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PED01: Child & Adolescent Learners & Learning Principles

PRELIMINARY TERM

Lesson 1

Learner-Centered Psychological Principles (LCP)

Overview
The learner is the center of instruction. The world of instruction revolves
around the learner. This module introduces you to the fourteen (14) learner –
centered principles which shall be used throughout this book as a guide in
determining appropriate pedagogy for learners at different life stages.

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this module, you should be able to:

 Explain the 14 Learner-Centered Psychological Principles.

 Advocate for the use of the 14 principles in the teaching-learning
process.
 Identify ways on how to apply the 14 principles in instruction as a
future
teacher.

Discussion
ADVANCE ORGANIZER

Examine the title, “Learner-Centered Principles”, Quickly, jot down at least 10

words that come to your mind.

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LEARNER-CENTERED PSYCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES
The Learner-Centered Psychological Principles were put together by the
American Psychological Association. The following psychological principles pertain to
the learner and the learner and the learning process. The 14 principles have the
following aspects:

 They focus on psychological factors that are primarily internal to and

under the control of the learner rather than conditioned habits or
physiological factors. However, the principles also attempt to
acknowledge external environment or contextual factors that interact
with these internal factors.

 The principles are intended to deal holistically with learners in the

context of real-world learning situations. Thus, they are best
understood as an organized set of principles; no principle should be
viewed in isolation.

 The 14 principles are divided into those referring to (1) cognitive and
metacognitive, (2) motivational and affective, (3) developmental and
social, and (4) individual difference factors influencing learners and
learning.

 Finally, the principles are intended to apply to all learners – from

children, to teachers, to administrators, to parents and to community
members involved in our educational system.

Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors

1. Nature Of The Learning Process

The learning of complex subject matter is most effective when it is an

intentional process of constructing meaning from information and experience.

 There are different types of learning processes, for example, habit

formation in motor learning that involves the generation of knowledge,
or cognitive skills and learning strategies.

 Learning in schools emphasizes the use of intentional processes that

students can use to construct meaning from information, experiences,
and their own thoughts and beliefs.

 Successful learners are active, goal-directed, self-regulating, and

assume personal responsibility for contributing to their own learning.

2. Goals of the learning process

The successful learner, over time and with support and instructional
guidance, can create meaningful, coherent presentation of knowledge.

 The strategic nature of learning requires students to be goal-directed.

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 To construct useful representations of knowledge and to acquire the thinking
and learning strategies necessary for continued learning success across the
life of span, students must generate and pursue personally relevant goals.
Initially, students’ short term goals and learning may be sketchy in an area ,
but over time their understanding can be refined by filling gaps, resolving
matter so that they can reach longer term goals.

 Educators can assists learners in creating meaningful learning goals that are
consistent with both personal and educational aspirations and interests.

3. Construction of Knowledge

The successful learner can link new information with existing knowledge in
meaningful ways.

 Knowledge widens and deepens as students continue to build links

between new information and experiences and their existing
knowledge base. The nature of these links can take a variety of forms,
such as adding to, modifying, or reorganizing existing knowledge or
skills. How these links are made or develop may vary in different
subject areas, and among students with varying talents, interests, and
abilities. However, unless new knowledge becomes integrated with
the learner’s prior knowledge and understanding, this new knowledge
remains isolated, cannot be used most effectively in new tasks, and
does not transfer readily to new situations.

 Educators can assist learners in acquiring and integrating knowledge

by a number of strategies that have been shown to be effective with
learner of varying abilities, such as concept mapping and thematic
organization or categorizing.

4. Strategic Thinking

The successful learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking and
reasoning strategies to achieve complex learning goals.

 Successful learners use strategic thinking in their approach to

learning, reasoning, problem solving, and concept learning.

 They understand and can use a variety of strategies to help them

reach learning and performance goals, to apply their knowledge in
novel situations.

 They also continue to expand their repertoire of strategies by

reflecting on the methods they use to see which work well for them, by
receiving guided instruction and feedback, and by observing or
interacting with appropriate models.

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 Learning outcomes can be enhanced if educators assists learners in
developing, applying, and assessing their strategic learning skills.

5. Thinking About Thinking

Higher order strategies for selecting and monitoring mental operations

facilitate creative and critical thinking.

 Successful learners can reflect on how they think and learn, set
reasonable learning or performance goals, select potentially
appropriate learning strategies or methods, and monitor their progress
toward these goals.

 In addition, successful learners know what to do if a problem occurs or

if they are not making sufficient or timely progress toward a goal. They
can generate alternative methods to reach their goal (or reassess the
appropriateness and utility of the goal).

 Instructional methods that focus on helping learners develop these

higher order (metacognitive) strategies can enhance student learning
and personal responsibility for learning.

6. Context of Learning

Learning is influenced by environmental factors, including culture, technology,

and instructional practices.

 Learning does not occur in a vacuum. Teachers play a major

interactive role with both the learner and the learning environment.

 Cultural or group influences on students can impact many

educationally relevant variables, such as motivation, orientation,
toward learning, and ways of thinking.

 Technologies and instructional practices must be appropriate for

learner’s level of prior knowledge, cognitive abilities,, and their
learning and thinking strategies.

 The classroom environment, particularly the degree to which it is

nurturing or not, can also have significant impacts on student learning.

Motivational and Affective Factors

7. Motivational And Emotional Influences On Learning

What and how much is learned is influenced by the learner’s motivation.

Motivation to learn, in truth, is influenced by the individual’s emotional states, beliefs,
interests and goals, and habits of thinking.

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 The rich internal world of thoughts, beliefs, goals, and expectations for
success or failure can enhance or interfere with the learner’s quality of
thinking and information processing.

 Students’ beliefs about themselves as learners and the nature of

learning have a marked influence on motivation. Motivational and
emotional factors also influence both the quality of thinking information
processing as well as an individual’s motivation to learn.

 Positive emotions, such as curiosity, generally enhance motivation

and facilitate learning and performance. Mild anxiety can also
enhance learning and performance by focusing the learner’s attention
the learner’s on a particular task. However, intense negative emotions
(e.g., anxiety, panic, rage, insecurity) and related thoughts ( e.g.,
worrying about competence, ruminating about failure, fearing
punishment, ridicule, or stigmatizing labels ) generally detract from
motivation, interfere with learning, and contribute to low performance.

