is found in older computers (386 class or earlier). Some of the
problems with this form factor mainly arose from the physical size of the board, which is 12"
wide, often causing the board to overlap with space required for the drive bays.
Following the AT form factor, the Baby AT form factor was introduced. With the Baby AT form
factor the width of the motherboard was decreased from 12" to 8.5", limiting problems
associated with overlapping on the drive bays' turf. Baby AT became popular and was designed
for peripheral devices — such as the keyboard, mouse, and video — to be contained on circuit
boards that were connected by way of expansion slots on the motherboard.
Baby AT was not without problems however. Computer memory itself advanced, and the Baby
AT form factor had memory sockets at the front of the motherboard. As processors became
larger, the Baby AT form factor did not allow for space to use a combination of processor,
heatsink, and fan. The ATX form factor was then designed to overcome these issues.
ATX
With the need for a more integrated form factor which defined standard locations for the
keyboard, mouse, I/O, and video connectors, in the mid 1990's the ATX form factor was
introduced. The ATX form factor brought about many chances in the computer. Since the
expansion slots were put onto separate riser cards that plugged into the motherboard, the overall
size of the computer and its case was reduced. The ATX form factor specified changes to the
motherboard, along with the case and power supply. Some of the design specification
improvements of the ATX form factor included a single 20-pin connector for the power supply, a
power supply to blow air into the case instead of out for better air flow, less overlap between the
motherboard and drive bays, and integrated I/O Port connectors soldered directly onto the
motherboard. The ATX form factor was an overall better design for upgrading.
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Micro-ATX
MicroATX followed the ATX form factor and offered the same benefits but improved the overall
system design costs through a reduction in the physical size of the motherboard. This was done
by reducing the number of I/O slots supported on the board. The microATX form factor also
provided more I/O space at the rear and reduced emissions from using integrated I/O connectors.
LPX
White ATX is the most well-known and used form factor, there is also a non-standard
proprietary form factor which falls under the name of LPX, and Mini-LPX. The LPX form factor
is found in low-profile cases (desktop model as opposed to a tower or mini-tower) with a riser
card arrangement for expansion cards where expansion boards run parallel to the motherboard.
While this allows for smaller cases it also limits the number of expansion slots available. Most
LPX motherboards have sound and video integrated onto the motherboard. While this can make
for a low-cost and space saving product they are generally difficult to repair due to a lack of
space and overall non-standardization. The LPX form factor is not suited to upgrading and offer
poor cooling.
NLX Form Factor
Boards based on the NLX form factor hit the market in the late 1990's. This "updated LPX" form
factor offered support for larger memory modules, tower cases, AGP video support and reduced
cable length. In addition, motherboards are easier to remove. The NLX form factor, unlike LPX
is an actual standard which means there is more component options for upgrading and repair.
Many systems that were formerly designed to fit the LPX form factor are moving over to NLX.
The NLX form factor is well-suited to mass-market retail PCs.
The NLX is an older style form factor that is not used very often anymore. We might see it in
some older motherboards but it’s not likely to encounter it with newer motherboards.
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NLX Form Factor
NLX is an older form factor used for slimline desktop-style computers. NLX is an improvement
over an even earlier LPX form factor. Notice that this motherboard has no expansion slots for the
PCI or ISA bus. The NLX form factor is used in slim line cases that are very short.
NLX With Riser Card
In order to accommodate expansion cards we use a tab on the edge of the motherboard. We insert
a Riser Card on the end of the motherboard. Riser Card is then used for expansion cards, so that
now expansion cards lay flat rather than being perpendicular to the motherboard. The riser card
does not have built-in ports for audio, joystick, USB, network or modem.
BTX
The BTX, or Balanced Technology Extended form factor, unlike its predecessors is not an
evolution of a previous form factor but a total break away from the popular and dominating ATX
form factor. BTX was developed to take advantage of technologies such as Serial ATA, USB
2.0, and PCI Express. Changes to the layout with the BTX form factor include better component
placement for back panel I/O controllers and it is smaller than microATX systems. The BTX
form factor provides the industry push to tower size systems with an increased number of system
slots.
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One of the most talked about features of the BTX form factor is that it uses in-line airflow. In the
BTX form factor the memory slots and expansion slots have switched places, allowing the main
components (processor, chipset, and graphics controller) to use the same airflow which reduces
the number of fans needed in the system; thereby reducing noise. To assist in noise reduction
BTX system level acoustics have been improved by a reduced air turbulence within the in-line
airflow system.
