Module 2

The Moral Agent

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Module 2: Week 4: Cultural Relativism

The module provides discussions on cultural relativism, ethical relativism, ethnocentrism, and xenocentrism. Towards the end of the
module, learners are provided a chance to reflect and draw insights from real-life situations about the value of life and respect for
humanity.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this Module, students should be able to:

 explain how culture shapes human behavior and community practices,
 explain cultural relativism in relation to morality, and
 Differentiate ethnocentrism from xenocentrism.

Culture

 Latin: "cultura," stemming from "colere," "to cultivate."

 Tylor, Anthropologist:
 Culture is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, law, art, morals, customs, and other capabilities and habits
acquired as members of society.
 Culture refers to all aspects of human activity, from the fine arts to popular entertainment, from everyday behavior to
sophisticated technology.
 Culture  Sociologist:
 Culture refers to the entire way of life followed by people and everything learned and shared by people in a society—a
complex set of learned and shared beliefs, customs, skills, habits, traditions, and knowledge common to members of that
society.

Culture Relativism

 Cultural relativism refers to the ability to understand a culture on its own terms and consequently not make judgments based
on the standards of one's own culture.
 It states that there are no universal beliefs and that each culture must be understood in its own terms because cultures cannot
be translated into universal terms.
 Assumptions:
 Different societies have different moral codes.
 There is no objective standard that can be used to judge one societal code as better than another.
 The moral code of one's own society has no special status but is merely one among many.
 There is no "universal truth" in ethics, meaning that there are no moral truths that hold for all people at all times.
 The moral code of a society determines what is right and wrong within that society; that is, if the moral code of a society
says that a certain action is right, then that action is right, at least within that society.
 It is arrogant for people to attempt to judge the conduct of other people. Instead, researchers should adopt an attitude of
tolerance toward the practices of other cultures.
 Types of Cultural Relativism
 Absolute cultural relativism. Absolute cultural relativists believe that everything that happens within a culture must and
should not be questioned by outsiders.
 Critical cultural relativism. Critical cultural relativism questions cultural practices in terms of who is accepting them and why,
as well as recognizing power relationships.  
 Illustrations on Cultural Relativism
 Food Choices. Certain cultures eat different foods at different meals.
 Hygienic Rituals. Ritualized ablution, or washing, also differs across cultures. Catholics may dip their fingers into blessed
water and anoint themselves at church, and Jewish people may pour water over their hands in a specific way during
Sabbath.

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Ethical Relativism

 It refers to the theory that holds that morality is relative to the norms of one's culture and that whether an action is right or
wrong depends on the moral norms of the society in which it is practiced. If ethical relativism is correct, there can be no
common framework for resolving moral disputes or for reaching agreement on ethical matters among members of different
societies.

Ethnocentrism and Xenocentrism

Ethnocentrism 

 Ethnocentrism is using one’s own culture as the benchmark to judge other cultures, so creating bias occurs when one has the
belief that their own cultural group is superior to others.
 Examples:
 Judging other cultures' food and speciality dishes
 Judging people’s cultural outfits Expecting others to speak your language and criticizing them if they can’t
 Historical colonialism
 Judging someone who chooses to live on their own when it is traditional to always live with family in your culture
 Ethnocentrism in Rwanda
 Rwanda is a landlocked country in the Great Rift Valley of Central Africa. It all began in late March 1994 when Hutu Power
leaders came up with the idea to slaughter massive numbers of Tutsi and Hutus who opposed Pres. Habyarimana. Hutu
soldiers and police officers encouraged Hutu civilians to attack the Tutsis, and some were forced to attack their neighbors.
Participants were often given incentives, such as money or food, and some were even told they could appropriate the land
of the Tutsis they killed. In the end, 800,000 Rwandan civilians, mostly Tutsis, were murdered.
 Ethnocentrism in Germany
 Adolf Hitler decided he hated Jewish people, as well as other groups of people, and had many innocent people slaughtered
in concentration camps. The Nazis murdered nearly six million European Jews. The genocide is called the Holocaust.
 Ethnocentrism in Cambodia
 Pol Pot was a political leader whose communist Khmer Rouge government led Cambodia from 1975 to 1979. During that
time, an estimated 1.5 to 2 million Cambodians died of starvation, execution, disease, or overwork.

Xenocentrism

 Xenocentrism is the belief that other cultures are better than one’s own. is considered deviant behavior as it goes against the
norms of what someone is expected to appreciate.
 Examples
 The belief that vehicles manufactured in other countries are better than ones made in your own country
 European Renaissance artists desiring to emulate ancient Greek artwork
 The belief that cheeses and wines from other countries are superior to the produce from your own country
 The belief that the style of clothing in another culture is superior to those within your own culture
 The idea that quality products cannot be purchased in one’s own country

Assessment Task
Film Analysis
 View the film Hotel Rwanda.
 Discuss issues in the film based on ethical principles.