8. Intrinsic Motivation To Learn

The learners’ creativity, higher order thinking, and natural curiosity all
contribute to motivation to learn, Intrinsic motivation is stimulated by tasks of optimal
novelty and difficulty, relevant t personal interests, and providing for personal choice
and control.

 Curiosity, flexible and insightful thinking, and creativity are major

indicators of the learners’ intrinsic motivation to learn, which is in large
part a function of meeting basic needs to be competent and to
exercise personal control.
 Intrinsic motivation is facilitated on tasks that learners perceive as
interesting and personally relevant and meaningful, appropriate in
complexity and difficulty to the learners’ abilities, and on which they
believe they can succeed.
 Intrinsic motivation is also facilitated on tasks that are comparable to
real-world situations and meet needs for choice and control.
 Educators can encourage and support learners’ natural curiosity and
motivation to learn by attending to individual differences in learners’
perceptions of optimal novelty and difficulty, relevance, and personal
choice and control.

9. Effects Of Motivation On Effort

Acquisition of complex knowledge and skills requires extended learner effort

and guided practice. Without learners’ motivation to learn, the willingness to exert this
effort is unlikely without coercion.

 Effort is another major indicator of motivation to learn. The acquisition

of complex knowledge and skills demands the investment of

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considerable learner energy and strategic effort, along with
persistence over time.
 Educators need to be concerned with facilitating motivation by
strategies that enhance learner effort and commitment to learning and
to achieving high standards of comprehension and understanding.
 Effective strategies include purposeful learning activities, guided by
practices that enhance positive emotions and intrinsic motivation to
learn, and methods that increase learners’ perceptions that a task is
interesting and personally relevant.

Developmental And Social Factors

10. Developmental Influences On Learning

As individuals develop, there are different opportunities and constraints for

learning. Learning is most effective when differential development within and across
physical, intellectual, emotional, and social domains is taken into account.

 Individuals learn best when material is appropriate to their

developmental level and is presented in an enjoyable and interesting
way.
 Because individual development varies across intellectual, social,
emotional, and physical domains, achievement in different
instructional domains may also vary.
 Overemphasis on one type of developmental readiness – such as
reading readiness, for example – may preclude learners from
demonstrating that they are more capable in other areas of
performance.
 The cognitive, emotional, and social development of individual
learners and how they interpret life experiences are affected by prior
schooling, home, culture and community factors.
 Early and continuing parental involvement in schooling and the quality
of language interactions and two-way communications between adults
and children can influence these developmental areas.
 Awareness and understanding of developmental differences among
children with and without emotional, physical or intellectual disabilities,
can facilitate the creation of optimal learning contexts.

11. Social Influences On Learning.

Learning is influenced by social interactions, interpersonal relations, and

communication with others.

 Learning can be enhanced when the learner has an opportunity to

interact and to collaborate with others on instructional tasks.
 Learning settings that allow for social interactions, and that respect
diversity, encourage flexible thinking and social competence.
 In interactive and collaborative instructional contexts, individuals have
opportunity for perspective taking and reflective thinking that may lead
to higher levels of cognitive, social and moral development, as well as
self-esteem.

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 Quality personal relationships that provide stability, trust, and caring
can increase learners’ sense of belonging, self-respect and self-
acceptance, and provide a positive climate for learning.
 Family influences, positive interpersonal support and instruction is
self-motivation strategies can offset factors that interfere with optimal
learning such as negative beliefs about competence in a particular
subject. In high levels of anxiety, negative sex role expectations and
undue pressure to perform well.
 Positive learning climates can also help establish the context for
healthier levels of thinking, feeling, and behaving. Such contexts help
learners feel safe to share ideas, actively participate in the learning
process, and create a learning community.

Individual Differences Factors

12. Individual Differences in Learning

Learning have different strategies, approaches, and capabilities for learning

that are a function of prior experience and heredity.

 Individuals are born with and develop their own capabilities and
talents.
 In addition, through learning and social acculturation, they have
acquired their own preferences for how they like to learn and the pace
at which they learn. However, these preferences are not always useful
in helping learners reach their learning goals.
 Educators need to help students examine their learning preferences
and expand or modify them, if necessary.
 The interaction between learner differences and curricular and
environmental conditions is another key factor affecting learning
outcomes.
 Educators need to be sensitive to individual differences in general.
They also need to attend to learner perceptions of the degree to which
these differences are accepted and adapted to by varying instructional
methods and materials.

13. Learning and Diversity

Learning is most effective when differences in learners’ linguistic, cultural and

social backgrounds are taken into account.

 The same basic principles of learning, motivation, and effective

instruction apply to all learners. However, language, ethnicity, race,
beliefs, and socioeconomic status all can influence learning. Careful
attention to these factors in the instructional setting enhances the
possibilities for designing and implementing appropriate leaning
environments.
 When learners perceive that their individual differences in abilities,
backgrounds, cultures, and experiences are valued, respected and
accommodated in learning tasks and contexts, levels of motivation
and achievement are enhanced.

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14. Standards and Assessment

Setting appropriately high and challenging standards and assessing the

learner as well as learning progress – including diagnostic, process, and outcome
assessment – are integral parts of the learning process.

 Assessment provides important information to both the learner and

teacher at all stages of the learning process.

 Effective learning takes place when learners feel challenged to work

towards appropriately high goals; therefore, appraisal of the learner’s
cognitive strengths and weaknesses, as well as current knowledge
and skills, is important for the selection of instructional materials of an
optimal degree of difficulty.

 Ongoing assessment of the learner’s understanding of the curricular

material can provide valuable feedback to both learners and teachers
about progress toward the learning goals.

 Standardized assessment of learner progress and outcomes

assessment provides one type of information about achievement
levels both within and across individuals that can inform various types
of programmatic decisions.

 Performance assessment can provide other sources of information

about the attainment of learning outcomes.

 Self-assessment of learning progress can also improve students self-

appraisal skills and enhance motivation and self-directed learning.
Alexander and Murphy gave a summary of the 14 principles and distilled
them into five areas:
1. The Knowledge Base. One’s existing knowledge serves as the foundation
of all future learning. The learner’s previous knowledge will influence new learning
specifically on how he represents new information, makes associations and filters
new experiences.
2. Strategic Processing and Control. Learners can develop skills to reflect
and regulate their thoughts and behaviors in order to learn more effectively
(metacognition).
3. Motivation and Effect. Factors such as intrinsic motivation (from within),
reasons for wanting to learn, personal goals and enjoyment of learning tasks all have
a crucial role in the learning process.
4. Development and Individual Differences. Learning is a unique journey
for each person because each learner has his own unique combination of genetic
and environmental factors that influence him.
5. Situation or Context. Learning happens in the context of society as well
as within an individual.