Initially there will be three motherboards offered in BTX form factor. The first, picoBTX will
offer four mounting holes and one expansion slot, while microBTX will hold seven mounting
holes and four expansion slots, and lastly, regularBTX will offer 10 mounting holes and seven
expansion slots. The new BTX form factor design is incompatible with ATX, with the exception
of being able to use an ATX power supply with BTX boards.
Today the industry accepts the ATX form factor as the standard, however legacy AT systems are
still widely in use. Since the BTX form factor design is incompatible with ATX, only time will
tell if it will overtake ATX as the industry standard.
Did You Know
ATX and Baby AT boards are approximately the same size, but the ATX board is rotated 90
degrees within the case to allow for easier access to components.
Types of Buses in Computer Architecture
Inside computers, there are many internal components. In order for these components to
communicate with each other they make use of wires that are known as a ‘bus’ .
A bus is a common pathway through which information flows from one computer component
to another. This pathway is used for communication purpose and it is established between two or
more computer components. We are going to check different computer bus architectures that
are found in computers.
Different Types of Computer Buses
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Functions of Buses in Computers
Summary of functions of buses in computers
1. Data sharing - All types of buses found in a computer transfer data between the computer
peripherals connected to it. The buses transfer or send data in either serial or parallel method of
data transfer. This allows for the exchange of 1, 2, 4 or even 8 bytes of data at a time. (A byte is
a group of 8 bits). Buses are classified depending on how many bits they can move at the same
time, which means that we have 8-bit, 16-bit, 32-bit or even 64-bit buses.
2. Addressing - A bus has address lines, which match those of the processor. This allows data to
be sent to or from specific memory locations.
3. Power - A bus supplies power to various peripherals connected to it.
4. Timing - The bus provides a system clock signal to synchronize the peripherals attached to it
with the rest of the system.
The expansion bus facilitates easy connection of more or additional components and devices on a
computer such as a TV card or sound card.
Bus Terminologies
Computers have two major types of buses:
1. System bus:- This is the bus that connects the CPU to main memory on the motherboard. The
system bus is also called the front-side bus, memory bus, local bus, or host bus.
2. A number of I/O Buses, (I/O is an acronym for input / output), connecting various peripheral
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devices to the CPU. These devices connect to the system bus via a ‘bridge’ implemented in the
processors chipset. Other names for the I/O bus include “expansion bus", "external bus” or “host
bus”.
Expansion Bus Types
These are some of the common expansion bus types that have ever been used in computers:
• ISA - Industry Standard Architecture
• EISA - Extended Industry Standard Architecture
• MCA - Micro Channel Architecture
• VESA - Video Electronics Standards Association
• PCI - Peripheral Component Interconnect
• PCMCIA - Personal Computer Memory Card Industry Association (Also called PC bus)
• AGP - Accelerated Graphics Port
• SCSI - Small Computer Systems Interface.
The 8 Bit and 16 Bit ISA Buses
8 Bit and 16 Bit ISA Buses | Source
ISA Bus
This is the most common type of early expansion bus, which was designed for use in the original
IBM PC. The IBM PC-XT used an 8-bit bus design. This means that the data transfers take place
in 8 bit chunks (i.e. one byte at a time) across the bus. The ISA bus ran at a clock speed of 4.77
MHz. When it first appeared the 8-bit ISA bus ran at a speed of 4.77MHZ – the same speed as
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the processor. Improvements done over the years eventually made the AT bus ran at a clock
speed of 8MHz.
Comparison Between 8 and 16 Bit ISA Bus
8-Bit ISA card (XT-Bus) 16-Bit ISA (AT –Bus card)
8-bit data interface 16-bit data interface
4.77 MHZ bus 8-MHZ bus
62-pin connector 62-pin connector
36-pin AT extension connection
Comparison of 8-bit, & 16-bit ISA Bus as Used in Early Computers.
MCA (Micro Channel Architecture)
IBM developed this bus as a replacement for ISA when they designed the PS/2 PC launched in
1987. The bus offered a number of technical improvements over the ISA bus. For instance, the
MCA ran at a faster speed of 10MHz and supported either 16-bit or 32-bit data. It also supported
bus mastering - a technology that placed a mini-processor on each expansion card. One
advantage of MCA was that the plug-in cards were software configurable; this means that they
required minimal intervention by the user when configuring.
