Chapter 5: Foundations of Employee Motivation

Motivation - refers to the forces within a person that Self-actualization

affect the direction, intensity, and persistence of (need for self-fulfillment, realization of one’s potential)
voluntary behavior. Esteem
(need for self-esteem and social esteem/status)
Employee engagement - individual emotional and
Belongingness/love
cognitive motivation, particularly a focused, intense,
(need for interaction with and affection from others)
persistent, and purposive effort toward work-related
goals. Safety
(need for security and stability)
Drives (also called primary needs) Physiological
- hardwired characteristics of the brain that (need for food, air, water, shelter, etc)
correct deficiencies or maintain an internal
equilibrium by producing emotions to Maslow identified the desire to know and the desire
energize individuals for aesthetic beauty as two innate drives that do not
- innate and universal fit within the hierarchy.
- are the starting point of motivation because
they generate emotions, which put people in *The strongest source of motivation is the lowest
a state of readiness to act on their unsatisfied need.
environment
The exception to this need fulfillment process is
Cognition (logical thinking) - plays an important role
in motivation, but emotions are the real sources of self-actualization. People have an ongoing need for
energy in human behavior. In fact, both words self-actualization; it is never really fulfilled.
(emotion and motivation) originate from the same
Latin word, movere, which means “to move.” Deficiency needs - the bottom four groups, because
they become activated when unfulfilled
Needs
- goal-directed forces that people experience Growth need - self-actualization, because it
- are the motivational forces of emotions continues to develop even when temporarily
channeled toward particular goals to correct satiated.
deficiencies or imbalances.
*The main problem with needs hierarchy models is
- are the emotions we eventually become
that people have different needs hierarchies.
consciously aware of.
Although needs hierarchy theory has failed the
reality test, Maslow transformed how we think
about human motivation.

Maslow motivation experts

- emphasized that needs - studied separately
should be studied together each of the dozens
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN NEEDS because human behavior is of needs and their
typically initiated by more than underlying drives
Everyone has the same drives; they are hardwired one need at the same time
in us through evolution. People who define
- motivation can be shaped by - focused mainly on
themselves as very sociable typically experience a human thoughts (including how instincts
stronger need for social interaction if alone for a self-concept, social norms, motivated behavior
while, whereas people who view themselves as past experience)
less sociable would experience a less intense need - popularized the concept of - focused on need
to be with others over that time. self-actualization, suggesting deficiencies such
that people are naturally as hunger
MASLOW’S NEEDS HIERARCHY THEORY motivated to reach their
- theory of human motivation potential
- developed by psychologist Abraham * Maslow is considered a pioneer in positive
organizational behavior.
Maslow in the 1940s
- a motivation theory of needs arranged in a INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION
hierarchy, whereby people are motivated to
fulfill a higher need as a lower one becomes Intrinsic motivation
- refers to motivation controlled by the
gratified
individual and experienced from the activity
itself
- occurs when people seek need fulfillment
from doing the activity itself, not as a means
to some other outcome
- enjoy applying their talents toward a
meaningful task and experiencing progress
or success in that task

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Chapter 5: Foundations of Employee Motivation
Extrinsic motivation Two types of nPow:
- occurs when people are motivated to
receive something that is beyond their  personalized power - individuals who enjoy
personal control for instrumental reasons their power for its own sake, use it to
- they direct their effort toward a reward advance personal interests, and wear their
controlled by others that indirectly fulfills a power as a status symbol
need.  socialized power - desire power as a means
to help others
Extrinsic sources of motivation:
 performance bonuses Training programs to change need strength
 recognition awards developed by McClelland:
 frequent reminders from the boss about
work deadlines - having participants write achievement-oriented
stories
*The extrinsic motivator energizes the employee - practice achievementoriented behaviors in
more than the intrinsic motivator alone.  The business games
contrasting hypothesis is that introducing extrinsic
- meet frequently with a reference group with other
sources of motivation will reduce intrinsic
motivation. trainees