Evaluation
The application of the 14 principles will be done as you explore the
succeeding modules. For now, keep the 14 principles in mind as you explore the rest

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of the modules. Always try to relate these principles to the concepts you will learn,
especially when you do the 5 minute non-stop writing at the end of each module.
Happy Learning!

Research Connection

Read a research or study related to Learner-Centered Psychological

Principles (LCP). Fill out the matrix below.

Problem Research Methodology

Findings Conclusions

Source (bibliographical entry format)

How are the findings of this research useful to teachers?

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Reflection
5-Minute Non-Stop Writing Begins…. Now!

From the Module on Learner-Centered Psychological Principles, I realized that…

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___________________________________________________________________
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Lesson 2

HUMAN DEVELOPMENT: MEANING, CONCEPTS

AND APPROACHES
Overview
As you read this test and do the activity in your small groups, you are
undergoing the process of development. How does this development take place?
What do experts say about development? These are the concerns of this module.

Learning Outcomes:
At the end of this module, you should be able to:
 Define human development in your own words.
 Distinguish between the traditional and life-span approach of
development

Discussion

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Characteristics Of Human Development From A Life-Span Perspective

Paul Baltes (Santrock, 2002), and expert in life-span development, gives the
following characteristics:
1. Development is lifelong. It does not end in adulthood.
2. Development is plastic. Plasticity refers to the potential for change.
Development is possible throughout the life-span. No one is too old to learn. There is
no such thing as “I am too old for that”.
Aging is associated with declines in certain intellectual abilities. These
declines can be prevented or reduced. In one research study, the reasoning abilities
of older adults were improved through retraining.
3. Development is multidimensional. Development consists of biological,
cognitive, and socio-emotional dimensions. Development as a process is complex
because it is the product of biological, cognitive, and socioemotional processes.
(Santrock, 2002).

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Biological processes involve changes in the individual’s physical nature. The
brain’s development, physical changes in height and weight, hormonal changes
when reaching the period of puberty, and cardiovascular decline as a person
approaches late adulthood. All these show the common biological processes in
development.
Development is relatively orderly. Children will learn to sit, crawl then walk
before they can run. The muscular control of the trunk and the arms come earlier as
compared to the hands and fingers. This is proximodistal pattern. During infancy,
the greatest growth always occurs at the top – the head – with physical growth in
size, weight and future differentiation gradually working its way down from top to
bottom (for example, neck, shoulders, middle trunk, and so on). This is the cephalo-
caudal pattern.
Development takes place gradually. Children will not develop into pimply
teenagers overnight. It takes years before they become one. In fact, that’s the way of
nature. The bud does not blossom suddenly. The seed does not germinate overnight.
While some changes occur in a flash of insight, more often it takes weeks, months, or
years for a person to undergo changes that result in the display of developmental
characteristics
Cognitive processes involve changes in the individual’s thought, intelligence
and language. Children develop from mere sounds to a word becoming two words,
the two words becoming a sentence. They would move on to memorizing their first
prayer, singing “Lupang Hinirang” in every flag ceremony to imagining what it would
be like to be a teacher or a pilot, playing chess and solving complex math problem.
All these reflect the role of cognitive processes in development.
Socioemotional process include changes in the individual’s relationships with
other people, changes in emotion, and changes in personality. As babies, children
responded with a sweet smile when affectionately touched and frowned when
displeased and even showed temper tantrum when they could not get or do what
they wanted. From aggressive children, they may develop into a fine lady and a
gentleman or otherwise, depending on a myriad of factors. They may fall in love and
get inspired for life or may end up betrayed, deserted and desperate afterwards. All
those reflect the role of socioemotional processes in development
These biological, cognitive and socioemotional processes are inextricably
intertwined. While these processes ae studied separately, the effect of the process or
factor on a person’s development is not isolated from the other processes. If children
were undernourished and troubled by the thought of father and mother about to
separate, they could not concentrate on their studies and consequently would fail and
repeat. As to consequence, they may lose face and drop out of school, revert to
illiteracy, become unskilled, unemployed and son on and so forth. See how a
biological process, affects the cognitive process which in turn, affect the
socioemotional processes.
4. Development is contextual. Individuals are changing beings in a changing world.
Individuals respond to and act on contexts. These contexts include the individual’s
biological make up, physical environment, cognitive processes, historical, social, and
cultural contexts. Children's biological make up, social and cultural contexts may vary
and therefore make them develop differently from each other.

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5. Development involves growth, maintenance and regulation. Growth,
maintenance and regulation are three (3) goals of human development. The goals of
individuals vary among developmental stages. For instance, as individuals reach
middle and late adulthood concern with growth gets into the black stage while
maintenance and regulation take the center stage.

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Evaluation
I. 1. State five characteristics of human development from a life-span
perspective and their implications to child care, education and parenting.

Characteristic Of Human Educational Implications To Child

Development From A Life-Span Care, Education And Parenting
Perspective
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

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2. “Growth is an evidence of life” or” development is and evidence of

life”. What does this mean? What does this imply to a person’s development?
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3. If your approach to human development is traditional, are the
characteristics of human development from a life-span perspective acceptable?
Explain your answer.

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4. Interpret this quotation in relation to human development, “Man is an
unfinished project. He is always in the process of becoming.”

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5. In one sentence, give the meaning of human development.

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______________________________________________________________
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II. Put a check (/) before a correct statement and (x) before a wrong
one. If you put (x), explain why.
_______ 1. Development is a pattern of change.
_______ 2. Development is either growth or decline.
_______ 3. From both traditional and life-span perspectives developmental is
lifelog.
_______ 4. In the development process, there are things that hold true to all
people.
_______ 5. Individuals develoed uniformly.
_______ 6. Development is predictable because it follows an orderly process.
_______ 7, Development is unidimensional.
_______ 8. Development takes place in a vacuum.
_______ 9. The effect of biological process on development is isolated from
the effect of cognitive and socioemotional processes.
-----------10. Development takes place gradually.