The EISA Bus
The EISA Bus Slots (on the left) Where EISA Cards Were Connected | Source
EISA (Extended Industry Standard Architecture)
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This is a bus technology developed by a group of manufactures as an alternative to MCA. The
bus architecture was designed to use a 32-bit data path and provided 32 address lines giving
access to 4GB of memory. Like the MCA, EISA offered a disk-based setup for the cards, but it
still ran at 8MHz in order for it to be compatible with [Link] EISA expansion slots are twice as
deep as an ISA slot. EISA cards were relatively expensive and were normally found on high-end
workstations and network servers.
VESA Bus
It was also known as the Local bus or the VESA-Local bus. VESA (Video Electronics
Standards Association) was invented to help standardize PCs video specifications, thus solving
the problem of proprietary technology where different manufacturers were attempting to develop
their own buses. VESA slots had extra set of connectors and thus the cards were larger. The
VESA design was backward compatible with the older ISA cards.
Features of the VESA local bus card:-
• 32-bit interface
• 62/36-pin connector
• 90+20 pin VESA local bus extension
Peripheral Component Interconnect
Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) is one of the latest developments in bus
architecture and is the current standard for PC expansion cards. Intel developed and launched it
as the expansion bus for the Pentium processor in 1993. It is a local bus like VESA, that is, it
connects the CPU, memory and peripherals to wider, faster data pathway. PCI was used in
developing Plug and Play (PnP) and all PCI cards support PnP. This means a user can plug a new
card into the computer, power it on and it will “self-identify” and “self-specify” and start
working without manual configuration using jumpers. Unlike VESA, PCI supports bus
mastering that is, the bus has some processing capability and thus the CPU spends less time
processing data.
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The PCI Slots
The PCI Bus Architecture
Accelerated Graphics Port
The need for high quality and very fast performance of video on computers led to development
of the Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP). The AGP Port connects to the CPU and operates at
the speed of the processor bus. This means that video information is sent more quickly to the
card for processing. The AGP uses the main PC memory to hold 3D images.
Personal Computer Memory Card Industry Association (PC Card)
The Personal Computer Memory Card Industry Association was founded to give a standard bus
for laptop computers. So it is basically used in the small computers.
Small Computer System Interface
Short for Small Computer System Interface, a parallel interface standard used by Apple
Macintosh computers, PC's and Unix systems for attaching peripheral devices to a computer.
The SCSI Port
Mac LC SCSI Port | Source
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Universal Serial Bus (USB)
This is an external bus standard that supports data transfer rates of 12 Mbps. A single USB port
connects up to 127 peripheral devices, such as mice, modems, and keyboards. The USB also
supports hot plugging or insertion (ability to connect a device without turning the PC of) and
plug and play (You connect a device and start using it without configuration).We have two
versions of USB:-
USB 1x - First released in 1996, the original USB 1.0 standard offered data rates of 1.5 Mbps.
USB 2x - In 2002 a newer specification USB 2.0, also called Hi-Speed USB 2.0, was introduced.
It increased the data transfer rate for PC to USB device to 480 Mbps, which is 40 times faster
than the USB 1.1 specification.
IEEE 1394
The IEEE 1394 is a very fast external serial bus interface standard that supports data transfer
rates of up to 400Mbps (in 1394a) and 800Mbps (in 1394b). This makes it ideal for devices that
need to transfer high levels of data in real-time, such as video devices. It was developed by apple
with the name firewire. A single 1394 port can connect up 63 external devices.
• It supports Plug and play
• Supports hot plugging, and
• Provides power to peripheral devices.
The IEEE 1394 Expansion Card
Firewire Ports
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Adapter Cards and Expansion Slots
Adapter cards increase the functionality of a computer by adding controllers for specific devices
or by replacing malfunctioning ports.
There are a variety of adapter cards available that are used to expand and customize the
capability of a computer:
• Sound adapter - Sound adapters provide audio capability.
• Network Interface Card (NIC) - A NIC connects a computer to a network using a network
cable.
• Wireless NIC - A wireless NIC connects a computer to a network using radio frequencies.
• Video adapter – Video adapters provide video capability.