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Rubric

Criteria Ratings Points

Discussions based on ethical principles 15 0 Points 15

Issues are clearly analyzed based on ethical principles. Points No Marks Points
Full
Marks
Insight 5 Points 0 Points 5
Insights were clearly presented in the concluding paragraphs. Full No Marks Points
Marks
TOTAL 20
Points

Suggested Video Clips

Rotten Tomatoes Classic Trailer. (2012, October 6). Hotel Rwanda official trailer #1 [Video]. YouTube.
[Link]
Rotten Tomatoes Classic Trailer. (2014, August 26). Killing fields official trailer [Video]. YouTube. [Link]
v=0Um2j1iEj1k
Rotten Tomatoes Classic Trailer. (2014, May 14). Schindler's List (1993) official trailer [Video]. YouTube.
[Link]

References
Leaño, R., & Gubia-on, A. (2018). Ethics for collegestudents. Mindshapers Co., Inc.
Nickerson, C. (2022). Cultural Relativism. Simply Psychology [Link]
Velasquez, M., Andre, C., Shanks, T., & Meyer, M. (n.d.). Cultural Relativism. Markula Center for Applied Ethics.
[Link]
%20the%20theory,be%20morally%20wrong%20in%20another.

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Module 2: Week 5: Universal Values and Filipino Traits

The module provides a discussion on the universal values stipulated in the United Nations charter and how they influence moral
behavior. The strengths and weaknesses of Filipino traits are also examined in this module.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this Module, students should be able to:

 identify different universal values stipulated in the United Nations charter,
 examine Scwhartz’s concept of values,
 differentiate values as things from values as behaviors, and
 examine the strengths and weaknesses of Filipino traits.

Preliminary Activity
Valuing
 Students will have an inventory of the contents of their wallets or bags.
 The contents of the wallets or bags will be labeled as past, present, or future.
 A group discussion will be held after the contents have been labeled.
 Insights will be drawn from the activity.

Universal Values
 Valuing things is based on human needs. Valuing behaviors arises from things we value But more than one behaviour can attain
an end I value peace as a state of being.
 Behavior 1: I will not harm others.
 Behavior 2: I will build up my defenses so as not to be harmed.

Universal
 Universal = all human beings
 Universal = all cultures
 Universal = all religions
 Universal = all legal and political systems

Universal Values as Things

 United Nations
 Peace
 Freedom
 Social Progress
 Equal Rights
 Human Dignity
 Other Universal Values
 Justice
 Beauty
 Joy

Universal Values as Behaviors

 Do not harm others
 Do not cheat others
 Do not lie to others
 Do not enslave others

Schwartz Concept of Universal Values

 Six Main Features of Values
1. Values are beliefs linked inextricably to affect. When values are activated, they become infused with feeling.
2. Values refer to desirable goals that motivate action.
3. Values transcend specific actions and situations. This distinguishes values from norms and attitudes that usually refer to
specific actions, objects, or situations.

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 4. Values serve as standards or criteria. Values guide the selection or evaluation of actions, policies, people, and events. People
decide what is good or bad, justified or illegitimate, worth doing or avoiding, based on possible consequences for their
cherished values. But the impact of values in everyday decisions is rarely conscious. Values enter awareness when the
actions or judgments one is considering have conflicting implications for different values one cherishes.
5. Values are ordered by importance relative to one another. People’s values form an ordered system of priorities that
characterize them as individuals.
6. The relative importance of multiple values guides action. Any attitude or behaviour typically has implications for more than
one value. The trade-off among relevant, competing values guides attitudes and behaviors. Values influence action when
they are relevant in the context (hence likely to be activated) and important to the actor.
 Ten Basic Values. The Schwartz theory of basic values identifies ten broad personal values, which are differentiated by their
underlying goal or motivation. These values are likely to be universal because they help humans cope with one or more of the
following three universal requirements of existence:
 needs of individuals as biological organisms
 requisites of coordinated social interaction
 survival and welfare needs of groups.
 The following table describes the ten broad personal values and their defining goals.

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Strengths and Weaknesses of Filipino People

Assessment Task
Based on the video clip presented by Net25, which of the following Filipino values is evident in you and your family? Provide specific
examples where the said values are manifested.