III. Research Connection

View on You Tube of Helen Pearson: Lesson the longest study on
human development. Fill out the matrix given below.
Problem Research Methodology

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Findings Conclusions

Source (bibliographical entry format)

Reflection
5-Minute Non-Stop Writing Begins…. Now!
1. You are a bundle of possibilities. You are meant to develop like any
other living thing or else you will rut. Remember, “Growth is an evidence of
life” if you are alive, then you must be growing and developing. Are you on
your way to development?
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2. Like you, each of your future student is also a bundle of possibilities.
How should you look at them in terms of development? Write down your
reflections. There’s no wrong answer, remember.
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Lesson 3

THE STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

AND DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS

Overview:
For every developmental stage, there is an expected developmental task.
What happens when the expected developmental tasks are not achieve at the
corresponding developmental stage? How can you help children achieve these
developmental tasks?

Learning Outcomes:
At the end of this module, you should be able to:
 Define developmental tasks in your own words.
 Describe the developmental tasks in each developmental stage.

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 Come up with research abstracts/summaries of researches on
developmental tasks.

Discussion
Concept of Developmental Tasks
In each stage of development, a certain task or tasks are expected of every
individual. Robert Havighurst defines developmental task as one that “arises at a
certain period in our life, the successful achievement of which leads to happiness and
success with later tasks while failure to unhappiness, social approval, and difficulty
with later tasks”.
Developmental Stages
There are eight developmental stages given by Santrock. The eight
developmental stages cite by Santrock are the same with Havighurst’s six
developmental stages only that Havighurst did not include prenatal period.
Havighurst combined infancy and early childhood while Santrock mentioned them as
two separate stages.
The Developmental Tasks (Santrock, 2002)
Let’s describe the developmental tasks and outstanding trait of each stage as
described by Santrock and compare them to those listed by Havighurst himself.
1. Prenatal Period (from conception to birth). It involves tremendous growth
from a single cell and compare them to those listed with brain and behavioral
capabilities.
2. Infancy (from birth to 18-24 months). A time of extreme dependence on
adults. Many psychological activities are just beginning – language, symbolic
thought, sensorimotor coordination, and social learning.
3. Early Childhood (end of infancy to 5-6 years). These are the pre-school
years. Young children learn to become more self-sufficient and to care for
themselves, develop school readiness skills and spend many hours in play with
peers.
4. Middle And Late Childhood (6-11 years of age, the elementary school
years). The fundamental skills of reading, writing and arithmetic are mastered. The
child is formally exposed to the larger world and its culture. Achievement becomes
are more central theme of the child’s world and self-control increases.
5. Adolescence (10-12 of age ending up to 18-22 years of age). Begins with
rapid physical changes – dramatic gains in height and weight, changes in body
contour, and the development of sexual characteristics such as enlargement of the
breasts, development of pubic and facial hair, and deepening of the voice. Pursuit of
independence and identity are prominent. Thought is more logical, abstract and
idealistic. More time is spent outside of the family.
6. Early Adulthood (from late teens or early 20s lasting through the 30s). It is
a time of establishing personal and economic independence, career development,

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selecting a mate, learning to live with someone in an intimate way, starting a family
and rearing children.
7. Middle Adulthood (40 to 60 years of age). It is a time of expanding
personal and social involvement and responsibility; of assisting the next generation in
becoming competent and mature individuals; and of reaching and maintaining
satisfaction in a career.
8. Late Adulthood (60s and above). It is a time for adjustment to decreasing
strength and health; life review; retirement; and adjustment to new social roles.

The Developmental Tasks (Havighurst, 1972)

1. Infancy and Early Childhood (0-5).
 Learning to walk
 Learning to take solid food.
 Learning to talk
 Learning to control the elimination of body wastes
 Learning sex differences and sexual modesty
 Acquiring concepts and language to describe social and physical
reality
 Readiness for reading
 Learning to distinguish right from wrong and developing a conscience
2. Middle Childhood (6_12)
 Learning physical skills necessary for ordinary games.
 Building a wholesome attitude toward oneself
 Learning to get along with age mates
 Learning an appropriate sex role
 Developing fundamental skills in reading, writing, and calculating
 Developing conscience, morality, and a scale of values
 Achieving personal independence
 Developing acceptable attitudes toward society
3. Adolescence (13-18)
 Achieving mature relations with both sexes
 Achieving a masculine or feminine social role
 Accepting one’s physique
 Achieving emotional independence of adults
 Preparing for marriage and family life
 Preparing for an economic career
 Acquiring values and an ethical system to guide behavior
 Desiring and achieving socially responsible behavior
4. Early Adulthood (19-29)
 Selecting a mate
 Learning to live with a partner
 Starting a family
 Rearing children
 Managing a home

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 Starting an occupation
 Assuming civic responsibility
5. Middle Adulthood (30-60)
 Helping teenage children to become happy and responsible adults
 Achieving adult social and civic responsibility
 Satisfactory career achievement
 Developing adult leisure time activities
 Relating to one’s spouse as a person
 Accepting the physiological changes of middle age
 Adjusting t aging parent
6. Later Maturity (61- and over)
 Adjusting to decreasing strength and health
 Adjusting to retirement and reduced income
 Adjusting to death of spouse
 Establishing relations with one’s own age group
 Meeting social and civic obligations
 Establishing satisfactory living quarters

Evaluation
a. Refer to Havighurst’s Developmental Tasks given above. Match the
descriptions given by Santrock. Are Havighurst and Santrock saying the same
things?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
b. What is an outstanding trait or behavior of each stage?

Santrock’s Developmental Stage Havighurst’s Develpmental Stage

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c. Put a check (/) beside those statements that are correct and an (x) beside those
that are wrong. If your answer is an (x), explain why.
_____ 1. Developmental tasks are only for the first 3 stages of human development.
_____ 2. Failure of achieving developmental tasks in an earlier stage also means
failure for the learner to master the developmental task in the next stage.
_____ 3. Preschool age corresponds to early childhood stage.
_____ 4. Adolescence is middle and late childhood stage.
_____ 5. Teenage is middle childhood.
_____ 6. Mastery of fundamental skills is a major concern during early childhood.
_____ 7. Play is a great need of children in middle childhood
_____ 8. Preparing children school readiness is the major concern of middle
childhood.
d. Discuss the meaning of this, “Who are you?”, asked the caterpillar. Alice
replied rather shyly. “I hardly know, sir! Just at present - at least I know who I was
when I got up this morning, but I must have changed several times since then” –
Lewis Carroll. Relate it to the stages of development.

