Chapter 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter presents relevant researches and studies in regards to the difficulties foreign
teachers encounter in teaching English, particularly in Vietnam, as well as the importance of
English in today’s modern world. This will also include related literatures on the factors
affecting students’ English ability.

English and Its Significance

In the trend of modernization and integration, English has become the most dominant language
spoken around the world with around 1.5 billion speakers (both native and non-native speakers)
according to Statista (2022). It is becoming more and more significant in the advancement of
politics, economy, culture, science, and international relations. Countries are increasingly
encouraging English learning. It is no longer sufficient to only speak one language. People are
learning new languages to broaden their business, educational, and job opportunities. Everyone
benefits from knowing the English language in terms of personal and professional development.
As a result, people worldwide have begun to learn English as a second language. Thus, there is a
growing need for English instruction and learning, particularly for academic purposes other than
communication.

In today’s modern world, English becomes the basic language of education. Many countries have
included English as a second language in their school curricula to help students learn the
language at a young age. Almost all learning materials and subjects are written in English to
make them more accessible to people all over the world. The initiative to use English as a
medium of instruction in schools and colleges brings a commonality to the structure of education
and has multiple positive effects on students. In addition, English is widely used as an academic
institution's official language for reports and research papers. Understanding English means
being exposed to a vast amount of information. English is beneficial for students because it
expands their perceptions, fosters emotional development, and enhances their quality of life by
providing employment opportunities. Aside from these advantages, the English language helps
us understand the cultures of other countries. A good command of the English language allows
us to travel to any new country. An individual can possibly transfer ideas and thoughts to another
with the help of good understanding and communication skills. The impacts brought by the
English language in people’s lives are boundless. As Roger Bacon would put it, “Knowledge of
languages is the doorway to wisdom.”

Teaching English in Vietnam

Recognizing the importance of the English language, English instruction is becoming more
popular in Vietnam. The history of Vietnam is "a chronicle of recurrent strife, turbulence,
invasion, occupation, and hardship," according to Branigin (1994). Vietnam went a long period
without having its own language. Most of the country's four thousand year history was
dominated by foreign incursions and the subsequent use of foreign languages as the national or
official language. Along with longing and fighting for their own language, the Vietnamese also
learned how to decorate and use other languages for the sake of their country (Thinh, 2007).
Vietnam's linguistic history serves as an excellent illustration of the strong connection between
language and politics, with politics having an impact on both the foreign languages studied in
Vietnam's schools and university institutions as well as the choice of instruction medium
(Denham, 1992). Vietnam went a long period without having its own language. Most of the
country's four thousand year history was dominated by foreign incursions and the subsequent use
of foreign languages as the national or official language. Along with longing and fighting for
their own language, the Vietnamese also learned how to decorate and use other languages for the
sake of their country. From 1982 to 2002, English was made a compulsory subject at the upper
secondary level and an elective subject at the lower secondary level across the country (Hoang,
2018).

Vietnamese English has advanced at a previously unheard-of rate in years. Since the 1990s,
English teaching in Vietnam has advanced at a never-before-seen rate. About 90% of people
learning foreign languages have been studying English, albeit this is not yet thoroughly
documented. To meet the various learning requirements of various sorts of learners, numerous
language centers—both public and private—have been built. These centers provide various
courses, programs, and styles of instruction. Additionally, language centers have been
established by universities, high schools, professional associations, governmental organizations,
socio-economic organizations, and private businesses. Currently, the primary focus of the
English curriculum in Vietnamese schools is the improvement of students' reading abilities,
whereas at the tertiary level, the emphasis varies depending on the nature and goals of the
institution providing the program. The grammar-translation approach is popular. However, as a
result of a lack of regular inspection and assessment, it has also shown several flaws not only in
management but in quality assurance as well.

Teaching English to Vietnamese people, on the other hand, can be difficult for foreign teachers
especially when teaching academic English. This could be due to a variety of reasons.

Vietnam’s English Training System

For many years, teaching English in Vietnam’s academic institutions had received a lot of
attention from students, professors, and relevant authorities because of its low level of teaching
efficacy. As a result, graduates fail to achieve the employers' English proficiency standards,
which worsens the unemployment situation. English is increasingly being used by young people
as their primary language of communication, which is a worrying development (Nguyen &
Pham, 2016). The Vietnamese government has made numerous changes to improve the
Vietnamese's English skills. The results, however, appeared unsatisfactory caused by a variety of
external factors.