Rubric

Criteria Ratings Points

Manifestations of Filipino Values 10 0 Points 15

Examples provided strongly support the values identified. Points No Marks Points
Full
Marks
TOTAL 10
Points

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Suggested Video Clip
Net25. (2022, November 25). Filipino values awareness month [Video]. YouTube. [Link]
v=4dd8rX5Dy_Q

References
Leaño, R., & Gubia-on, A. (2018). Ethics for collegestudents. Mindshapers Co., Inc.
Philippinescomph. (n.d.). Strength and Weaknesses of Filipino people.
Scwhartz, S. (2012). An overview of the Schwartz theory of basic [Link]
values. [Link]
Scwhartz, S. (2022, May 10).Understanding values: Schwartz theory of basic values. [Link]
theory-of-basic-values/
United Nations. United Nations Charter. [Link]
UNODC. (n.d.). Module 2: ethics and universal values [Link]
%20Ethics%20and%20Universal%20Values%[Link]

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Module 2: Week 6: Moral Development

The module provides a discussion on Kohlberg's stages of moral development that focus on how children develop morality and
moral reasoning. In the latter part of the module, ethical issues presented in the Heinz dilemma are examined.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this Module, students should be able to:

 identify Kohlberg’s stages of moral development
 understand how children develop morality and moral reasoning, and
 examine ethical issues presented in Heinz dilemma

Stages of Moral Development

 Level 1 - Pre-conventional morality. Pre-conventional morality is the first level of moral development and lasts until
approximately age 9. At the pre-conventional level, children don’t have a personal code of morality; instead, moral decisions
are shaped by the standards of adults and the consequences of following or breaking their rules. For example, if an action leads
to punishment, it must be bad, and if it leads to a reward, it must be good. Authority is outside the individual, and children
often make moral decisions based on the physical consequences of their actions.
 Stage 1. Obedience and Punishment Orientation. The individual acts from a belief that if they do something wrong they will
be punished, so that the best reason for avoiding doing wrong is to avoid punishment.
 Stage 2. Self-Interest Orientation.  The individual will act from a belief that it may be okay to do something "wrong" if there
is "something in it for me."Level 2 - Conventional morality
 Level 2: Conventional morality. Conventional morality is the second level of moral development and is characterized by an
acceptance of social rules concerning right and wrong. At the conventional level (most adolescents and adults), we begin to
internalize the moral standards of valued adult role models. Authority is internalized but not questioned, and reasoning is
based on the norms of the group to which the person belongs. A social system that stresses the responsibilities of relationships
as well as social order is seen as desirable and must, therefore, influence our view of what is right and wrong.
 Stage 3. Interpersonal Accord and Conformity. The individual acts in order to fulfill pre-specified social roles, such as the
desire to be a “good girl” or “good boy.”
 Stage 4. Authority and Social Order Maintaining Orientation. The individual acts in order to maintain the social order. “We
have laws for a reason,” goes this orientation, “to keep order.”
 Level 3: Post-conventional Morality. Post-conventional morality is the third level of moral development and is characterized by
an individual's understanding of universal ethical principles. These are abstract and ill-defined, but might include the
preservation of life at all costs and the importance of human dignity. Individual judgment is based on self-chosen principles,
and moral reasoning is based on individual rights and justice. According to Kohlberg, this level of moral reasoning is as far as
most people get. Only 10-15% are capable of the kind of abstract thinking necessary for stages 5 or 6 (post-conventional
morality). Most people get their moral views from those around them, and only a minority think through ethical principles for
themselves.
 Stage 5. Social Contract Orientation. The individual acts with an understanding that laws are created by people coming
together for the common good and that these same people can change these laws if new demands or conditions arise. Thus,
laws are not fixed in concrete but need to be flexible to accommodate new circumstances.
 Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles. The individual acts with the understanding that there are "higher laws" that go beyond
conventional socially imposed laws and that these higher laws encompass abstract philosophical ethical principles (e.g.,
Kant’s categorical imperative). This is the stage of a Martin Luther King or a Mahatma Gandhi.

Heinz Dilemmas
One of the best known of Kohlberg’s (1958) stories concerns a man called Heinz who lived somewhere in Europe.
Heinz’s wife was dying from a particular type of cancer. Doctors said a new drug might save her. The drug had been discovered by a
local chemist, and the Heinz tried desperately to buy some, but the chemist was charging ten times the money it cost to make the
drug, and this was much more than the Heinz could afford.
Heinz could only raise half the money, even after help from family and friends. He explained to the chemist that his wife
was dying and asked if he could have the drug cheaper or pay the rest of the money later.
The chemist refused, saying that he had discovered the drug and was going to make money from it. The husband was
desperate to save his wife, so later that night he broke into the chemist’s and stole the drug.

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Assessment Task
Answer the following questions:
 Should Heinz have stolen the drug?
 Would it change anything if Heinz did not love his wife?
 What if the person dying was a stranger? Would it make any difference?
 Should the police arrest the chemist for murder if the woman died?

References
Armstrong, T. (2012, August 8). The stages of life according to Lawrence Kohlberg.
[Link]
%20it%20for%20me.%E2%80%9D&text=3.
Mcleod, S. (2013). Kohlberg’s theory of moral development. [Link]
Sprouts. (2019, November 29). Kohlberg’s 6 stages of moral development [Video]. YouTube. [Link]
v=4dd8rX5Dy_Q[Link]