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___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
e. Complete the unfinished sentence. Developmental tasks are
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Reflection

Reflect on your early childhood, middle, and late childhood days. Were you
able to acquire the developmental tasks expected of early, middle, late childhood,
and adolescence. What facilitated your acquisitions of the ability to perform such
tasks? Write your reflections.

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

Lesson 4

ISSUES ON HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

Overview:

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Each of us has his/her own informal way of looking at our own and other
people’s development. These paradigms of human development while obviously
lacking in scholastic vigor, provide us with a conceptual framework for understanding
ourselves and others. Scholars have come up with their own models of human
development. Back up by solid research, they take stand on issues on human
development.

Learning Outcome:
At the end of this module, you should be able to:
 Take a research-based position on the three (3) issues on
development.

Discussion
Issues on Human Development
1. Nature versus Nurture – Which has a more significant influence on
human development? Nature or nurture? Nature refers to an individual’s biological
inheritance. Nurture refers to environmental experiences.
2. Continuity versus Discontinuity – Does development involve gradual,
cumulative change (continuity) or distinct changes (discontinuity). To make it more
concrete, here is a question. Is our development like that of a seedling gradually
growing into an acacia tree? Or is it more like that of a caterpillar becoming a
butterfly?
3. Stability versus Change – Is development best described as involving
stability or an involving change? Are we what our first experiences have made of us
or do we develop into someone different from who we were at an earlier point in
development?
The issues presented can be translated into questions that have sparked
animated debate among developmentalists, Are girls less likely to do well in math
because of their feminine nature or because of society’s masculine bias? How
extensively can the elderly be trained to reason more effectively? How much, if all,
does our memory decline in old age? Can techniques be used to prevent or reduce
the decline? For children who experienced a world of poverty, neglect by parents,
and poor schooling in childhood, can enriched experiences in adolescence remove
the “deficit” that they encountered earlier n their development. (Santrock, 2002)?
Based on the presentations, each one has his/her own explanations for
his/her stand on the developmental issues. What is the right answer? Up to this time,
the debate continues. Researches are on-going. But let me tell you that most life-
span developmentalists recognize that extreme position on these issues are unwise.
Development is not all nature or all nurture, not all continuity or discontinuity and not
all stability or all change (Lerner, 1998 as quoted by Santrock, 2002). Both nature
and nurture, continuity and discontinuity, stability and change characterize our life-
span development. The key to development is the interaction of nature and nurture
rather than either factor alone (Rutter, 2001 as quoted by Santrock, 2002). In other
words, it is a matter of “both and” not “either-or”.

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To summarize, both genes and environment are necessary for a person even
to exist. Without genes, there is no person; without environment there is no person
(Scarr and Weinberg, 1980, quoted by Santrock 2002). Heredity and environment
operate together or cooperate and interact – to produce a person’s intelligence,
temperament, height, weight… ability to read and so on.
If heredity and environment interact which one has a greater influence or
contribution, heredity or environment? The relative contributions of heredity and
environment are not additive. So we can’t say 50% is a contribution of heredity and
50% of environment. Neither is it correct to say that full genetic expression happens
once, around conception or birth, after which take our genetic legacy into the world to
see how far it gets us. Genes produce proteins throughout the life span, in many
different environments. Or they don’t produce these proteins, depending on how
harsh or nourishing those environments are. (Santrock, 2002)

Evaluation
I - Test Your Understanding
A. Complete the sentence.
With regard to the nature-nurture, continuity-discontinuity, and change-
stability controversies, the wise stand is
_________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________.
B. As far as our discussions are concerned, which statement is correct and
which is wrong? Put a (/) before the correct statement and mark x the wrong one. If
you mark a statement x, explain why.
_____ 1. Heredity exerts a greater influence on human development than
environment.
_____ 2. What has been experienced in the earlier stage of development can no
longer be changed.
_____ 3. From the perspective of life – span developmentalist, later experiences are
the key determinants of a person’s development.

___________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
C. Discuss the implications of this statement: The frightening part about
heredity and environment is that, we parents provide both”.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

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___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
II – Research Connection

Problem Research Methodology

Findings Conclusions

Source (bibliographical entry format)

How are the findings of this research useful to teachers?

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Reflection

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Relate what you have learned here to your personal development. Reflect on
your own personal development. What has helped you become the person that you
are now? Is what you have become a product of the mere interaction of heredity and
environment? Or is what you have become a product of both heredity and
environment interacting and what you have decides or determined yourself to
become?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

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Lesson 5

RESEARCH IN CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT

Overview

This module is not intended to be a substitute for that three-unit course. It is

simply meant to supplement what you got or will still get in the Research course.
As you have noticed, most if not at all of what is presented about the
development of the child and the adolescent are products of research. It might
interest you to know how these concepts/theories were arrived at. Or after having
been exposed to a number of researches cited in this course, hopefully, you may be
so inspired that you, too would like to start conducting researches on your own or join
a group for research.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, you should be able to:

 Explain the basic principles of research.
 Demonstrate appreciation of the role of teachers as consumers and
producers of developmental research.
 Read researches on child and adolescent developmental and make
simple research abstract out of researches read.

Discussion

Introduction

All of the topics discussed in this book are, in one way or another, a product
of research. Research is a very reliable means for teachers to learn about child and
adolescent development. When conducted in an appropriate and accurate manner, it
becomes a strong basis for making decisions about the things you will do as an
effective teacher.

Teachers as Consumers/End Users of Research

Research gives teachers and also policy-makers important knowledge to use
in decision making for the benefit of learners and their families. Well-informed
research findings. Research enables teachers to come up with informed decision on
what to teach and how to teach. This involves decisions related to educational
policies, curriculum, effective teaching-learning processes, and even those involving
research, too. It can help us, teachers, to be more knowledgeable about how to fit
our teaching with the developmental levels of our learners.

Teachers as Researchers
The conduct of research does not only belong to thesis and dissertation
writers. It is for students and teachers, too. Let us learn how to conduct research by
finding out the different research principles and the research methods and designs
with focus on child and adolescent development.