In Vietnam, students must learn English as a foreign language (EFL) from elementary school to
universities and colleges. Many projects have been developed to improve Vietnamese students'
English skills, one of which is the National Foreign Language Project 2020. The rapid growth of
English in Vietnam has caused a number of issues. Despite the significance of English in the
globalization and assimilation context, Hoang (n.d.) said “English language teaching in Vietnam
has not met the demand for competent English-speaking people due to its low quality.” Nghia
and Tran (2020) also discussed the reasons for reforming education, such as the uniqueness of
students' learning needs, market demands, changes in technology, and students' new ways of
living. However, the project's outcomes, particularly in terms of students' speaking and writing
abilities, were unsatisfactory (Le & Nguyen, 2017; Nguyen, 2013; Pham & Bui, 2019; Tran &
Marginson, 2018).

According to Knapp (1997), every reforming process provides an opportunity for teachers'
professional development in order to improve their teaching. Subsequently, the term "ELT PRs"
(English Language Teaching Pedagogical Reforms) refers to a process in which teachers modify
their English teaching methods in order to improve the quality of EFL students' education and
instruction in training (Thao & Mai, 2020). However, external factors such as educational
policies, collegial interactions, institutional aspects, students, and other objective factors
influenced this process.

Although they spent six or seven years learning English in school, many English language
learners in Vietnam struggle with the issue that they can't pronounce an English sentence
correctly and they lack the confidence to communicate in the language (Hieu, 2011).
Miscommunication is just one of the effects of pronouncing a word or pattern incorrectly. A
listener may not understand what the learner is saying if a word is not properly pronounced,
leading to misunderstanding. This could make a language learner feel less confident, which
would prevent them from practicing, wishing to use the language, or feeling the need to do so.
Additionally, Vietnam's educational institutions' employment of antiquated teaching techniques
may lead to students devoting more time and effort to other courses in the classroom while their
English fluency and skills deteriorate. Although the Vietnamese Ministry of Education and
Training places a strong emphasis on the development of practical communication skills, this is
rarely seen in the classroom, where teachers instead place a strong emphasis on the development
of reading comprehension, vocabulary, and structural patterns in order to pass exams.
Vietnamese teachers demonstrate a strong interest in new methodology while attending training
sessions, but once they return to the classroom, they continue using the outdated approaches
(Hoang, 2018). English is frequently taught to newcomers using traditional methods, which are
relatively passive and focus mostly on teaching grammar with little opportunity for speaking.
Due to their inability to develop quick reflexes for use in communication and their potential for
having poor listening and speaking abilities, pupils may experience dissatisfaction and a decline
in confidence (Hieu, 2011).

Teachers’ Teaching Quality and Efficacy

Despite the fact that researchers concur that teachers are one of the most significant school-based
resources in influencing children' lifetime outcomes and future academic success, they have
struggled to identify the qualities of an effective teacher. Researchers concur that one of the most
significant school-based tools for predicting pupils' future academic progress and life outcomes
is their teacher (Chetty et al. 2014; Rivkin et al. 2005; Rockoff 2004). Because of this, there has
been a focus on increasing teacher effectiveness as a way to improve student learning. Among
other authors, Goe (2007) characterized teacher effectiveness in terms of development in
students' learning, which is commonly gauged by students' scores on standardized tests.
According to Chetty et al. (2014), students who were taught by highly effective teachers, as
determined by the student growth percentiles (SGPs) and value-added measures (VAMs), were
more likely to go to college, earn more money, reside in neighborhoods with higher incomes,
save more money for retirement, and have fewer children while still in their adolescent years.

Effective teacher and effective teaching are closely tied to effective learning. Many studies have
conducted rigorous investigation on the factors affecting foreign English language teachers in
teaching academic English. According to Nisbet and Collins (1978), some external factors
affecting foreign teachers in teaching academic English includes teachers’ lack of support and
training, excessive workload given by institutions, and strong beliefs in old educational methods.
Ho (2011) added that course design, activities, assignments, and instructional strategies are other
issues that teachers deal with. Thus, lessons are sometimes highly ineffective and efficiency
assessments are not accurate (Nguyen & Pham, 2016). Hoang (n.d.) suggested that teacher’s
retraining program in English competence might help in improving teachers’ quality of teaching
academic English. However, it would require a lot of labor and logistical resources, which is
more than the system can now handle.