• Capture card - Capture cards send a video signal to a computer so that the signal can be
recorded to the computer hard drive with Video Capture software.
• TV tuner card - These provide the ability to watch and record television signals on a PC by
connecting a cable television, satellite, or antenna to the installed tuner card.
• Universal Serial Bus (USB) port - USB ports connect a computer to peripheral devices.
• Thunderbolt card - These connect a computer to peripheral devices.
• Redundant array of independent disks (RAID) - A RAID adapter connects to multiple
hard disk drives (HDDs) or solid-state drives (SSDs), making them work as one logical unit.
It should be noted that some of these adapter cards can be integrated on the motherboard.
Note: Older computers may also have a modem adapter, Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP), a
Small Computer System Interface (SCSI) adapter, and more.
Computers have expansion slots on the motherboard to install adapter cards. The type of adapter
card connector must match the expansion slot.
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Video Ports and Cables
A video port connects a monitor to a computer using a cable. Video ports and monitor cables
transfer analog signals, digital signals, or both. Computers are digital devices that create digital
signals. The digital signals are sent to the graphics card where they are transmitted through a
cable to a digital display. Digital signals can also be converted to analog signals by the graphics
card and transferred to an analog display. Lower image quality is a result of converting a digital
signal to an analog signal. A display and a monitor cable that support digital signals will provide
higher image quality than those supporting only analog signals.
There are several video ports and connector types:
• Digital Visual Interface (DVI) - he DVI connector is usually white and consists of 24 pins
(three rows of eight pins) for digital signals, 4 pins for analog signals, and a flat pin called a
ground bar. Specifically, DVI-D handles digital signals only, while DVI-A handles only
analog signals. DVI uses a dual-link interface which creates two groups of data channels
that can carry more than 10 Gb/s of digital video information.
• DisplayPort connector–DisplayPort is an interface technology that is designed to connect
high-end graphics-capable PCs and displays, as well as home theater equipment and
displays. The connector consists of 20 pins and can be used for audio, video, or both.
DisplayPort supports video data rates up to 8.64 Gb/s.
• Mini DisplayPort - A smaller version of the DisplayPort connector is called a Mini
DisplayPort. It is used in Thunderbolt 1 and Thunderbolt 2 implementations.
• HDMI - High Definition Multimedia Interface was developed specifically for high-
definition televisions. However, its digital features also make it a good candidate for
computers. There are two common types of HDMI cables. Full size HDMI Type A cable is
the standard cable used to connect audio and video devices. Mini-HDMI Type C is used to
connect laptops and portable devices such as tablets. The Type C connector is smaller than
the Type A connector and has 19 pins.
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• Thunderbolt – Thunderbolt 1 and Thunderbolt 2 use the Mini DisplayPort (MDP) adapter,
while Thunderbolt 3 requires a USB-C connector.
• VGA connector –This is a connector for analog video. It has 3 rows and 15 pins. It is also
sometimes referred to as the DE-15 or HD-15 connector.
• RCA connectors –RCA connectors have a central plug with a ring around it and are used to
carry audio or video. RCA connectors are often found in groups of three, where a yellow
connector carries video and a pair of red and white connectors carries left and right audio
channels.
• BNC connector - BNCs connect coaxial cables to devices using a quarter-turn connection
scheme. BNC is used with digital or analog audio, or video.
• Din-6 – This connector has 6 pins and is commonly used for analog audio, video, and
power in security camera applications.
Wireless – These typically have additional transmitters to be connected to an external monitor /
TV.
Note: Legacy monitor connection methods include composite / RGB or S-Video.
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Other Ports and Cables
Input/output (I/O) ports on a computer connect peripheral devices, such as printers, scanners, and
portable drives. In addition to the ports and interfaces previously discussed, a computer may also
have other ports:
• PS/2 Ports – PS/2 port connects a keyboard or a mouse to a computer. The PS/2 port is a 6-
pin mini-DIN female connector. The connectors for the keyboard and mouse are often
colored differently. If the ports are not color-coded, look for a small figure of a mouse or
keyboard next to each port.
• Audio Ports –Audio ports connect audio devices to the computer. Analog ports typically
include a line in port to connect to an external source (e.g., stereo system), a microphone
port, and line out ports to connect speakers or headphones. Digital input and output ports
are also available to connect digital sources and output devices. These connectors and
cables transfer pulses of light over fiber optic cables.