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The Scientific Method
One important principle in research is adherence to the scientific method,
since research is a systematic and a logical process. As such, researchers basically
follow the scientific method. Dewey gave us 5 steps of the scientific method. They
are as follows:
1. Identify and define the problem
2. Determine the hypothesis
3. Collect and analyze the data
4. Formulate conclusions
5. Apply conclusions to the original hypothesis

Simply explained, identifying the research problem is the first step. This is
followed by stating a tentative answer to the research problem called the hypothesis.
The hypothesis is also referred as an “educated guess”. How correct is your
educated guess or hypothesis?” If your research problem is concerned with
determining the cause of an effect or a phenomenon you have no gather and
analyzed data derived from an experiment. This is true with experimental research.
However, if your research problem is concerned with describing data and
characteristics about the subjects or phenomenon you are studying, you do not need
to perform an experiment. This is descriptive research. After analyzing the data,
formulate your conclusions.

Compare your conclusions to your original hypothesis to find out if your

original hypothesis is correct or not. If your original hypothesis jibes with your finding
and conclusion, affirm your hypothesis. If your original hypothesis does not jibe with
your finding and conclusion, reject your original hypothesis.

Research Designs
Researchers that are done with high level of quality and integrity provide us
with valuable information about child and adolescent development. To be able to
conduct quality research, it is important that you know various research designs and
different data gathering techniques used by developmental researches. Some are
given and described below:

Research Description Strengths Weaknesses

Design
1. Case Study An in-depth look It provides
Need to exercise
at an individual information about caution when
an individual’s
generalizing from the
fears, hope,
information, the subject
fantasies, traumatic
of a case study is
experiences, unique with a genetic
upbringing, family make-up and
relationships, experiences no else
health and
shares; involves
anything that helpsjudgments of unknown
a psychologist
reliability, in that
understand that
usually no check is
person’s made to see if other
development psychologist agree
(Santrock, 2002) with other observations
(Santrock, 2002)
2. Correlational A research Useful because the Because correlational

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Study design that strongly two events studies do not involve
determines are correlated, the the manipulation of
associations more we can factors. It is not a
predict one from dependable way to
the other. isolate cause.
3. Experimental A research The only true Experimental research
design that reliable method of is limited to what is
determines establishing cause observable, testable,
cause-and- and effect. and manipulable.
effect
relationships. Failure to achieve
The randomization may
experimental limit the extent to
method involves which the study
manipulating sample is
one variable to representative of the
determine if parent population and,
changes in one with it generalizability
variable cause of the findings of the
changes in study.
another
variable. This Experimentation with
method relies humans is subject to a
on controlled number of external
methods, influences that may
random dilute the study results
assignment and (Donnan, 2000)
the manipulation
of variables to A further limitation of
test a experimental research
hypothesis. is that subjects may
change their behavior
or respond in a specific
manner simply
because of awareness
of being observed.
4. Naturalistic A research One of the The disadvantages of
Observation design that advantages of this naturalistic observation
focuses on type of research is include the fact that it
children’s that it allows the can be difficult to
experiences in researcher to determine the exact
natural settings. directly observe the cause of a behavior
subject in a natural and the experimenter
This does not setting. cannot control outside
involve any variables.
intervention
5. Longitudinal This research Allows them to They are expensive
design studies record and monitor and time-consuming.
and allows developmental
through a single trends. The longer the study
group over a lasts, the more
period of time. subjects drop out---
The same they move, get sick,
individuals are lose interest, etc.

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studied over a Subjects can bias the
period of time, outcome of a study
usually several because those who
years or more. remain may be
dissimilar to those who
drop out.
6. Cross- A research Allows them to It gives no information
sectional strategy in record and monitor about how individuals
which developmental change or about the
individuals of trends. The stability of their
different ages researcher does characteristics.
are compared at not have to wait for
one time. the individuals to
grow up or become
older.
7. Sequential This is Allows them to It is complex,
combined cross- record and monitor expensive, and time-
sectional and developmental consuming
longitudinal trends. It provides
approaches to information that is
learn about life- impossible to
span obtain from cross-
development. sectional or
This starts with longitudinal
a cross- approaches alone.
sectional study
that includes
individuals of
different ages. A
number of
months or years
after the initial
assessment, the
same
individuals are
tested again-this
is the
longitudinal
aspect of the
design. At this
later time, a new
group of
subjects is
assessed at
each grade
level.
8. Action Action research Appropriate in a Typically takes place in
Research is a reflective particular setting one organization only
process of when the purpose at a particular time and
progressive of study is to create could not be
problem solving changes and gain interpreted within
led by information on different organizations
individuals processes and in the same way.
working with outcome of the Therefore, research

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others in teams strategies used. findings are hard or
or as part of a impossible to
community of Uses different generalize.
practice to methods, can get
improve the way the best out of the If research participants
they address different methods do not feel they
issues and employed, if done understand and own
solve problems. well. Stakeholders the research project.
are included This could lead to a
In the context of throughout and so potential conflict of
teaching, action researchers are interest between the
researches of more likely to make researcher and those
teachers stem difference. participating in the
from their own organization, but also
questions about between the
and reflections researcher with some
on their participants on the one
everyday hand and other
classroom members of
practices. organization, on the
other.

Data-Gathering Techniques

Data-Gathering Techniques Definition/Description

1. Observation Observations can be made either
laboratories or materialistic settings. In
naturalistic observation, behavior is
observed in the real world like
classrooms, home in neighborhood.
2. Physiological Measures Certain indicators of children’s
development such as, among others,
heart rate, hormonal levels, bone
growth, body weight, and brain activity
are measured.
3. Standardized Tests These are prepared tests that asses
individuals performance in different
domains. These tests are administered
in a consistent manner.
[Link] and Questionnaires Involves asking the participants to
provide information about themselves
based on the interview or questionnaire
given by the researcher.
Gathering of data may be conducted
through a printed questionnaire, over
the telephone, by mail, in person, or in
on-line.
Every participant is asked the same
questions in the same manner.
5. Life History Records These are records of information about
a lifetime chronology of events and
activities. They often involved a
combination of data records on
education, work, family, and residence.

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These include public records, or
historical documents or interviews with
respondents.

Ethical Principles

To serve the genuine purposes of research, teacher researches are subject to

ethical principles. Just as we have the Code of Ethics that governs the behavior of
teachers, there also exist ethical standards that guide the conduct of research. These
ethical standards serve as reminders that as researchers, we should strive to protect
the subjects of our study and to maintain the integrity of our research. Details of
these ethical principles are found in documents such as the following:

1. Ethical Standards of the American Educational Research Association.

[Link] _AERA/Ethical_Standards/Ethical
[Link]
2. Ethical Standards for Research with Children – Society for Research in
Child Development (USA) [Link] [Link]/[Link]?
option=com_context&task=view&id=68&Itemid=110

3. Standards of the American Psychological Association Concerning

Research [Link] [Link]/policy/Policy/[Link]

Common among the three standards given above are the following
considerations for researchers conducted with young children and other vulnerable
population which are enumerated by the National Association for the Education of
Young Children (NAEYC).