*The explanation is that introducing extrinsic FOUR-DRIVE THEORY

motivators diminishes the employee’s feeling of - a motivation theory based on the innate
autonomy, which is a key source of intrinsic drives to acquire, bond, learn, and defend
motivation. that incorporates both emotions and
rationality
LEARNED NEEDS THEORY
- are hardwired in our brains and exist in all
*David McClelland – a psychologist who further human beings
investigated the idea that need strength can be - are also independent of one another; there
altered through social influences. is no hierarchy of drives
- are proactive—they are regularly activated
Need for achievement (nAch)
by our perceptions to seek fulfillment
- a learned need in which people want to
- Only one drive (defend) is reactive—it is
accomplish reasonably challenging goals
triggered by threat
and desire unambiguous feedback and
recognition for their success Four fundamental drives:
- People with high nAch desire unambiguous  Drive to acquire
feedback and recognition for their success. - drive to seek out, take, control, and retain
- prefer working alone rather than in team objects and personal experiences.
Need for affiliation (nAff) - a variation of the need for achievement,
- refers to a desire to seek approval from competence, status and self-esteem, and to
others, conform to their wishes and some extent self-actualization
expectations, and avoid conflict and - motivates competition.
confrontation.  Drive to bond
- People with strong nAff try to project a - is a variation of the need for belonging and
favorable image of themselves affiliation described by Maslow and
- They tend to actively support others and try McClelland
to smooth out workplace conflicts. High-nAff - It explains why our self-concept is partly
employees generally work well in defined by associations with social groups
coordinating roles to mediate conflicts and - The drive to bond motivates people to
in sales positions where the main task is cooperate and, consequently, is essential
cultivating long-term relations for organizations and societies
 Drive to comprehend
Need for power (nPow) - similar to Maslow’s primary need to know
- a learned need in which people want to - are inherently curious and need to make
control their environment, including people sense of their environment and themselves
and material resources, to benefit either - the drive to comprehend is related to self-
themselves (personalized power) or others actualization.
(socialized power) - motivates investigation of the unknown
- People with a high need for power (nPow)  Drive to defend
want to exercise control over others and are - the drive to protect ourselves physically,
concerned about maintaining their psychologically, and socially
leadership position.

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Chapter 5: Foundations of Employee Motivation
- the first drive to develop, it creates a fight- Three factors which individual’s effort level
or-flight response in the face of threat to our depends:
physical safety, our possessions, our self-
 E-to-P expectancy
concept, our values, and the well-being of - individual’s perception that his or her effort
others will result in a particular level of
- motivates withdrawal from the unknown performance.
- employees may believe that they can
HOW DRIVES INFLUENCE MOTIVATION AND unquestionably accomplish the task (a
BEHAVIOR probability of 1.0) or expect that even their
highest level of effort will not result in the
It states that our social norms, past
desired performance level (a probability of
experience, and personal values direct the 0.0)
motivational force of our emotions to decisions and  P-to-O expectancy
behavior that potentially reduce that tension. - perceived probability that a specific
behavior or performance level will lead to a
mental skill set - develops behavioral intentions that particular outcome.
are acceptable to society, consistent with our own - employees may believe that accomplishing
moral compass, and have a high probability of a particular task (performance) will definitely
achieving the goal of fulfilling those felt needs. result in a particular outcome (a probability
of 1.0), or they may believe that successful
PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS OF FOUR-DRIVE performance will have no effect on this
THEORY outcome (a probability of 0.0)
 Outcome valences
The main recommendation from four-drive theory is - valence - is the anticipated satisfaction or
that jobs and workplaces should provide a dissatisfaction that an individual feels
toward an outcome
balanced opportunity to fulfill the four drives.
- It ranges from negative to positive. (The
Two recommendations: actual range doesn’t matter; it may be from
−1 to +1 or from −100 to +100.)
- the best workplaces help employees fulfill all four - Outcomes have a positive valence when
they are consistent with our values and
drives.
satisfy our needs; they have a negative
- fulfillment of the four drives must be kept in valence when they oppose our values and
inhibit need fulfillment.
balance; that is, organizations should avoid too
much or too little opportunity to fulfill each drive Increasing E-to-P Expectancies
- E-to-P expectancies are influenced by the
Four-drive theory is based on a deep individual’s belief that he or she can
foundation of neuroscientific, psychological, successfully complete the task
sociological, and anthropological research. The - Eto-P expectancies are learned, so
theory explains why needs vary from one person to behavior modeling and supportive feedback
the next, but avoids the assumption that everyone typically strengthen the individual’s belief
has the same needs hierarchy. It is holistic (it that he or she is able to perform the task
relates to all drives, not just one or two) and Increasing P-to-O Expectancies
humanistic (it acknowledges the role of human - The most obvious ways to improve P-to-O
thought and social influences, not just instinct) expectancies are to measure employee
performance accurately and distribute more
EXPECTANCY THEORY OF MOTIVATION valued rewards to those with higher job
performance
Expectancy theory - P-to-O expectancies are perceptions, so
employees also need to believe that higher
- a motivation theory based on the idea that work performance will result in higher rewards
effort is directed toward behaviors that people
believe will lead to desired outcomes Increasing Outcome Valences
- The valence of a reward varies from one
- this is the fundamental economic model of person to the next because they have
deciding which choice offers the highest expected different needs
payoff
Limitations of expectancy theory:
- is aligned more with extrinsic than intrinsic
motivation because performance is usually  it mainly explains extrinsic motivation; the
described as instrumental to other outcomes model’s features do not fit easily with
beyond the employee’s control intrinsic motivation
 the theory ignores emotions as a source of
motivation