On the other hand, Brown (1978) suggests that a good language teacher is someone who
empathizes with his students, ensures the presence of meaningful communicative contexts in the
classroom, and encourages students' self-esteem. Consequently, Sanderson (1993) focuses solely
on the pedagogic and field knowledge of the teacher, and defines a good language teacher as
someone who uses the target language predominantly, has clear and good pronunciation, stress,
and intonation gets students involved in activities and is fluent in the target language. Moreover,
Schmidt, [Link] (2019) analysis on the existing body of literature on teaching effectiveness,
identified key teacher factors that may be associated with higher student achievement: teacher
experience, teacher professional knowledge, and teacher provision of opportunity to learn.

The teaching of English inn Vietnam, specifically in universities, received many criticisms
(Tran, 2015). Tran’s 2015 study found out that students claimed their current English teaching
and learning in the academe was ineffective and disappointing. Their drive was undermined, and
they began to lose faith in their ability to learn English. Concerning the English instruction at
their universities, the majority of them expressed their frustration and perplexity.

Environmental and societal factors

Environmental factors such as overcrowded classrooms, traffic situations and pollution are other
difficulties face by foreign teachers in Vietnam (Hoang, 2011). [Link]
posted on 2013 that it will be extremely difficult for the entire system to teach pronunciation and
communication (practical) skills instead of grammar given the existing enormous number of
students in one class. A crowded classroom makes it much harder to evaluate students based on
their ability to speak and pronounce words. As Hoang (2011) would put it, “too many students in
one classroom will provide more opportunities for personality conflicts, tensions, and disruptive
behavior. It’s difficult for teachers to manage their classrooms, especially new teachers with a
lack of experience.” Overcrowded classroom is a worldwide problem that affects both the
learning and teaching process. Numerous studies supports this fact: in their study conducted in
New York, Corcoran et al. (1988) discovered that "overcrowding and large teacher workloads
generated stressful working conditions for instructors and led to higher teacher absenteeism."
Consequently, effective teaching was not possible in overcrowded classes, according to Khan
and Iqbal's (2012) "over packed classroom" study done in Pakistan, and the majority of teachers
experienced issues with instruction, discipline, physical health, and evaluation. A 2007 report in
California Educational Opportunity characterized the impact of overcrowded classroom as:

“Overcrowding creates unsafe environments and makes teaching and learning more difficult.
Schools may need to teach students in auditoriums, gymnasiums, storage rooms, and other areas
never intended to be used for instructional purposes. Schools with too little space may not be
able to maintain specially equipped rooms such as science labs or libraries because these spaces
need to be “flexible” for teaching multiple subjects.”

Of course, overcrowding affects a teacher's efficacy and happiness with their work. According to
the findings of a 2012 study on the factors affecting teacher satisfaction in schools:

“As school budgets decrease and the numbers of students increase, it is critical that school
districts continue to invest in efforts that will keep class sizes from becoming too large. Perhaps
smaller class sizes allow teachers to work with students who show problematic behaviors or
students with community challenges such as poverty and under preparedness more effectively;
this idea will need to be explored through further study. Nevertheless, smaller class sizes help
teachers to be more satisfied with their jobs and smaller class sizes have also been shown to
positively affect student achievement.”

Additionally, overcrowded classrooms lead to noise pollution. A child's ability to learn is

L1 Interference

Since most people only have limited exposure to second languages, learning a second language
involves conscious effort (Bose, 2007). Selvi and Raja (2011) identified three reasons for the
problems faced by second language learners that could affect the effectiveness of foreign
teacher’s teaching strategies. The reasons identified were: environment, attitude and teacher’s
competence. According to Naranayan [Link] (2008), the perceptions of learners of the target
language and its speakers, as well as their perceptions of the learning situations and the language
learning environment, appear to be somewhat determinants of whether or not they will
successfully acquire a second language. When learning English, students frequently have
damaging misconceptions such as "simply studying English in school is enough," "focused on
the amount of newly learned words instead of implementing these words in practice," etc.
Therefore, teachers experienced difficulty in making students understand English. According to
Sanders (2000), the instructor has the biggest impact on how well students learn. The summary
of his study pointed out that the most important variable affecting children's academic
development is variations in teacher effectiveness. Good teachers appear to be successful with
students of all performance levels, according to Wright, Horn, and Sanders (1997), regardless of
the quantity of variation in their classes. Regardless of how similar or different their academic
achievement is, if the instructor is ineffective, students under their supervision will not make
adequate academic progress. According to Borman and Kimball (2005), Al-Issa and Sulieman
(2007), and Akram (2019), there is a direct link between a teacher's efficacy and students'
academic success. Additionally, according to Kupermintz, Shepard, and Linn (2001), student
performance is favorably correlated with students' assessments of their professors' competency.