Some key points are:

1. Research procedures must never harm children, physically or

psychologically.
2. Children and their families have the right to full information about the
research in which they may participate, including possible risks and benefits. Their
decision to participate must be based on what is called “informed consent”. There
must be informed consent procedures with research participants.
3. Children’s questions about the research should be answered in a truthful
manner and in ways that children can understand. Researchers must be honest and
clear in their communication.
4. There should be respect for privacy. Information obtained through research
with children should remain confidential. Researchers should not disclose personal
information or the identity of participants in written or oral reports and discussions.

The Data Privacy Act of 2012 (R.A. 10173)

This law was passed in the Philippines in 2012 “to protect the fundamental
human right of privacy of communication while ensuring free flow of information to
promote innovation and growth.”

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The law states that the collection of personal data “must be a declared,
specified, and legitimate purpose and that… consent is required prior to the collection
of all personal data.

For more details, please read RA 10173.

Impact of Teachers’ Research Involvement on Teachers

Research itself has proven that teachers have everything to gain and nothing
to lose when they get involved in the research process. Evidence suggests that:

1. Teachers who have been involved in research may become more

reflective, more critical and analytical in their teaching and more open and committed
to professional development.
2. Participating in teacher research also helps teachers become more
deliberate in their decision making and actions in the classroom
3. Teacher research develops the professional dispositions of lifelong
learning, reflective and mindful teaching, and self-transformation.
4. Engaging in teacher research at any level may lead to rethinking and
reconstructing what it means to be a teacher or teacher educator and, consequently,
the way teachers relate to children and students.
5. Teacher research has the potential to demonstrate to teachers and
prospective teachers that learning to teach is inherently connected to learning to
inquire.
Teacher involvement in the conduct of teacher research allows a shift form
thinking about teacher research as something done to teachers to something done
by teachers.

Research Abstract

The Thesis or Research Abstract is a brief summary that appears at the

beginning of the article. It has the following parts:

 Title
 Researcher/s
 Date of Research
 Introduction
 Methods
 Findings/ Results of the Study
 Conclusions and Recommendations
 Key words

The first three parts are self-explanatory and so need no further explanation.
The introduction, as the title implies, introduces the problem or issue that is being
studied. It includes a concise review of research relevant to the topic, theoretical ties,
and one or more hypotheses to be tested. The method section consists of a clear
description of the subjects evaluated in the study, the measures used and the
procedures that were followed. The results section reports the analysis of the data
collected. The conclusions and recommendations state the author/s’ answers to the
specific problems of the study and suggestions on next steps based on the findings
and conclusions of the study. Methods, Findings/Results of the Study and
Conclusions and Recommendations constitute the Body of the Abstract. The Last
Part of the abstract is the key words.

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Evaluation

I. Test Your Understanding

Write T if the statement is correct and F if the statement is wrong. Write your
answer before each number.

_____ 1. Quality research adheres to the scientific method.

_____ 2. For research on child and adolescent development to serve its ultimate
purpose, researches must be governed by ethical principles.
_____ 3. Which research design and data-gathering technique to use has nothing to
do with the nature of the research problem and objectives of the research.
_____ 4. Teachers are both producers of knowledge when they conduct research
and are consumers or end users of knowledge when utilize findings to improve
instruction.

_____ 5. Research has a transformative effect on teachers’ self-understanding and

on their classroom practice. It enables teachers to develop a better understanding of
themselves, their classrooms, and their practice through the act of reflective inquiry.

II. Download and read my research study online published @ [Link]

entitled, “Surface Strategy Taxonomy in Error Analysis: Basis for Grammatical
Competence Enhancement Program”. Afterwards, write the problem, the research
methodology, findings, and conclusions using the given matrix below.

Problem Research Methodology

Findings Conclusions

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Source (bibliographical entry format)

How are the findings of this research useful to teachers?

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

Lesson 6

Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory

Overview

Freud’s view about human development are more than a century old. He can
be considered the most well-known psychologist because of his very interesting
theory about the unconscious and also about sexual development. Although, a lot of
his views were criticized and some considered them debunked, (he himself recanted
some of his earlier views). Freud’s theory remains to be one of the most influential in
psychology. His theory sparked the ideas in the brilliant minds of other theorists and
thus became the starting point of many other theories, notable of which is Erickson’s
Psychosocial theory.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, you should be able to:

 Explain Freud’s views about child and adolescent development.

 Draw implications of Freud’s theory to education.

Discussion

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Sigmund Freud

As a person grows, the personality is also formed. Many psychologists present

different views about how personality develops. As mentioned, Freud presents a very
interesting theory about personality, its components and development.

FREUD’S STAGES OF PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT

His theory of psychosexual development includes five distinct stages.

According to Freud, a person goes through the sequence of these five stages and
along the way there are needs to be met. Whether these needs are met or not, it
determines whether the person will develop a healthy personality or not. This theory
is quite interesting because Freud identified specific erogenous zones for each
stage of development. These are specific “pleasure areas” that become focal points
for the particular stage. If needs are not met along the area, a fixation occurs. As an
adult, the person will now manifest behaviors related to this erogenous zone.

5 Stages Of Sexual Development

Oral stage (birth to 18 months). The erogenous is the mouth. During this
stage, the child is focused on oral pleasures (sucking). Too much or too little
satisfaction can lead to an Oral Fixation or Oral Personality which is shown in an
increase focus on oral activities. This type of personality may be oral receptive that
is, have a stronger tendency to smoke, drink alcohol, overeating; or oral aggressive
that is with a tendency to bite his or her nails, or use curse words or even gossip. As
a result, these persons may become too dependent on others, easily fooled, and lack
leadership traits. On the other hand, they may also fight these tendencies and
become pessimistic and aggressive in relating with people.

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Anal stage (18 months – 3 years). The child’s focus of pleasure in this stage
is the anus. The child finds satisfaction in the eliminating and retaining feces.
Through society’s expectations, particularly the parents, the child needs to work on
toilet training. Let us remember that between one year and a half to three years the
child’s favorite word might be “NO”. Therefore, a struggle might exist in the toilet
training process when the child retain feces when asked to eliminate, or may choose
to defecate when asked to hold feces for some reason. In terms of personality
fixation during this stage can result in being anal retentive, an obsession with
cleanliness, perfection and control; or anal expulsive where the person may
become messy and disorganized.