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Chapter 5: Foundations of Employee Motivation
 expectancy theory outlines how Limitations of OB Modification:
expectancies (probability of outcomes)
affect motivation, but it doesn’t explain how  reward inflation - the reinforcer is eventually
employees develop these expectancies considered an entitlement
 variable ratio schedule of reinforcement
ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION
tends to create a lottery-style reward system
- (OB Mod), a theory that explains employee
behavior in terms of the antecedent Social cognitive theory - states that much learning
conditions and consequences of that occurs by observing and modeling others as well as
behavior by anticipating the consequences of our behavior

A-B-Cs of OB Mod Three most relevant to employee motivation:

Antecedents - What happens before the behavior  Learning Behavior Consequences
Behavior - What the person says or does - learning the consequences of behavior by
Consequences - What happens after the behavior observing or hearing about what happened
to other people
*behaviorism - dominant paradigm about managing
- people logically anticipate consequences in
individual behavior which argues that a good theory
related situations
should rely exclusively on behavior and the
 Behavior Modeling
environment and ignore nonobservable cognitions
- people learn by imitating and practicing their
and emotions
behaviors
Contingencies of reinforcement (four types of - Direct sensory experience helps us acquire
consequences): tacit knowledge and skills
- increases self-efficacy
 Positive reinforcement  Self-Regulation
- occurs when the introduction of a - human beings set goals and engage in
consequence increases or maintains the other forms of intentional, purposive action
frequency or future probability of a specific - engaged in self-reinforcement -
behavior reinforcement that occurs when an
- leverages the power of positive employee has control over a reinforcer but
organizational behavior; focusing on the doesn’t “take” it until completing a self-set
positive goal
 Punishment - occurs when a consequence
decreases the frequency or future GOAL SETTING AND FEEDBACK
probability of a specific behavior occurring Goal setting - the process of motivating employees
 Extinction consequence - occurs when the and clarifying their role perceptions by establishing
target behavior decreases because no performance objectives
consequence follows it Two ways in improving employees’ performance:
 Negative reinforcement
- is often confused with punishment 1. by amplifying the intensity and persistence
of effort
- occurs when the removal or avoidance of
2. by giving employees clearer role
a consequence increases or maintains the perceptions so their effort is channeled
frequency or future probability of a specific toward behaviors that will improve work
behavior performance
- removal of punishment
S-M-A-R-T-E-R
schedules of reinforcement - frequency and timing
 Specific - Specific goals clarify performance
of these reinforcers
expectations, so employees can direct their
effort more efficiently and reliably.
continuous reinforcement – most effective
reinforcement schedule for learning new tasks;
 Measurable - Goals need to be measurable
providing positive reinforcement after every because motivation occurs when people
occurrence of the desired behavior have some indication of their progress and
achievement of those goals
variable ratio schedule - the best schedule for
motivating people aside from learning  Achievable - developing goals that are
sufficiently but not overly challenging

 Relevant - Goals need to be relevant to the

individual’s job and within his or her control

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Chapter 5: Foundations of Employee Motivation
 Time-framed - Goals need a due date. They Distributive justice - perceived fairness in the
should specify when the objective should be individual’s ratio of outcomes to contributions
completed or when it will be assessed for relative to a comparison other’s ratio of outcomes
comparison against a standard to contributions
 Exciting - Goals tend to be more effective Procedural justice - perceived fairness of the
when employees are committed to them, procedures used to decide the distribution of
not just compliant.
resources
 Reviewed - The motivational value of goal EQUITY THEORY - a theory explaining how people
setting depends on employees receiving
develop perceptions of fairness in the distribution
feedback about reaching those goals.
and exchange of resources
CHARACTERISTICS OF EFFECTIVE FEEDBACK
equality principle - operates when we believe that
Feedback everyone in the group should receive the same
- information that lets us know whether we outcomes
have achieved the goal or are properly
directing our effort toward it need principle - is applied when we believe that
- is a critical partner with goal setting those with the greatest need should receive more
- should be specific and relevant, that is, the outcomes than others with less need.
information should refer to specific metrics
and to the individual’s behavior or outcomes equity principle - infers that people should be paid
within his or her control.
in proportion to their contribution. Also the most
- should also be timely and credible
- should be sufficiently frequent common distributive justice rule in organizational
settings.
Strengths-based coaching
- also known as appreciative coaching outcome–input ratio - is the value of the outcomes
- a positive organizational behavior approach you receive divided by the value of the inputs you
to coaching and feedback that focuses on provide in the exchange relationship
building and leveraging the employee’s
strengths rather than trying to correct his or Inputs include things such as skill, effort,
her weaknesses reputation, performance, experience, and hours
- more motivating than traditional worked. Outcomes are what employees receive
performance reviews from the organization such as pay, promotions,
- also recognizes that poor performance on recognition, interesting jobs, and opportunities to
some tasks is due more to motivation than
improve one’s skills and knowledge.
ability

SOURCES OF FEEDBACK Procedural justice - refers to fairness of the

- originate from nonsocial or social sources. procedures used to decide the distribution of
- Nonsocial sources provide feedback without resources
someone communicating that information
- multisource (360-degree) feedback -
information about an employee’s
performance collected from a full circle of
people