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• Game port/MIDI –Connects to a joystick or MIDI-interfaced device.
• Ethernet Network port –A network port, this used to be known as an RJ-45 port. An
Ethernet network port has 8 pins and connects devices to a network. The connection speed
depends on the type of network port. There a two common Ethernet standards being used.
Specifically, Fast Ethernet (or 100BASE) can transmit up to 100 Mb/s, and Gigabit Ethernet
(1000BASE) can transmit up to 1000 Mb/s. The maximum length of the Ethernet network
cable is 100 m (328 ft.).
• USB Ports and Cables - The Universal Serial Bus (USB) is a standard interface that
connects peripheral devices to a computer. USB devices are hot-swappable, which means
that users can connect and disconnect the devices while the computer is powered on. USB
connections can be found on computers, cameras, printers, scanners, storage devices, and
many other electronic devices. A USB hub connects multiple USB devices. A single USB
port in a computer can support up to 127 separate devices with the use of multiple USB
hubs. Some devices can also be powered through the USB port, eliminating the need for an
external power source.
• USB 1.1 allowed transmission rates of up to 12 Mb/s in full-speed mode and 1.5 Mb/s in
low-speed mode. A USB 1.1 cable has a maximum length of 9.8 ft (3 m). USB 2.0 allows
transmission speeds up to 480 Mb/s. A USB 2.0 cable has a maximum length of 16.4 ft (5
m). USB devices can only transfer data up to the maximum speed allowed by the specific
port. USB 3.0 allows transmission speeds up to 5 Gb/s. USB 3.0 is backward-compatible
with previous versions of USB. A USB 3.0 cable does not have a maximum defined length,
although a maximum length of 9.8 ft (3 m) is generally accepted.
• FireWire Ports and Cables - FireWire is a high-speed, hot-swappable interface that
connects peripheral devices to a computer. A single FireWire port in a computer can
support up to 63 devices. Some devices can also be powered through the FireWire port,
eliminating the need for an external power source. FireWire uses the Institute of Electrical
and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) 1394 standard and is also known as [Link]. The IEEE
creates publications and standards for technology.
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• The IEEE 1394a standard supports data rates up to 400 Mb/s for cable lengths of 15 ft (4.5
m) or less. This standard uses a 4-pin or 6-pin connector. The IEEE 1394b (Firewire 800)
standard allows for a greater range of connections, including CAT5 UTP and optical fiber.
Depending on the media used, data rates are supported up to 3.2 Gb/s for distances of 328 ft
(100 m) or less.
• eSATA Data Cables – The eSATA cable connects SATA devices to the eSATA interface
using a 7-pin data cable. This cable does not supply any power to the SATA device. A
separate power cable provides power to the disk.
Note: Other ports include serial ports, parallel ports, and modem ports.
Adapters and Converters
There are many connection standards in use today. Many are interoperable but require
specialized components. These components are called adapters and converters:
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• Adapter – This is a component that physically connects one technology to another. For
example, a DVI to HDMI adapter. The adapter could be one component or a cable with
different ends.
• Converter – This performs the same function as an adapter but also translates the signals
from one technology to the other. For example, a USB 3.0 to SATA converter enables a
hard disk drive to be used as a flash drive.
There are many types of adapters and converters available:
• DVI to HDMI adapter – The adapter is used to connect an HDMI monitor to a DVI port.
• DVI to VGA adapter– The adapter is used to connect a VGA cable to a DVI port.
• USB A to USB B adapter – This adapter is used to connect a USB A port to a USB B port.
• USB to Ethernet adapter – This adapter is used to connect a USB port to an Ethernet
connector.
• USB to PS/2 adapter –This adapter is used to connect a USB keyboard or mouse to a PS/2
port.
• HDMI to VGA converter – The converter translates the VGA output signal of a PC to an
HDMI output signal so that an HDMI monitor can be used.
• Thunderbolt to DVI converter – The converter translates the Thunderbolt mini
DisplayPort video signal to a DVI video signal so that a DVI monitor can be used.
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CPU Architectures
While the motherboard is considered to be the backbone of the computer, the
central processing unit (CPU) is considered to be the brain. In terms of computing
power, the CPU, sometimes referred to as the processor, is the most important
element of a computer system. Most calculations take place in the CPU.
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