Phallic stage (3- 6 yrs. old). The pleasure or erogenous zone is the genitals.
During the preschool age, children become more interested in what makes boys and
girls different. Preschoolers will sometimes be seen fondling their genitals. Freud’s
studies led him to believe that during this stage boys develop unconscious sexual
desire for their mother. Boys then see their father as a rival for her mother’s affection.
Boys may fear that their father will punish them for these feeling, thus, the castration
anxiety. These feelings comprise what Freud called Oedipus Complex. In Greek
Mythology, Oedipus unintentionally killed his father and married his mother Jocasta.

Psychoanalysis also believed that girls may also have a similar experience,
developing unconscious sexual attraction towards their father. This is what is referred
to as the Electra Complex.

According to Freud, out of fear of castration and due to the strong competition
of their father, boys eventually decide to identify with them rather than fight them. By
identifying with their father, the boys develop masculine characteristics and identify
themselves as males and repress their sexual feelings toward their mother. A fixation
at this stage could result in sexual deviancies (both overindulging and avoidance)
and weak or confused sexual identity according to psychoanalysts.

Latency stage (age 6 to puberty). It’s during this stage that sexual urges
remain repressed. The children’s focus is the acquisition of physical and academic
skills. Boys usually relate more with boys and girls with girls during this stage.

Genital stage (puberty onwards). It begins at the start of the puberty when
sexual urges are once again awakened. In the earlier stage, adolescents focus their
sexual urges towards the opposite sex peers. With the pleasure centered on the
genitals.

Freud’s Personality Components

Freud described the personality structures as having the three components,

the id, the ego, and the superego. For each person, the first to emerge is the id,
followed by the ego and last to develop is the superego.

The id. Freud says that a child is born with the id. The id plays a vital role in
one’s personality because as a baby, it works so that the baby’s essential needs are
met. The bid operates on the pleasure principle. It focuses on immediate
gratification or satisfaction of its needs. So, whatever feels good now is what it will
pursue with no consideration for the reality, logically or practicality of the situation.
For example, a baby is hungry. It’s id wants food or milk… so the baby will cry. When
the child needs to be changed, the id cries. When the child is uncomfortable, in pain,

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too hot, too cold, or just wants attention, the id speaks up until his or her needs are
met.

Nothing else matters to the id except satisfaction of its own needs. It is not
oriented towards considering reality nor the needs of others. Just see how babies cry
any time of the day and night. Absolutely no regard of whether mommy is tired or
daddy is sleeping. When id wants something, it wants it now and it wants it fast!

The ego. As the bay turns into a toddler and then into a preschooler, he/she
relates more with the environment, the ego slowly begins to emerge. The ego
operates using the reality principle. It is aware that others also have need to be met.
It is practical because it knows that being impulsive or selfish can result the negative
consequences later, so it reasons and considers the best response to situations. As
such, it is the deciding agent of the personality. Although it functions to help the id
meet its needs, it always takes into account the reality of situation.

The superego. Near the end of the preschooler years, or the end of phallic
stage, the superego develops. The superego embodies a person’s moral aspect.
This develops from what the parents, teachers and other persons who exert influence
impart to be a good or moral. The superego is likened to conscience because it
exerts influence on what one considers right and wrong.

The Three Components And Personality Adjustment

Freud said that a well-adjusted person is one who has strong ego, who can
help satisfy the needs of the id without going against the superego while maintaining
the person’s sense of what is logical, practical and real. Of course, it is not easy for
the ego to do all that and strike a balance. If the id exerts too much power over the
ego, the person becomes too impulsive and pleasure-seeking behavior takes over
one’s life. On the opposite direction, one may find the superego so strong that the
ego is overpowered. The person becomes so harsh and judgmental to himself and
others’ actions. The person’s best effort to be good may still fall short of the
superego’s expectations.

The ability of a learner to be well-adjusted is largely influenced by how the

learner was brought up. His experiences about how his parents met his needs, extent
to which he was allowed to do things he wanted to do, and also how he was taught
right or wrong, all figures to the type of personality and consequent adjustment that a
person will make. Freud believed that the personality of an individual is formed early
during the childhood years.

Topographical Model

The Unconscious. Freud said that most what we go through in our lives,
emotions, beliefs, feelings and impulses deep within are not available to us at a
conscious level. He believed that most of what influence us is our unconscious. The
Oedipus and Electra Complex were both buried down into the unconscious, out of
our awareness due to extreme anxiety they caused. While these complexes are in
our unconscious, they still influence our thinking, feeling and doing in perhaps
dramatic ways.
The Conscious. Freud also said that all that we are aware of is stored in our
conscious mind. Our conscious mind only comprises a very small part of ho we are
so that, in our everyday life, we are only aware of a very small part of what makes up
our personality; most of what we are is hidden and out of reach.

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The Subconscious. This is the part of us that we can reach if prompted, but
is not in our active conscious. It is right below the surface, but still “hidden” somewhat
unless we search for it. Information such as your telephone number, some childhood
memories, or the name of your childhood best friend is stored in the preconscious.

Because the unconscious is so huge and because we are only aware of the
very small conscious at any given time, Freud use the analogy of the iceberg to
illustrate it. A big part of the iceberg is hidden beneath the water’s surface

The water, may represent all that we are not aware of, have not experienced,
and that has not been made part of our personalities referred to as the
nonconscious.

Evaluation

I. Freud used the case study method to gather the data he used to formulate
his theories. Among the many case studies, five really stood out as bases of his
concepts and ideas. Do further reading of these case studies and write a reaction
paper on one of these case studies focusing on how he explained the personality
development of the individuals in the case studies.

From your internet search engine, just type Freud’s case studies. It will be
easy to find a pdf file which you can readily download.
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II. Explain the meaning of this quotation, “The ego is not master in its own
house”.
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III. Research Connection. Read a research that is related to Freud’s Theory.
Fill out the matrix below.

Problem Research Methodology

Findings Conclusions

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Source (bibliographical entry format)

How are the findings of this research useful to teachers?

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Reflection:

5-Minute Non-Stop Writing begins… Now!

From this module on Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory, I learned that…..

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First Semester, A.Y. 2022-2023 * College of Teacher Education