Moreover, the structure of English and the first language is another factor that concerns both
students and teachers (Selvi & Raja, 2011). The Vietnamese language is a beautiful tonal
language with very little in common with English. Some phonotactic characteristics of the
language prevent native learners from pronouncing English like native speakers (Nguyen T.T.
2007). Their capacity to hear and make English sounds is influenced by their native tongue
(Avery & Ehrlich, 1992). One of the most challenging and crucial aspects of learning English in
Vietnam is pronouncing words correctly. Due to the syllable timing of Vietnamese and the stress
timing of English, Vietnamese learners struggle with stressed words and are unable to vocalize
stress by the tone in English words because of syllabic tone (Honey, 1987). The majority of
English language learners either speaks without any stress at all or stresses each word equally by
following Vietnamese pronunciation guidelines. Missing the middle sounds in words with
multiple syllables is another issue with pronunciation. Many Vietnamese words are disyllabic,
while words with many syllables and middle sounds are unusual and can be challenging for
learners to pronounce. Vietnamese English learners also have difficulty pronouncing the final
consonant sounds "z," "s," "t," "v," "ed," "ks," and "st" because there is no similar sound in their
original tongue. Sometimes students will remove the sound or replace it with a known one.

Language and Culture

As claimed by Hinkel (1999), language instructors and scholars are increasingly conscious of the
fact that a second or foreign language is rarely taught or successfully learnt without taking the
students' cultures into account. Cultural awareness aids in learning a second language
successfully. Cultural differences and expectations might hinder learning, engagement, and
communication in an ESL classroom (Lindquist, 2016). Teachers must be aware of potential
barriers in the classroom and learn how to remove them in order to be successful with ESL
students. According to Rowsell et al. (2007), there is a need to incorporate greater knowledge of
how to integrate cultural practices in the classroom into teacher preparation programs as well as
the curriculum (Rowsell et al., 2007).
The linguistic, social, and cultural makeup of the home environment does not adequately prepare
some students for the tasks they will be expected to complete in school, claims the cultural
deficit theory. As a result, these students perform badly in school. According to the cultural
deficit theory, poor home conditions cause skills, knowledge, and behavioral inadequacies that
worsen students' academic performance. The Expectation Theory, on the other hand, states that
teachers often expect less from students of certain racial, ethnic and cultural backgrounds. When
teachers have low expectations for their students' performance, they treat the subject matter
accordingly. It is interesting that students frequently deliver the subpar performance that teachers
have set for them. In addition, the cultural difference theory emphasizes the need for instructors
to be aware of the differences between the school environment and the home environment
because it is based on the premise that students who were raised in various cultural settings may
approach education and learn in various ways (Lynch, 2016).

One of the oldest cultures in the world, Vietnamese culture has endured transformations for
about 4,000 years. Some people claim that Chinese culture has influenced Vietnamese culture,
yet a study reveals that Vietnamese culture has its own distinctive characteristics and developed
concurrently with Chinese culture. From the Dynasties of Trieu, Dinh, Ly, Tran, and Le,
Vietnam's history may be traced roughly at the same time as the Chinese Han, Duong, Tong, and
Nguyen dynasties. Vietnam has a rich, ancient culture with distinctive and oriental-style
traditions and customs. Vietnamese people often have more traditional notions of life, people,
love, happiness, and clothing than individuals in many Western nations, who tend to be more
liberal and open-minded. Therefore, as English as Foreign Language teacher in the country,
culture shock is a common phenomenon.

Since the globalization of English, English learning becomes a common trend not only in
Vietnam but also in other countries with which English is not the first language. Due to the fact
that English and Vietamese are two different languages, learning and teaching English can be
difficult for both teachers and students. Moreover teachers, especially foreign ones, should be
born fully equipped and ready to face the challenges he/she might be facing when teaching
English in Vietnam.